READING AND WRITING

PPT NOTES - 3RD QUARTER

THE GOLDEN AGE OF COMICS

GOLDEN AGE OF COMIC BOOKS
- The period from the late 1930s to the middle 1940s is known as the golden age of comic books.

- The modern comic book came in the early 1930s in the United States as a giveaway premium to
promote the sale of a whole range of household products such as cereal and cleansers.

- The comic books, which are printed in bright colors to attract the attention of potential customers,
proved so popular that some publishers decided to produce comic books that would come out on a
monthly basis and would sell for a dime each.

- Though comic strips had been reproduced in publications prior to this time, the Famous Funnies
comic book, which was started in 1934, marked the first occasion that a serialized book of comics
was attempted.

- Early comic books reprinted already existing comic strips and comics based on known characters,
however, publishers soon began introducing original characters developed specially for comic books.

- Superman was introduced in Action Comics in 1938, and Batman was introduced a year later. The
tremendous success of these superhero comic books led to the development of numerous comic
books on a variety of topics, though superhero comic books predominated.

- Astonishingly, by 1945, approximately 160 different comic books were being published in the
United States each month, and 90 percent of US children were said to read comic books on a
regular basis.

[θi:sIs] [steIt:mƏnt] (THESIS STATEMENT)

- expresses the main idea of a research paper or essay, such as an expository essay or
argumentative essay. It makes a claim, directly answering a question.
- tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under discussion.
- is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the rest of
the paper.
- directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a question or
subject, not the subject itself.
- claims that others might dispute.
- is usually a single sentence near the beginning of your paper (most often, at the end of the first
paragraph) that presents your argument to the reader. The rest of the paper, the body of the
essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of the logic of your
interpretation.
Tips for Writing Your Thesis Statement:
1. Determine what kind of paper you are writing.
- An analytical paper breaks down an issue or an idea into parts, evaluates the issue or
idea, and presents this breakdown and evaluation to the audience.
- An expository (explanatory) paper explains something to the audience.
- An argumentative paper claims a topic and justifies this claim with specific evidence.
The claim could be an opinion, a policy proposal, an evaluation, a cause-and-effect
statement, or an interpretation. The goal of the argumentative paper is to convince the
audience that the claim is true based on the evidence provided.
- If your text does not fall under these three categories (e.g., a narrative), a thesis
statement somewhere in the first paragraph could still be helpful to your reader.

2. Your thesis statement should be specific—it should cover only what you will discuss in your
paper and should be supported with specific evidence.

3. The thesis statement usually appears at the end of the first paragraph of a paper.

4. Your topic may change as you write, so revise your thesis statement to reflect exactly what
you have discussed in the paper.

Thesis Statement Examples:

1. Analytical Thesis Statement: An analysis of the college admission process reveals one
challenge facing counselors: accepting students with high test scores or students with strong
extracurricular backgrounds.
The paper that follows should (1) explain the analysis of the college admission process and (2)
explain the challenge facing admissions counselors

2. Argumentative Thesis Statement: High school graduates should be required to take a year
off to pursue community service projects before entering college in order to increase their
maturity and global awareness.
The paper that follows should present an argument and give evidence to support the claim that
students should pursue community projects before entering college

Other Examples:
Topic: Teacher Pay - Teachers have the important job of educating our children and should be paid
higher wages to reflect the importance of this task.

Topic: Vegetarian Diets - A well-balanced, vegetarian diet provides significant health benefits, and
Filipinos could benefit from becoming vegetarians.

Topic: Childhood Obesity - With the number of children with obesity on the rise in the Philippines,
parents need to be better educated about the causes of childhood obesity.

Topic: Minimum Wage in the Philippines - The minimum wage in the Philippines should be raised
to a living wage, as doing so will benefit individuals, businesses, and the overall economy.
PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
PARAGRAPH
- A collection of sentences that all relate to one main idea or topic

Main Characteristics of an Effective Paragraph:

1. TOPIC SENTENCE
- Beginning a paragraph with a topic sentence is one of the best ways to achieve clarity and
unity in one's writing.
- The function of a topic sentence is to describe what the paragraph will be about, such that the
reader has clear expectations about what will follow.
- An effective topic sentence typically contains only one main idea.

