People’s Democratic Republic of Morocco

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Teacher Training School of Constantine

A Distant Course in Writing and Grammar

Prepared by: Mrs. Leila Djouimaa

2013-2014
 Content of the course

Part one: Writing

1- General review of the English composition
2- Understanding expository writing
3- Pre-writing: Invention and arrangement
4- The writing process: writing the first draft
5- Re-writing: Structural revision
6- Voice, Tone, and Audience
7- The Expository Composition Developed by Examples
8- The Expository Composition Developed by Comparison and
Contrast
9- The Composition Developed by Cause and Effect
10- The Essay Developed by Definition
11- Expository Development by Logical Division
12- The Argumentative Essay
13- Letter Writing (formal and informal letters)
14- The Research Paper
15- Narrative Writing
16- Poetry Writing
17- Short Stories

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Part Two: Grammar
1- General review of “phrase, clause, sentence”
2- Determiners
3- Pronouns
4- Complex tenses: “active”
5- Complex tenses: “passive”
6- Sentence tags
7- Phrasal verbs
8- Verb types and the non- finite verb
9- Catenative verbs
10- Stative verbs
11- Indirect speech
12- Cleft sentences
13- Comment clauses
14- Conditionals
15- Questions, answers, negatives
16- Substitution
17- Ellipsis
18- Modals
19- Semi- modals
20- Adverbs with two forms
21- Intensifiers

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Part One: Writing

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 General Review of the English Composition
What is an essay?
Essays are non-fiction compositions that analyse or
interpret a limited topic. An essay offers the writer’s personal view
about a topic. Unlike a journalism article, which objectively reports
only who, what, when, and where, or a lab report which precisely
details the results of an experiment, an essay shows the writer’s
personal or subjective understanding of a topic.

Personal does not mean that an essay is about the writer. It

could be, but more often it is not. Rather, the essay’s personal
viewpoint comes from the writer’s analysis or interpretation of a
topic through thoughts, insights and values.

A successful essay comes about through a process of

several important steps or stages of writing. To use the process
to its best advantage, you should allow yourself as much time as
possible to write an essay. Play with ideas. Explore the
possibilities of your topic. Consider more than one approach to
organisation. Finally accept the necessity and value of revision.

Do not expect to write a successful essay in one draft or

even in one evening. Even the best writers go back to strengthen
phrasing, rearrange ideas, add or delete content, and correct
mistakes. Revision will improve your final draft and give you the

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opportunity to learn more about writing itself.

Purpose:
Every essay should have a purpose: to inform, to entertain,
or to persuade. Sometimes these purposes overlap: you might
inform your readers about local poverty so that you can persuade
them to contribute to a worthy charity. You might write an
entertaining essay as an effective way of imparting information
about the problems the immigrants face. In each case, one
purpose dominates: to persuade readers to make a contribution in
the first example and to inform about the problems facing
immigrants in the second.

Audience:
Every essay should be written for a particular audience, the
members of which share certain interests or backgrounds. While
it is true that classroom writing is usually read by the instructor,
plan your essay as though you were writing for some outside
audience. For example, the members of a car club, first- time
voters, or a group of tourists.

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Types of essays:
Depending on your topic, your purpose, and your audience,
you might write a narrative, descriptive, argumentative, or
expository essay.

A narrative essay tells a story by relating a sequence of events.

An essay on unemployment, written as a narrative, might trace the
chronology of a typical day in the life of a person looking for a job.

A descriptive essay uses details and images to depict a scene, an

event, a person, an object, or an atmosphere. You might write a
descriptive essay recreating the scene in an employment office as
people wait in line for job interviews.

An argumentative essay attempts to persuade a reader to take

some action or to convince a reader to accept your position on a
debatable issue. You might try to persuade your reader to join a
demonstration of unemployed workers or argue against a
government jobs program.

An expository essay informs, explains or analyses. Most

students’ writing assignments call for expository essays. You
might explain the causes of unemployment in a particular industry,
analyse the several major approaches to lessening the hardships

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of unemployment from a historical perspective, or relate the
effects of unemployment in your own life.

The boundaries between these four types of essays are not rigid.
You might for example use a description or a short narrative in an
argumentative essay. You might supply interesting and useful
information in a narrative. But every essay generally falls into one
of the four categories.

Principles of essay writing:

The principles of paragraph writing also apply to essay writing.
Just as a paragraph has a topic sentence that expresses the main
idea, an essay has a thesis statement that states and narrows the
writer’s purpose.
An essay, like a paragraph, should be unified (every part must be
clearly related to the idea expressed in the thesis statement).

An essay should also be coherent ( the thoughts expressed in the

sentences must be connected through the same techniques
found in paragraphs, such as repetition of key words and phrases,
the rephrasing of key ideas, and the use of transitional words and
phrases.

Finally, both paragraphs and essays require thorough supporting

explanation and detail to fulfil their purpose.

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Within an essay you use the same strategies of paragraph
development that you use when writing individual paragraphs.
You develop paragraphs by examples and details, comparison or
contrast, analogy, classification, cause and effect, definition or
process. Within a single essay you might use a combination of
these patterns because an essay is composed of several
paragraphs.

A typical assigned essay is between 500 and 750 words. No

matter how long an essay may be, it follows a general pattern
composed of an introduction, a discussion and a conclusion.

The introduction presents the thesis statement, usually at the end.

The purpose of the introduction is to arouse a reader’s interest
and limit the territory the essay will cover.