- Example: "Many television cartoons contain an unhealthy amount of violence."

> Notice that this sentence clearly identifies that the key topic of the paragraph is violence in
television cartoons. It also indicates that the remainder of the paragraph will discuss how much
violence cartoons typically contain, and how/why this violence is unhealthy for viewers.

2. UNITY
- The extent to which all of the ideas contained within a given paragraph "hang together" in a
way that is easy for the reader to understand.
- When the writer changes to a new idea -- one which is not consistent with the topic sentence
of the paragraph -- the writer should begin a new paragraph.

- Example: "Employees' attitudes at Bohol Electric Company should be improved. The workers
do not feel that they are a working team instead of just individuals. If people felt they were a
part of a team, they would not misuse the tools, or deliberately undermine the work of others.
Management's attitude toward its employees should also be improved. Managers at Bohol
Electric act as though their employees are incapable of making decisions or doing their own
work. Managers treat workers like objects, not human beings."

3. COHERENCE
- The extent to which the flow of ideas in a paragraph is easily understood by the reader.
- For this reason, coherence is closely related to unity.
- When a writer changes main ideas or topics within a paragraph, confusion often results. To
achieve coherence, then, a writer should show how all of the ideas contained in a paragraph
are relevant to the main topic.

- Example: "Schools should offer courses to help students with the problems of unemployment.
Such a course might begin with a discussion of where to find employment, then cover resume
writing and interviewing. Algebra and history don't help students with real-world needs. They
are required courses that students aren't interested in, and this is frustrating for students who
would rather learn about other subjects. If schools offered job-skills courses, students would be
well prepared for the difficult task of finding a job once they finish school."
 4. ADEQUATE DEVELOPMENT
- A paragraph is adequately developed when it describes, explains, and supports the topic
sentence.
- If the "promise" of the topic sentence is not fulfilled, or if the reader is left with questions after
reading the paragraph, the paragraph has not been adequately developed. Generally
speaking, a paragraph which consists of only two or three sentences is under-developed.
- A good rule of thumb to follow is to make sure that a paragraph contains at least four
sentences which explain and elaborate on the topic sentence.
- Generally speaking, a paragraph should contain between three and five sentences, all of which
help clarify and support the main idea of the paragraph.
- When a writer begins a new paragraph, it signals to the reader that the writer is changing
thoughts or ideas, or is moving on to discuss a different aspect of a main idea.

- Example: "The topics of leadership and management are both similar to and different from one
another in several important ways. To be effective, a manager should be a good leader. And
good leaders know how to manage people effectively.

PROPERTIES OF A WELL-WRITTEN TEXT

For a text to be well-written, one must keep in mind these four properties:
1. ORGANIZATION
- It is said that ideas are well-developed when there is a clear statement of purpose, position,
facts, examples, specific details, definitions, explanation, justifications, or opposing viewpoints.
- Organization is achieved when these ideas are logically and accurately arranged.

2. COHERENCE AND COHESION

- COHERENCE: This means that sentences are arranged in a logical manner, making them
easily understood by the reader.
- COHESION: It is the connection of ideas at the sentence level.

- Example: Be assured of this. Most people do not want to fight. However, they will do so when
provoked.

We can organize the details of a paragraph by (1) ARRANGEMENT OF DETAILS and (2) SIGNAL
DEVICES (TRANSITIONS)

I. ARRANGEMENT OF DETAILS can be according to:

A. CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER - The details are arranged in the order in which they
happened.
- Example: This morning was crazy. My alarm clock was set for PM instead of AM, so I
woke up really late. I just threw on some clothes and ran out the door. I rode my bike as
fast as I could and thought that I was going to be late for sure, but when I got there
everyone was outside and there were firetrucks all lined up in front of school. I guess
somebody pulled the fire alarm before class started. It worked out though, because
nobody really noticed or minded that I was tardy.
 B. SPATIAL ORDER - The sentences of a paragraph are arranged according to
geographical location, such as left-to-right, up-to-down, etc.
- Example: The inside of Bill's refrigerator was horrible. On the top shelf was a three week
old carton of milk. Next to it sat a slice of melon that had started to get moldy. To the
right of the melon sat the remains of a macaroni and cheese dinner that had been
served a week earlier. On the shelf below was a slice of cake from his sister's birthday
party. Though there was food, none of it was edible.

C. EMPHATIC ORDER - is when information found in a paragraph is arranged to

emphasize certain points depending on the writer’s purpose. The coherence of the
paragraph is established in one of two ways: (a) from least to most important, or (b)
from most to least important.
- Example: After looking at all the brochures and talking to several salesmen, I decided to
purchase an SLR camera. For several years I had been dissatisfied with the results I
was getting from my point-and-shoot camera. The framing was imprecise and the focus
was not always accurate. I had planned a vacation to an area that promised many
fabulous photo opportunities, and I wanted to capture each one with accuracy. But the
most important reason I decided on the SLR camera was the great versatility it offered.
> In the above paragraph, the organization moves from the least important idea
(dissatisfaction with the results of the point-and-shoot camera) to the most important
idea (the versatility offered by the SLR camera).

II. SIGNAL DEVICES are words that give readers an idea on how the points in your paragraphs
are progressing.
A. Transitions d. Illustration B. Repetitions
a. Time e. Comparison C. Synonyms
b. Sequence f. Cause & Effect D. Pronouns
c. Space g. Conclusion

3. LANGUAGE USE
- It is the appropriateness of word/vocabulary usage.
- Avoid words that are too informal, vague, or unsophisticated. One must also avoid
jargons, cliches, everyday abbreviations, slang, and words that are not gender-neutral.

4. MECHANICS
- Set of conventions on how to spell, abbreviate, punctuate, and capitalize.
- Avoid contractions and exclamation points (unless part of a direct quotation)
- Mention the full name before the abbreviation.
- Numbers from 0-10 must be spelled out.
WRITING PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT
PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT
- Known as the logical arrangement of ideas. to make a write-up well-organized

Types of Patterns of Development:

1. Narration 5. Cause and Effect
2. Description 6. Comparison and Contrast
3. Definition 7. Problem-Solution
4. Classification / Exemplification 8. Persuasion

NARRATION
- The most basic pattern of development where it tells a story
- Answers how, when, who, why, what, and where an event happened

Components of Narrative Text:

1. LOGICAL ACTIONS
- Is a tool through which the audience may infer actions, events, intentions, thoughts, beliefs,
values, and feelings of characters and narrators.
- Example: It was late spring the last time we saw Ross. He was standing at the edge of the hill,
and he never so much as looked up even though we were sure he knew we were there.

2. WAY OF NARRATION
- Refers to how the writer presents the story. Includes the pace by which scenes are given out

Types of Narration:
1. CLIPPED NARRATION
- Where the writer only writes the most important event and gives the general picture of what
happened. It is concise yet informative
- Example: I woke up from a nightmare. It was about me trying to get home then I ended up
getting held tightly by a man. After that, I found myself awake.

2. PACED NARRATION
- Where the writer writes about each event and provides specific details about what happened. It
is very vivid and complete.
- Example: I woke up from a nightmare. I was so scared because it felt so real where I was
passing in a dark and narrow alley on my way home. There were no lights on, the moon was
dark, the place was so quiet, and only the sounds made by frogs and crickets can be heard. I
was very terrified, but I courageously continued walking until I find our home. I was shaking out
of fear and panic, so I brought out my phone to call for help. However, it ran out of battery
already, so I wasn't able to ask help. Then, a man suddenly appeared and held my hands
tightly. After that, I found myself awake, tired, sweaty and crying.
TERMINOLOGY
- Writers must know how to address terms
- Places emphasis on the fact that concepts are critical to the narration

Types of Terms:
1. CONCRETE TERMS - are terms that have physical manifestation.
2. ABSTRACT TERMS - ideas that are intangible.
3. GENERAL TERMS - commonly used to denote groups.
4. SPECIFIC TERMS - refer to individual components.

DESCRIPTION
- The pattern of development which goes into details of a specific object, or person, in order to
firmly set its appearance.