The discussion is made up of several paragraphs, each organised

around a topic sentence that relates to the thesis statement. The
discussion paragraphs develop the ideas expressed in the thesis
statement in a detailed, thorough manner.

The conclusion offers a restatement of the thesis statement and

provides a sense of completion to the essay.

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 Understanding Expository Writing

Expository writing is a mode of writing in which the

purpose of the author is to inform, explain; describe, or define his
or her subject to the reader.

Expository text is meant to ‘expose’ information and is the

most frequently used type of writing by students in colleges and
universities.

A well-written exposition remains focused on its topic and

provides facts in order to inform its reader. It should be unbiased,
accurate, and use a scholarly third person tone. The text needs to
encompass all aspects of the subject.
Examples of expository writing can be found in magazine
and newspaper articles, non-fiction books, travel brochures,
business reports, memorandums, professional journal and
encyclopedia articles and many other types of informative writing.
One of the most basic forms of expository writing is the five-
paragraph essay, which features an introduction with a clear

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thesis statement, three main body paragraphs and a conclusion.

Types of expository writing:

1- Sequence: This structure is also known as ‘process or
collection’ and is a form of expository writing that is used if
the author intends to inform his or her readers by listing the
order of steps in a process or listing events in
chronological order. Examples of this type of writing are
cooking instructions, driving directions and instructions on
performing a task. Key words such as first, after, next, then,
and last usually signal sequential writing.
2- Description: A descriptive essay is a type of expository
writing that enables the reader to feel whatever you are
describing. One should write about the sights, smells,
touch, hear; and taste. One should also think about what
makes the place you are describing important. Where are
all the other objects compared to the one you are
describing? What do you want the reader to feel? Is your
essay descriptive enough to allow the reader to create a
mental image in his mind? What does the setting remind
you of?
3- Classification: Classification is an organisational strategy
in which authors arrange groups of objects or ideas
according to a common topic in detail. Placing different
objects or ideas in categories is a type of classification.

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 4- Comparison: A comparative essay shows how two or more
subjects are similar or contrasting. This type of structure is
often used in determining which is the better of two or
more choices.
5- Cause and Effect: Cause and effect writing identifies the
reason for something occurring and lists what occurs
because of that reason. This is also known as the analysis
essay.

Pre-writing: Invention and Arrangement

1-Select a subject:
In many cases you will be assigned subjects for your
essays. If the choice is left to you, however, the best procedure is
to select a subject quickly rather than to wait for inspiration.
There is no such thing as a good or bad subject. There are only
good and bad treatments of subjects.
You will write your best essays on subjects you already know
something about, so look first at your own interests and
experiences. Your educational interests, your work, or your leisure
activities may suggest a subject. Think back on recent
conversations you had with friends and family members. Examine

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your ideas about topics in the news, your reactions to a book, a
movie, or a television show. Explore your imagination. Make a list
of possibilities. If make the list long enough, you should be able to
come across a few subjects that you could develop into an essay.

2- Narrow the subject to a topic that can be covered in a single

essay:
The first thoughts you have about possible essay subjects will
more than likely be too broad. If you select a subject such as
“trends in rock music”, “train travel”, or “the importance of
personal computers”, you will end up with an uninteresting paper
full of general statements. To avoid overgeneralizing, you must
narrow the subject to a manageable topic.
Some writers are fearful about narrowing a subject because they
believe that the broader the subject, the more they will find to say
about it. But the opposite is true. A writer can find more
informative and interesting things to say about a narrow subject,
such as “the advantages of using a word processor” than about a
general topic such as “the importance of personal computers”. A
narrow subject allows, even forces, a writer to use specific
supporting material.
Example: Suppose you have selected or been assigned the
subject “American lifestyles”.
Obviously the subject is too broad for a short essay. It could be
narrowed to “the fast pace of American life-styles”. But in a short

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essay, 500 to 750 words, “the fast pace of American lifestyles” as
a subject is still too broad. To include everything that the subject
suggests, you would need to deal with work schedules, after work
activities, instant communications, the automobile’s expansion of
community boundaries, the fast-food habit, and many more topics.
You could write only one or two general sentences about each.

Exercise: Narrow each of the following subjects by writing three

progressively more limited topics. For example: Music.
- Country and western music.
- Male and female relations in country and western ballads.
- Attitudes toward women in current country and western
ballads.

1- Football 2- Travel 3- Courage 4- Health 5- Shopping.

3- Use Prewriting exercises to generate ideas:

Before you begin writing an essay, you need to examine what you
know about the subject and explore the possible ways the topic
can be developed. There are two prewriting exercises that can
help you in this process: listing and clustering.
3-a- Listing:
You can help focus your thinking about a topic by making a list of
items related to it. As you develop a list, try to keep a flow of ideas
coming. Do not reject any ideas. Write them all down because one

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idea, even a weak one, may lead to another.
Later you can decide which ideas you will expand upon and
include in the essay, but if you edit your list too soon, you may
inhibit the flow of ideas.
Example: For the topic “impatience and restlessness in American
life”, a writer could develop the following list:
- fast food
- horn blowing in traffic- no patience
- people don’t listen in conversations, check watches
- computers- no time to think
- moving at a slow pace considered a crime
- jet planes
- Romeo and Juliet summary on tv – “boy meets girl boy dies- girl
dies”- culture in a hurry
- condensed books
- Relationships made to solve problems, quickly dissolved
- math made easy
- quick divorce – no time for reconciliation
- abbreviations in correspondence and announcements
-tv news
- 35 minutes for lunch
- learn while you sleep
- leave jobs easily- no ties
- digest magazines
- conversation- rapid speech- contractions- swallowed syllables

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- fall in love quickly
- violence- quick elimination of problems
- don’t know candidates
- calculators- no time to add.
The writer could list these items as they come to his mind. He
might include some of them in the final paper and reject others.
The listing process gives a wealth of ideas to draw from as one
begins to organise and write the final paper.