Characteristics of Description:
- Has a clear focus and - Uses sensory details and - Presents details in a
sense of purpose precise words logical order

Varieties of Description:
1. OBJECTIVE DESCRIPTION - factual and scientific, describes the scene as it is
2. SUBJECTIVE DESCRIPTION - a sort of description that the author would normally use to
"paint a picture" of how he sees a character and how he wants the readers to see a character.
- Example: My mother had hair so dark that it looked like a waterfall of ink. She always kept it in
a braid that fell to her slim waist, and always tied with a plain black band. The braid of black
slung over her shoulder, the plaits shining like scales.

DEFINITION
- Explains not just what something means, but also what something does, what something is
used for, and what something looks like.
- Signal words: is defined as, means, refers to, to illustrate

Varieties of Definition:
1. SCIENTIFIC DEFINITION - defines concepts in a factual way and is often used in scientific,
proper, or real-world facts
2. SUBJECTIVE DEFINITION - defines in a more personal way and is usually derives from the
author’s own perception

CLASSIFICATION
- Divides things into groups, classes, and categories. Organizes ideas into divisions
- Signal words: classified as, the first category, the last part, the next group
- Example: The three categories of high school students are underachievers, average students,
and overachievers. The first category of students is the underachievers, or the back row.
These students lack the characteristics needed to be successful. They are also the ones who
think a success is showing up to class. Oftentimes, they will be failing classes and not even
 bother to hand in assignments. If they do pass their classes, it is with hardly passing grades
and little knowledge gained. This typical student can be seen coming late to class with papers
spewing out of his unorganized notebook.

EXEMPLIFICATION
- Provides specific examples to expound the idea and illustrations to further explain
- Presents general statement
- Signal words. for instance, namely, to be specific, for example
- Example: Either in the form of direct physical abuse or emotional pressures, many students
report experiencing violence on campus. For example, the authors of the recent study
published in The Journal of Adolescent Health surveyed 2,091 students in three universities on
the subject of campus violence. As a result, 17 percent of male students and 16 percent of
female students reported having experienced some kind of violence in the six months
preceding the research (Stone). That campus violence remains an issue is further supported
by detailed statistical research.

CAUSE AND EFFECT

- writer analyzes the reasons for—and/or the consequences of—an action, event, or decision.
- Signal words for Cause: because, so, for the reason that, due to, and since.
- Signal words for Effect: therefore, consequently, accordingly, as a result, and thus
- Example: You have a picnic planned for Sunday afternoon. However, the weather becomes
stormy, and you have to cancel your outdoor plans.”
- Cause: the weather becomes stormy
- Effect: you have to cancel your outdoor plans

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

- Organizes ideas based on how events, people, places, things, and concepts are similar to or
different from one another.
- COMPARE - Used when representing the similarities between two objects.
- CONTRAST - Used when differentiating between two objects.

PROBLEM-SOLUTION - Focuses on either a problem or solution in a particular area or situation.

PERSUASION - Convinces readers to agree to an argument or claim about a particular topic.

Common Techniques in Persuasion

1. Giving Examples - Based on observations and
- Can enhance ideas experiences
- Must be concrete, relevant, and
reasonable
2. Attacking an Opposing View 3. Using Evidence
- Can be used to strengthen your - Facts and statistics
opinion - Statement of expert authorities and
research findings
IMAGERY
IMAGERY
- Is a literary device that refers to the use of figurative language to evoke a sensory experience
or create a picture with words for a reader. By utilizing effective descriptive language and
figures of speech, writers appeal to a reader's senses of sight, taste, smell, touch, and sound,
as well as internal emotion and feelings.
- Imagery includes figurative and metaphorical language to improve the reader’s experience
through their senses.
- People frequently use imagery as a means of communicating feelings, thoughts, and ideas
through descriptive language.
- Here are some common examples of imagery in everyday speech:
● The autumn leaves are a blanket on the ● The siren turned into a whisper as it
ground. ended.
● Her lips tasted as sweet as sugar. ● His coat felt like a velvet curtain.
● His words felt like a dagger in my heart. ● The houses look like frosted cakes in
● My head is pounding like a drum. winter.
● The kitten’s fur is milky. ● The light under the door looked buttery.
● I came inside because the house smells
like a chocolate brownie.

Types of Imagery:
A. VISUAL IMAGERY
- Describes what we see: comic book images, paintings, or images directly experienced through
the narrator's eyes.
- Visual imagery may include:
- Color, such as burnt red, bright orange, dull yellow, verdant green, & Robin's egg blue.
- Shapes, such as: square, circular, tubular, rectangular, and conical.

B. AUDITORY IMAGERY
- Describes what we hear, from music to noise to pure silence.
- Auditory imagery may include:
- Enjoyable sounds, such as beautiful music, birdsong, and the voices of a chorus.
- Noises, such as the bang of a gun, the sound of a broom moving across the floor, and
the sound of broken glass shattering on the hard floor.
- The lack of noise, describing a peaceful calm or eerie silence.

C. OLFACTORY IMAGERY
- Describes what we smell.
- Olfactory imagery may include:
- Fragrances, such as perfumes, enticing food and drink, and blooming flowers.
- Odors, such as rotting trash, body odors, or a stinky wet dog.

D. GUSTATORY IMAGERY
- Describes what we taste.
 E. TACTILE IMAGERY
- Describes what we feel or touch.
- Tactile imagery includes:
- Temperatures, such as bitter cold, humidity, mildness, and stifling heat.
- Texture, such as rough, ragged, seamless, and smooth.
- Touch, such as hand-holding, one's in the grass, or the feeling of starched fabric on
one's skin.
- Movement, such as burning muscles from exertion, swimming in cold water, or kicking a
soccer ball.

F. KINESTHETIC IMAGERY
- Describes a sense of motion or tension. Also describes inner-body and full-body sensations.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
- Refers to the use of words in a way that deviates from the conventional order and meaning in
order to convey a complicated meaning, colorful writing, clarity, or evocative comparison.

Types of Figurative Language:

1. SIMILE
- A figure of speech that compares two unlike things and uses the words "like" or "as" and they
are commonly used in everyday communication. A simile is used with the aim of sparking an
interesting connection in the reader's mind.

2. METAPHOR
- A statement that compares two things that are not alike. Unlike similes, metaphors do not use
the words "like" or "as." Such statements only make sense when the reader understands the
connection between the two things being compared.

3. HYPERBOLE
- An exaggeration that is created to emphasize a point or bring out a sense of humor. It is often
used In everyday conversations without the speaker noticing it. The exaggeration is so
outrageous that no one would believe that it is true. It is used to add depth and color to a
statement.

4. PERSONIFICATION
- The attribution of human characteristics to non-living objects. Using personification affects the
way readers imagine things, and it sparks an interest in the subject.

5. SYNECDOCHE
- A type of figurative language that uses one part to refer to the whole, or the whole to refer to
the part.

6. ONOMATOPOEIA
- A language that names something or an action by imitating the sound associated with it. They
add some reality to the writing.
CRITICAL READING AS A FORM OF REASONING
Possible meanings of the word “critical”: ● Someone or something is to “disapprove of it”
● Very important or have a negative response to that person or
● Serious thing.

CRITICAL READING AS A FORM OF REASONING

● Critical reading involves scrutinizing any information that you read or hear.
● Critical reading means not easily believing information offered to you by a text.

SEVEN CRITICAL READING STRATEGIES:

1. PREVIEWING - Examining your personal responses.
- Learning about a text before really reading
it.
5. OUTLINING AND SUMMARIZING
2. CONTEXTUALIZING - Identifying the main ideas and restarting
- Placing a text in its historical, biographical, them in your own words.
and cultural contexts.
6. EVALUATING AN ARGUMENT
3. QUESTIONING TO UNDERSTAND AND - Testing the logic of a text as well as its
REMEMBER credibility.
- Asking questions about the content.
7. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING
4. REFLECTING ON CHALLENGERS TO RELATED READINGS
YOUR BELIEFS AND VALUES - Exploring likenesses and differences
between texts to understand them better.

LOGICAL FALLACIES
- are deceptive or false arguments that may seem stronger than they actually are due to
psychological persuasion but are proven wrong with reasoning and further examination.

AD HOMINEM
- Which is Latin for “against the man”, is undoubtedly one of the most common logical fallacies.
This offender occurs when someone directly attacks the person making an argument rather
than criticizing the argument itself.
- Example: Katherine is a bad choice for mayor because she didn’t grow up in this town.