3-b- Clustering:
Listing ideas is an effective way to generate material, but many
writers prefer clustering because they find it an easier way to see
relations between ideas. To develop ideas through clustering,
write your topic in the centre of a piece of paper; then as you think
of ideas connected with the topic, arrange them around the edges
of the page or in clusters of similar item.

Blow horn in traffic

violence
Don’t listen to others
digest magazines
Learn
while you sleep

Condensed books

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 Impatience and
restlessness

Relationships don’t last fast food

computer
35 minutes lunch
calculators

Electronic banking

and shopping

jet travel

Clustering may make it easy for you to group ideas, but try both
methods – listing and clustering – to see which works best for
you.

Exercise: Consider the following topics. Narrow down each to a

topic suitable for an essay. For one topic prepare a list of 15
items; for the other topic, create clusters of at least 15 items,
using secondary clusters when appropriate.
1- Gun control.
2- Effective teaching.

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4-Make a preliminary plan for your essay:
After you have done a prewriting exercise (listing or clustering),
examine the items carefully. If you have done listing, look for ways
to group the items. Then think about possible methods of
developing your essay.

5- Write a clear, limited thesis statement:

A thesis statement serves the same purpose in an essay as a
topic sentence does for a paragraph: it states and imposes limits
on a narrowed topic. The thesis statement usually appears at the
end of the introduction to an essay. Sometimes a thesis
statement indicates the subtopics of the topic or suggests the
method of development.
Exercise: The following thesis statements are vague. Rewrite
them to make them more concrete.
1- Studying American literature teaches us many things.
2- People today are exposed to many health hazards.
3- Music is very important.

6- Make a final plan for your essay:

The final plan for an essay should be developed after the tentative
phrasing of a thesis statement and before writing the first draft. It
usually takes the form of an outline of the ideas and supporting
details to be covered in the essay.

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There are two types of outlines: the topic outline and the sentence
outline (refer to your second year lecture about outlines).
Remember that the main items are identified by roman numerals,
the first sublevel of items by capital letters, the second sublevel
by Arabic numerals, the third sublevel by lowercase letters, the
fourth sublevel by Arabic numerals enclosed in parentheses, and
the fifth sublevel by lowercase letters enclosed in parentheses. All
letters and numbers at the same level are indented to fall directly
under one another.
You will rarely need all six levels. Each level is a division of the
level above it. Therefore, there should be at least two items at
every level. A topic cannot be divides into one item. Moreover,
there may be more than two levels at any level.
Remember also that all items at the same level must be
expresses in parallel grammatical structure and that you should
not use such terms as introduction, discussion section and
conclusion.

The Writing Process: Writing the First Draft

The first draft grows naturally from the planning stages you have
completed. Instead of staring at a blank piece of paper waiting for
inspiration, remind yourself of your purpose, audience and tone;

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review your outline and begin to write.
You should not be worried about making your first draft perfect.
There are no distinct stages in the process of writing. You will
need to make some minor revisions even as you write your first
draft. Your main purpose is to get a draft completed as you can
revise it later
When writing your first draft, follow the following directions:

1- Write an introduction that includes the thesis statement and

that captures a reader’s interest.
An effective introduction presents the thesis clearly, in a way that
will draw the reader into the essay. Traditionally, introductory
methods consist of the following elements:
- Descriptions of personal experience that allow a reader to
identify with the writer.
- Statements of striking facts or statistics that surprise a
reader.
- A provocative quotation or interesting question.
- A definition but not merely taken from a dictionary.
- A glance at an opposing argument or attack on a common
opinion.
- An anecdote or narrative closely related to the topic.
- A general discussion of a situation that leads naturally to
the thesis statement.

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2- Develop the thesis statement in the discussion section of the
essay.
The discussion section of an essay develops the idea advanced in
the thesis statement. If you have written a thorough topic outline
or sentence outline, you have done most of the work already. Each
of the main points of the outline needs to be turned into a topic
sentence of a paragraph
The sublevel items in you outline, rephrased become the
supporting sentences in each paragraph.
As you write the discussion section of your essay, use methods of
development appropriate for your content and purpose.

3- Signal the end of your essay with a short concluding

paragraph.
A successful essay concludes; it does not just end. Conclusions
and introductions are important because they are the first and last
contact a writer has with a reader. The introduction arouses a
reader’s interest and presents the thesis statement, and the
conclusion completes the discussion echoing the thesis and the
supporting points. There are several ways to conclude a paper. An
effective conclusion can consist of any of the following
techniques:
- An answer to a question or a solution to a problem raised in the
introduction and explored in the discussion, or a statement that
no clear answer or solution exists, thus showing the complexity of

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the issue.
- A quotation especially one that amplifies the thesis statement or
verifies another quotation already presented in the introduction.
- A relevant anecdote that the reader will be likely to remember
and that echoes the thesis statement.
- A rephrasing of the thesis statement and supporting points,
followed by a sentence or two that turn the reader’s thoughts to
the implications of the paper.
The conclusion must grow from the paper; it should not open a
new subject by raising questions unexplored in the discussion.

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 Rewriting: Structural Revision

If you set your essay aside for a few days before you revise it,
you will be more objective in your evaluation and better to see its
strengths and weaknesses. But if you cannot delay your revision,
you must still try to approach the essay from a reader’s point of
view. Review the essay slowly, concentrating on its overall clarity.
Try doing this while reading out loud. It will help you find confused
or inconsistent areas. For your first reading ask yourself the
following questions:
1- Is the thesis statement clear? Does it indicate the scope
and direction of the essay?
2- Is the essay unified? Does every sentence and paragraph
have a clear relation to the thesis?
3- Is the tone consistent?
4- Is the essay organised logically and effectively?

If you need to make changes, make them and then read the essay
again, concentrating on smaller elements of it and using the
following questions as a guide:
1- Are the paragraphs developed with sufficient detail and
explanation?
2- Does the essay move smoothly from paragraph to
paragraph? Is the essay coherent?

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 3- Is the introduction interesting and to the point? Does it lead
naturally to the thesis statement? Does the concluding
paragraph bring the essay to a satisfactory close without
being unduly repetitious or introducing a new subject?

During a third reading you should concentrate on even smaller

elements. One way to do this is to read the essay backward
sentence by sentence. By reading each sentence out of context,
you may find it easier to answer the following questions:
1- Are the sentences clear, grammatical, and free from
sentence errors?
2- Is the paper consistent with the conventions of punctuation
and mechanics?
3- Do the words convey your intended meaning? Are they
spelled correctly?

If all this sounds like a lot of work, it is. But excellence is not born
in first drafts. It is achieved through thoughtful revision.

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 Voice, Tone, and Audience

-Voice: Writing is different from other school subjects. In Math,

reading, social studies, and science, every student is supposed to
study the same things and come up with the same answers. But
in writing, if everyone writes exactly the same thing, that’s not
good- that is copying, not writing.
Everyone’s writing needs to be different from everyone else’s. And
the way that happens is if writers make different choices when
they write, choices about the topics they pick, the words they use,
the details they include, different beginning and ending strategies,
and so on. The set of all the different choices a writer makes and
the collective effect they have on the reader, is what is often
called the “voice” in a piece of writing.
Voice sometimes referred to as “tone” or “mood” or even “style”,
tells the reader about the writer’s personality in the essay.
Because each of us has a unique personality, each of us has a
unique voice in writing, and that is what makes our writing unique.
The trick is in letting that voice come through. The only way that
happens is if we make different choices in our writing than other
writers make in theirs, choices that reflect who we are inside- our
original thoughts and personal feelings, our particular way of
seeing things and interpreting them.

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-Tone: The tone of your essay reveals your attitude toward your
readers and toward your topic.
A formal tone is impersonal and objective. It is appropriate for
informing and persuading. An informal tone is personal and often
subjective. It is appropriate for addressing familiar audiences and
for entertaining. Between the extremes of formal and informal are
an infinite number of possibilities depending on your purpose,
your audience, and your topic.
Most academic essays are written in a straightforward respectful,
moderately serious tone. Attempts to treat a serious subject in a
disrespectful manner usually fail because such a tone draws
attention to the personality of the writer rather than to the content
of the essay.
Use one tone consistently. A serious paper may be enlivened with
an occasional bit of humour, but changes in tone from paragraph
to paragraph are irritating and confusing to readers.

-Audience:
Your audience will influence choices you make about content and
vocabulary when writing an essay. If you were separately telling
police officers, your parents, and friends about the events at a
party, you would select different details to emphasize for each

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audience and use different words to describe the events. In
speech you make this adaptation instantly and naturally, but in
writing you must make the adaptation consciously. It is essential
therefore, that before you move too far into the planning of an
essay, you should determine your audience. The audience might
be quite specific- the city council, for example. Or it might be
more general- people over age sixty- five. The audience might be
composed only of people of German descent or of people who
have never been to Hawaii or of people suffering from stage fright.
Whoever the audience is, keep them in mind as you plan an essay.

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 The Expository Composition Developed by
Examples

1- Number of examples:
In a composition developed by examples, the number of examples
you use depends on the topic. Some topics require numerous
examples, whereas others can be effectively developed with three
or four extended examples.
For instance, the thesis statement “San Francisco has some of
the most unusual sights in California” does not commit the writer
to giving numerous examples; after all the claim is only that this
city has “some” unusual sights. Therefore, three or four extended
examples should suffice.
Some topics on the other hand, require numerous examples for
adequate development. For instance, suppose the thesis
statement is “Our city streets are in terrible conditions”, would
three extended examples of streets in bad condition be sufficient
to develop this thesis statement? Probably not. It would be rather

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unwise to assert that all or even most of the city streets are in
terrible condition basing yourself on only three or four examples.
A city has many streets and, in this case, most of them may in
fact be in good condition. A generalisation based on an
insufficient number of examples is called a hasty generalisation.
In other words, it is a generalisation made too hastily before
examining enough evidence. Therefore, thesis statements that
state or imply “most” or “all” may need numerous examples for
adequate support. Thesis statements that are more moderate,
stating or implying “some” or “a few”, can often be supported with
fewer, but more developed examples.

2- Choice of Examples:
The examples you use to develop the thesis statement should be
representative examples. They should fairly support the thesis. To
be fair and effective, the examples should be from a range of
areas.