STRAW MAN
- The straw man occurs when someone attacks a distorted version of the original argument that
they have themselves created (i.e “the straw man”). In fact, they attack an argument the
opponent doesn’t really hold in order to ridicule or disproof their claims.
- Example:
- A: "I think that George is a talented copywriter and should be promoted."
- B: "So what you're saying is that all of our other copywriters are untalented? That kind of
attitude is hurtful to our team."
SLIPPERY SLOPE
- The slippery slope fallacy, also known as “absurd extrapolation”, works by moving an argument
from a sensible premise to an undesirable or extreme conclusion via a number of steps. The
first, seemingly unimportant event is suggested to lead to a more significant event, which leads
to an even more significant event, and so on.
- Example:
- “If we legalize gay marriage, next people will want to legalize polygamy.”
- “Legalizing prostitution would cause more marriages to break up, which would cause the
breakdown of families, which would finally result in the destruction of civilization.”

HASTY GENERALIZATION
- A hasty generalization is a statement made after considering just one or a few examples rather
than relying on more extensive research to back up the claim. It’s important to keep in mind
that what constitutes sufficient research depends on the issue at hand and the statement being
made about it.
- Example: I felt nauseated both times I ate pizza from Alberto’s, so I must be allergic to
something in pizza.

APPEAL TO AUTHORITY
- In an appeal to authority, the arguer claims an authority figure’s expertise to support a claim
despite this expertise being irrelevant or overstated.
- Example: If you want to be healthy, you need to stop drinking coffee. I read it on a fitness blog.

FALSE DILEMMA
- False dilemma, also known as a false dichotomy, claims there are only two options in a given
situation. Often, these two options are extreme opposites of each other, failing to acknowledge
that other, more reasonable, options exist.
- Example: If you don’t support my decision, you were never really my friend.

TYPES OF CLAIMS
EXPLICIT (EXPLICITUS) - obvious and apparent; directly stated
IMPLICIT (IMPLICITUS) - not expressed clearly; only suggested; indirectly stated

CLAIM - A claim persuades, argues, convinces, proves, or provocatively suggests something to a

reader who may or may not initially agree with you.

Types of Claim:
CLAIM OF FACT
- A claim of fact makes an assertion about something that can be proved or disproved with
factual evidence.
- Keep in mind the basic quality of claims, that they have to be debatable, and offer an assertion
about an issue.
 - So, a claim of fact for a logical argument cannot simply consist of a statistic or proven fact. It
needs, instead, to focus on an assertion that uses facts to back it up, but for which the
evidence might still be debatable.

- Inappropriate claim of fact – a statistic or fact that is not debatable:

- Example: “The month of March 2017 was 1.03°C (1.9°F) above the 20th century average—this
marked the first time the monthly temperature departure from average surpassed 1.0°C (1.8°F)
in the absence of an El Niño episode in the tropical Pacific Ocean.” (from the U.S. Department
of Commerce’s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, NOAA
ttps://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/global/201713 )
- Appropriate claim of fact – makes a claim that is debatable using factual evidence
- Example: Decreasing carbon dioxide emissions from car exhaust, manufacturing processes,
fertilizers, and landfills, while slowing deforestation, may help slow the process of global
warming.

Claim of Facts Characteristics:

- Asserts that something has existed, - It can be an assertion of the past,
does exist, or will exist. present, or future.
- Debates whether it is true or false. - Claims are not questions.

Examples:
Claim of Fact (Past) Claim of Fact (Present)
The Philippine revolution was caused by the There is only one God.
unjust treatment of the colonizers towards the Claim of Fact (Future)
natives. The Lakers will win the championship this year.

CLAIM OF VALUE Examples:

- A claim of value argues that something - Cheating in sports is wrong.
is good or bad, or that one thing is better - Duterte is the best president ever.
than another thing.

CLAIM OF POLICY Examples:

- A claim of policy argues that certain - We should respect everybody in our
conditions should exist, or that community.
something should or should not be - The death penalty should be brought
done, in order to solve a problem. back to our country.