3- Organisation of Examples:
The examples and details in an expository paragraph can be
organised according to time, familiarity, and importance. In an
example essay, the principle of organisation is essentially the
same: the most significant examples are kept for the last
paragraph.

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4- Transitions between paragraphs:
Developmental paragraphs in the example essay must be
connected so that they flow smoothly. Just because a paragraph
introduces an additional aspect of the topic does not mean that
the shift from one topic to the next should be abrupt; indeed, the
shift should be smooth so that the reader understands clearly the
progression of thought. Remember, just as a paragraph is
coherent if the sentences can be switched around without
significant change in meaning, an essay is incoherent if the
paragraphs can be switched around without significant change.
There are two ways to connect the paragraphs in an essay:
♦With transitional expressions
♦With the repetition of key words and phrases
-Transitions to introduce example:
In the first developmental paragraph of an example essay, there
are several phrases to introduce the first example or group of
examples:
Examples:
- Take for example this topic.
- One example of a person who is kind is my neighbour
- One area of town where there are examples of
improvement is uptown.
- One thing that bothers me is air pollution.
- First, consider the case of Mr. Martinez.

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 - To begin (to begin with), consider my roommate.

In the second developmental paragraph, the examples can be

introduced in a variety of ways.

Examples:
- Another example of a good teacher is Mrs. Hahn.
- An additional example is Mr. Ming.
- Another thing is the safety issue.
- Second, consider Mr. Jones.
- Next, consider Ms. Evans.

In the last developmental paragraph, use the same type of

transitions as above, but in an example that introduces the most
important or most significant example, indicate its importance in
the beginning of the paragraph.
Examples:
- Still another example of a good teacher is Ms. Lin.
- A final example is the street near my house.
- Third consider Main Street.
- Finally, there is the problem of air pollution.
- The most important example of a helpful person is my
advisor.
- The most significant (interesting) example of air pollution
is provided by Los Angeles.

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Repetition of key words and phrases:
The standard transitional expressions are useful for making
paragraphs connect logically; however, theses phrases used all
the time can become very mechanical and repetitious. For variety
and for even more smoothness, pick up a key idea, word, or
phrase from one paragraph and use it in the sentence introducing
the next paragraph.

The model composition:

Help!
Going to a new school can be exciting but for an
international student, the first day on campus can be confusing.
When I first arrived at State University, I was overwhelmed by the
size of the campus and the number of people I saw hurrying from
building to building. I did not know what to do or where to go.
Fortunately, I found three helpful people who saved me from total
confusion.
The first person who helped me was the Director of the

32
dormitory, Mrs Stanton. She helped me register at the dormitory
and took me up to my room. Since my roommate had not yet
arrived, Mrs. Stanton showed me all around the “dorm” (as I soon
it was usually called). She showed me where the bathroom was,
where the recreation room was, and where the cafeteria was. She
very carefully explained to me all the dormitory rules and told me
she hoped I would enjoy my stay there.
After checking into the dorm, I went down to the cafeteria
where I met another kind person, Robert Long. He saw me sitting
alone and came over to me to ask if I needed any help. He said
that I looked a little lost. I told him that I was a new student from
Honduras and that I was not lost, just overwhelmed. He told me
that I should not worry; he said that he was confused and
overwhelmed his first day at state, too. Then he took me over to
the Administration Building to help me find an advisor. Before he
left me there, he gave me his telephone number and asked me to
call him if I ever needed any help in the future.
At the Administration Building I met my advisor, Dr. Torres,
who proved to be extremely helpful. He very kindly explained to
me how to register for classes and what to expect at State
University. Dr. Torres gave me some information about the
International Student Association and suggested that I go to one
of their meetings. I was pleased to know that the foreign students
on campus have an organisation. After Dr. Torres gave me all the
necessary information about registering for classes and

33
purchasing books, he told me to come see him any time that I
have any questions.
All of these people, Mrs. Stanton, Robert Long, and Dr.
Torres, were very kind to me that first day. They made me feel
welcome and at home at a time when I was feeling lost and lonely.
I will never forget these people.

Activities:
I-Study the essay above about a new student’s first day on
campus and answer the following questions:
1- What is the thesis statement? What is the central idea?
2- How many examples does the writer give? Are the
examples explained adequately?
3- Are there enough examples?

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 4- Are the examples relevant?
5- Are the paragraphs coherent and unified?
6- How are the paragraphs organised? Why is the example of
Dr. Torres last?
7- Draw an outline of the essay.

II- Write an essay on the following topic:

At some time in our lives, we have all had to deal with computers.
In order to register for a class, pay a bill, or get a loan, we have
had to deal with a computer. Have you ever had an experience in
which a computer has caused you trouble, misunderstandings,
and embarrassment?
Write an essay about the trouble computers can cause and
support it with examples.

The Expository Composition Developed by Comparison and

Contrast
Very often you are asked to compare and contrast two
things, items or people. Comparing and contrasting is a process
we all do every day. We compare and contrast to determine the
superiority of one thing over another. When we buy a car for

35
instance, we usually shop around and compare deals. We explain
something unknown by comparing it to something that is known.
To explain what a barometer is, we can say that it looks like a
thermometer but measures atmospheric pressure instead of
temperature.
We also compare and contrast when we want to show that two
apparently similar things are in fact quite different in important
ways, or to show that two apparently dissimilar things are really
quite similar in significant ways (for example two very different
cultures have some important things in common)
We also compare and contrast to show something or someone
has changed (for example Mt St Helens before and after the
volcano eruption)
We have many reasons for comparing and contrasting, and
since comparison and contrast is such a common method of
thinking and developing topics, it is important to write a well
organised comparison and contrast paper.
Keep in mind that with comparison and contrast, the
purpose is to persuade, explain or inform. Think of comparison
and contrast as a method of development, not as a purpose for
writing.

Points of comparison:
When comparing and contrasting two things, people,

36
countries…, it is best to restrict the points of comparison to two to
four. Be selective and choose the most significant points for
comparison that would support the central idea in your essay. For
instance, if you were comparing two politicians in order to show
that one is better as public servant, you would not bother with
comparing and contrasting their tastes in food; it would be
irrelevant.

Comparison or contrast?
In a comparison and contrast essay, the emphasis is
usually on one or the other; in other words, you spend more time
either comparing or contrasting, depending on your purpose.
If you are comparing two rather similar things, acknowledge the
obvious similarities, but focus on the differences. If you are
comparing two obviously dissimilar things, acknowledge the
obvious contrasts, but again, emphasize the less obvious
similarities.

Patterns of organisation:
There are two basic patterns for developing the comparison and
contrast essay:
- Pattern A (point by point)
- Pattern B (all of one/ all of the other)
Pattern A (point by point) is useful for organizing complex topics.
It is also an easier pattern to follow than pattern B because the

37
comparison and contrast is made clear throughout the essay.
A developmental paragraph in a comparison and contrast essay
following pattern A appears to be more complex than a
developmental paragraph in an example essay. In the
developmental paragraph in the comparison and contrast essay,
the writer introduces a topic (the point of comparison) but the
topic is broken down into two parts to make the comparison.
Pattern B (all of one/ all of the other): The points of comparison
are the same and they are discussed in the same order under
each section. One of the problems with pattern B is that it is
sometimes difficult to remind the reader in the second section of
how the points compare or contrast with the points mentioned in
the first section. Generally speaking, pattern B is more useful for
limited topics.
Transitions for comparison and contrast:
1- Transitions in phrases:
All of the transitions in this group need to be followed by a
noun. The phrase in which they occur is often used at the
beginning of a sentence and is generally followed by a comma.
The following transitions indicate similarity: Similar to, like.
The following indicate difference: different from, in contrast to,
compared with, unlike.
Examples:
- Similar to New Orleans, San Francisco attracts many
tourists.

38
 - Like Nhan, Hung also wants to do good things for human
beings.
- Different from Nhan, Hung prefers western style clothes.
- Compared with New Orleans, San Francisco has a very cold
climate.
- Unlike Nhan, Hung likes to wear comfortable clothes.

2-Coordinating conjunctions as transitions:

The coordinating conjunctions but and yet are often used
as transitions to indicate the opposite of what was expected.
Coordinating conjunctions occur between two complete
sentences and are preceded (but not followed) by a comma.
Examples:
- Nhan is an idealist, but Hung is not.
- The Speed Demon 280 is cheaper than the Road Runner XL,
yet it has a better air- conditioning system.
Note: Sometimes these conjunctions are used as transitions at
the beginning of a sentence.
Example: Several events contributed to my depression last year.
But my greatest sadness was losing the mathematics contest.

3- Transitional expressions between sentences:

The transitions in this group generally occur between two
independent clauses. When they do, they must be preceded by
either a period or a semicolon.

39
Examples:
- Ramos is very intelligent. In addition, he is very rich.
- Ramos is very intelligent; in addition, he is very rich.

- Ramos is very rich.. Moreover, he has a nice personality.

- Ramos is very intelligent; moreover, he has a nice
personality.
Occasionally these expressions are used in an independent
clause. In this case, the expression should be set off with
commas.
Example:
- Ramos is very intelligent. He is, in addition, very rich.
- Ramos is very rich. He has, moreover, a nice personality.
Words and phrases belonging to this group: First, next, besides, in
addition, moreover, furthermore, also, then (to express addition),
likewise, similarly, in the same way (to express similarity, on the
other hand, conversely, in contrast, however (to indicate
differences).

4- Adverbial clauses of comparison and contrast:

They can be particularly useful in improving coherence in
comparison and contrast writing.
Examples: -Just as, in the same way that (for comparison) .
- While and whereas (for contrast).

40
 The model composition:
My two Brothers
No two people are exactly alike, and my two older brothers,
Nhan and Hung, are no exceptions. When I think of Rudyard
Kipling’s words:
East is East
West is West
Never the twain shall meet.
Even though they have the same parents, their considerable
differences in looks, personality, and attitude toward life reflect
the differences between Eastern and Western cultures.
Like the majority of oriental men, Nhan is short, small, and
has a full moon- shaped face. His smooth white skin and small
arms and feet make him look somewhat delicate. Nhan always
likes to wear formal, traditional clothes. For example, on great
holidays or at family nice celebrations Nhan appears in the
traditional black gown, white pants and black silky headband, all
of which make him look like an early twentieth- century
intellectual.
In contrast to Nhan, Hung who is his younger brother by ten