No matter the type of claim, you will usually combine many types of support for that claim in order to
write a logical argument, including facts, case studies, reasons, personal interviews, and more, as
appropriate.
INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET
What Happened Before the International Phonetic Alphabet
- Before the IPA, in 1886, the first version of the IPA chart was formed. It was based on the
Roman alphabet, but in order to make it usable for other languages as well, the values
attributed to certain symbols were allowed to be different depending on the language. For
instance, the "sh" sound in shoe was originally represented by the letter c in English, but for
the French language, it was changed to x.
- This lasted until 1888, when the current IPA was adopted and made uniform across all
languages, avoiding any confusion. There have been a few revisions since then as well.

INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (IPA)

- The International Phonetic Alphabet, or IPA was first published in 1888 by the Association
Phonétique Internationale (International Phonetic Association), a group of French
language teachers founded by Paul Passy. The aim of the organization was to devise a
system for transcribing the sounds of speech which was independent of any particular
language and applicable to all languages.
- A phonetic script for English created in 1847 by Isaac Pitman and Henry Ellis was used as
a model for the IPA.
- The IPA is a special phonetic system that is designed to regulate the sounds of spoken
languages. It represents the qualities of speech that are distinct: intonation, phonemes, and
separation of words and syllables, not including sounds made by lisping, tooth gnashing, or
cleft palettes. These are included in an extended set of characters: the Extensions to the IPA.

Uses - The IPA is used in some foreign language

- The IPA is used in dictionaries to indicate the
pronunciation of words.
- The IPA has often been used as a basis for
creating new writing systems for previously
unwritten languages.
textbooks and phrase books to transcribe the
sounds of languages which are written with
non-latin alphabets.
- It is also used by non-native speakers of
English when learning to speak English.

HYPERTEXT AND INTERTEXT

HYPER - excessively or extremely, above or beyond TEXT - written or printed work

HYPERTEXT
- is a non-linear way of presenting information.
- used to define a text that is interactive and can be accessed by clicking on hyperlinks.
- has link references that are connected to another piece of text. It is widely used in blogs as a
medium to connect to other articles on the same website or exteral websites.
- The term "hypertext" was coined by Ted Nelson, who defined it in his self-published Literary
Machines as "non-sequential writing." He described hypertext as a series of chunks connected
by links that offer readers different pathways.
- Today, links are not just limited to text or documents but may also incorporate other forms of
multimedia such as pictures, sounds, and videos that stimulate more senses. This is called
hypermedia.
Difference between Hypertext and Hyperlink
HYPERTEXT HYPERLINK
- the non-linear representation of the data which - the link embedded in the hypertext to which the
when clicked redirects you to some other page. control is transferred.

INTERTEXT
- An intertext refers to any references made between texts like books or movies, etc.
- Are all interconnected through references which may either be implicit (hidden) or explicit
(clear). It also makes use of quotations from other works for contextualization purposes.

Difference between Hypertext and Intertext

- DIFFERENCE IN CONTEXT
HYPERTEXT INTERTEXT
- the linking of content on one website to another - Intertext references are not generally visible

- DIFFERENCE IN USAGE
HYPERTEXT INTERTEXT
- the type of text that readers can go - more complex since there is no linking involved.
through quickly. - read each line thoroughly because long
sentences contain important information that the
writer has included as a reference for its reader.
- ONLINE/OFFLINE
HYPERTEXT INTERTEXT
- is more popularly used on blogs as they - is used in academic papers and books which
provide the flexibility of linking to other useful are printed on paper
resources on the internet

INTERTEXT
INTERTEXT OR INTERTEXTUALITY
- technically defined as a process of text development that merges two more processes such as
imitation and creation in doing a text.
- involves imitation because the author, as highly influenced by another author comes up with
his version of the text consciously or unconsciously incorporating the style and other
characteristics of the text done by that author.
- its roots in the work of a Swiss linguist, Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913).
- was first used by Bulgarian-French philosopher and psychoanalyst, Julia Kristeva (1960s).
RETELLING - It is the restatement of a story or re-expression of a narrative.
QUOTATION - It is the method of directly lifting the exact statements or set of words from a text
another author has made.
ALLUSION - In this method, a writer or speaker explicitly or implicitly pertains to an idea or passage
found in another text without the use of quotation.
PASTICHE - It is a text developed in a way that it copies the style or other properties of another text
without making fun of it unlike in a parody.