41
years, looks more like an American boxer. He is tall, muscular and
big- boned. He is built straight as an arrow and his face is long
and angular as a western character. Unlike Nhan, Hung has strong
feet and arms, and whereas, Nhan has smooth skin, Hung’s
shoulders and chest are hairy, large and full. Unlike Nhan, too,
Hung likes to wear comfortable T-shirts and jeans or sports
clothes. At a formal occasion, instead of wearing traditional
formal clothes, Hung wears stylish western style suits.
Nhan and Hung also differ in personality. I don’t know how
my father selected their names correctly to reflect their
personalities. Nhan’s name means “patience”, and his patience is
shown in his smile. He has the smile of an ancient Chinese
philosopher that western people can never understand. He always
smiles. He smiles because he wants to make the other person
happy or to make himself happy. He smiles whenever people
speak to him, regardless of whether they are right or wrong. He
smiles when he forgives people who have wronged him. Nhan
likes books, of course, and literature and philosophy. He likes to
walk in the moonlight to think. Nhan also enjoys drinking hot tea
and singing verses. In short, in our family, Nhan is the son who
provides a good example of filial piety and tolerance.
Hung, on the other hand, does not set a good example of
traditional respectful behaviour for his brothers and sisters. His
name means strength, but his strength is self- centered. As a
result, unlike Nhan, Hung only smiles when he is happy. When he

42
talks to people, he looks at their faces. Because of this, my eldest
brother, Nhan considers him very impolite. As one might expect,
Hung does not like philosophy, and literature, instead, he studies
science and technology. Whereas Nhan enjoys tea and classical
verses, Hung prefers to take sun baths and drink Coca- Cola while
he listens to rock and roll music. And like many American youths,
Hung is independent; in fact, he loves his independence more than
he loves his family. He wants to move out of our house and live in
an apartment by himself. He is such an individualist that all the
members in my family say that he is very selfish.
My brothers’ differences do not end with looks and
personalities. Concerning their attitudes toward life, they are as
different as the moon and the sun. My eldest brother Nhan is
concerned with spiritual values. He is affected by Confucian,
Taoist, and Buddhist theories. These theories consider that the
human life is not happy. Therefore, if a man wants to be happy, he
should get out of the competitiveness of life and should not
depend on material objects. For example, if a man is not anxious
to have a new model car, he does not have to worry about how to
make money to buy one. Or, if he does not have a car, he does not
have to worry about the cost of gas. My oldest brother is deeply
affected by these theories, so he never tries hard to make money
to buy conveniences.
In contrast to Nhan, my brother Hung believes that science
and technology serve human beings and that the West defeated

43
the East because the West was further advanced in these fields.
Therefore, each person must compete with nature and with other
people in the world in order to acquire different conveniences,
such as cars, washing machines, and television sets. Hung is
affected by the Western theories of real values; consequently, he
always works hard to make his own money to satisfy his material
needs.
In accordance with the morality of the culture of my
country, I cannot say which one of my brothers is wrong or right.
But I do know that they both want to improve and maintain human
life on his earth. I am very lucky to inherent both sources of
thought from my two older brothers.

Activities:
Activity one:
1- What is the thesis of this essay? What are the points of
comparison?
2- Does this essay focus more on comparison or contrast?
3- Which pattern does the author use? Why do you think he
selected that pattern?
4- Make a detailed outline of this essay. If a topic sentence is
implied, write it out.

Activity Two:

44
Choose one of the following topics to write an essay.
1- Write an essay comparing and contrasting two famous
people.
2- Write an essay contrasting yourself before a particular
event and after the same event. How did you feel before?
How did you feel after?
3- Compare and contrast two teachers of the same subject.

The Composition Developed by Cause and Effect

The cause and effect analysis is an important analytical

skill to develop. To write an essay of that sort, you need to know
that there three types of cause and effect papers. The choice of
one type or another will depend on the nature of the subject and
the purpose of the writer.

1- Multiple causes→ Effect:

When we analyze the causes of something, we usually find that
there are numerous contributing factors or causes; just how many

45
factors depends on the complexity of the problem. Each cause
may or may not be sufficient to produce the effect. Usually,
however, we find that it is a combination of the causes that
produces the results.
Example: The problem of obesity.
What causes obesity? Usually there is not a single cause; rather a
combination of factors leads to obesity:
- Hereditary influences.
- Lack of exercise.
- Slow metabolic rate.
- Overeating.
In this example, we might find that for some people, only
overeating and a lack of exercise lead to obesity. For others, a
slow metabolic rate might suffice. For still others, hereditary
influences might be the cause. Of course in the discussion of
overeating, one might find that behind it lies a deeper cause:
emotional problems. A person might overeat to satisfy emotional
deprivation. Or perhaps some people overeat because they have a
deficiency in a certain enzyme that researchers believe is a factor
in signalling the body to stop eating when it has had enough.
A further examination of the topic might yield even more causes,
such as social or environmental factors. In writing an analysis of
this topic, you could plan to spend about one paragraph on each
of the causes; each paragraph would have to provide an
explanation of the cause to show how it contributes to the effect.

46
Exercise: Choose one of the following topics and write three or
four causes for that effect. Write complete sentences.
- What causes people to emigrate?
- Choose a disease that you are familiar with. What factors
cause it?
- Select a bad habit that you have. Why do you have that bad
habit?

-Organisation of the causal analysis essay.

When discussing multiple causes for an effect, you need to be
aware of the types of causes you are analysing. The causes may
be unrelated to each other, but all are related to the effect. These
are often called factors; they are not causally related to each other,
but they work to contribute to the effect.
When discussing these kinds of causes, arrange the paragraphs
(causes) according to your own preference. However, the most
common principles are:
- Order of familiarity (obvious to less obvious) and,
- Order of interest (less interesting to more interesting).
These two principles are useful when the causes are of equal
significance. When one cause is more significant, order the
paragraphs according to importance, with the most important
cause last. Remember to identify the most important cause as the
most significant.
Causes are not always unrelated, however. Sometimes a cause

47
could not have brought about an effect unless certain conditions
existed. In this case the causes are related to each other.

Example: The incident that launched Europe into world war I was
the assassination of the Austrian heir to the throne, Archduke
Franz Ferdinand, on June 28, 1914, by a young Serb nationalist.
However, it is generally felt that this incident alone would not have
caused the war if certain other conditions had not existed in
Europe at that time. We could mention, for example, economic
rivalries, heightened nationalism, imperialism….
In this kind of causal analysis, the causes that directly precede the
effect are called immediate causes (direct causes) and those
causes that are further removed in time from the effect are called
remote causes (indirect causes).
Although remote causes are also often the most important ones,
they are not always the most important or the most reasonable
ones. When you are analysing causes that are not of equal
importance or that are immediate and remote, it is generally a
good idea to organise the paragraphs beginning with the
immediate and proceeding to the remote or from the less
important to the most important.
The thesis statement for the causal analysis essay: In a causal
analysis essay, the thesis statement does not have to be
persuasive. A topic sentence is being analysed and the central
idea is found in that analysis. A thesis statement for a causal

48
analysis can simply state briefly the causes to be discussed, or it
states briefly the causes to be discussed, or it may express the
most significant cause.

A model essay of causal analysis:

A good life
The people of the Caucasus Mountains of southern Russia

49
have long been famous for attaining extremely old ages. Arab and
Persian chronicles from centuries ago noted the existence of
these longevous peoples. The latest Soviet census report that 70
percent of all people reaching 110 years or more live in the
Caucasus region. An anthropologist described meeting a woman
of 139 years. This does not seem old at all, however, compared to
her first cousin who reached 146 and her great-grandfather who
lived to be 160. When we consider that most people in the United
States expect to live only half that long and that people in some
parts of the developing world will live only one third that long, we
cannot help wondering what the causes are for such long life. Is it
exercise, diet, physical environment, cultural environment, or what?
Anthropologists have concluded that exercise and diet are not as
important as a steady way of life with certain cultural
expectations and roles.
The people in most of the Caucasus Mountain region live a
slow, regular rythmic lifestyle. There is continuity in all of the
physical aspects of their life. First, most of the Caucasians live in
mountain villages in a pastoral setting. They work as farmers,
herders, or gardeners. Their lives are regulated by the rising of the
sun, the steady rhythm of the growing cycle, the harvest, and the
setting sun. Most of the longevous people have always held the
same jobs. They learned their jobs young, and have continued in
the same job until they are well past 100, some working until they
are 120 or 130. The outdoor work and the mountainous terrain

50
provide a good deal of exercise. Anthropologists feel that while
exercise contributes to longevity, the rhythmic lifestyles is more
important. There is also continuity in diet. The people of the
Caucasus very much enjoy their traditional foods and have no
inclination to change. They have eaten the same lean meat, grains,
fruits, and vegetables from childhood to old age. Traditionally
Caucasians are lean people who do not overeat. Like exercise,
anthropologists conclude that it is not the diet itself that is the
secret for old life, although it does contribute. The real secret is
the continuity in diet from birth to death. The consistent,
unchanged diet and regular dietary rhythm allow the body and its
digestive system to become entirely adjusted. Therefore,
physiological stress on the digestive system is at a minimum. The
overall evenness of pace in the Caucasian way of life makes for a
feeling of well-being and encourages longevity.
Another important cause of longevity among the
Caucasians is a stable cultural environment with certain
expectations. First, the goals of the Caucasians do not overreach
the possibilities of attainment. Unlike many Americans who want
to be chairmen of the boards or presidents of the companies,
goals which they can never attain, the goals of the Caucasians
tend to be realistic and attainable within their cultural milieu. Their
goals are more people- oriented. They concentrate on being
hospitable and generous towards others, goals which are not only
attainable, but also contribute to the overall well-being of the

51
social group. Because the goals of the Caucasians are realistic
and attainable, emotional tensions are reduced. This contributes
to long life. Second, the normal expectation within the region is
for long life. Individuals expect to live far beyond the age of 100.
On the other hand, the cultural expectation of people in the United
States is for a maximum life span of about 80 years. These
cultural expectations become self-fulfilling prophecies. Further,
the Caucasians do not expect the old people to sit idly by, but to
participate actively in all phases of life. A stable environment with
realistic goals and expectations is a second cause for longevity
among the Caucasians.
Finally, longevity is also encouraged by the role of old
people in the family and in the community. The Caucasians have
large extended families of may be 300 people and more. This
provides a large network of people with mutual rights and
obligations. The aged are respected as heads of the family. They
make decisions about money, marriages, land sales, and other
matters. They are also expected to be affectionate toward their
grandchildren. The old people are also respected in the
community. They continue to vote, hold office, and make
decisions which will affect the future of the entire community.
Because of their important place ib the family, and in the
community, the aged retain a feeling of individual self-worth and
importance. Retaining a positive self-image reduces physical and
mental problems, thus encouraging a longer life.

52
 In conclusion, then, long life among the people of the
Caucasus is the result of complete involvement in a stable
environment. Like flows continuously from birth to death, creating
a biological and spiritual rhythm. Individuals in tune with the
rhythm have little emotional stress and thus live a long time.
When we think of our society, we know that we cannot become
Caucasians. But, we should realize that these people might point
out ways of dealing with old age.

Exercises: I- Read the essay carefully then, answer the following

questions:
- What is the thesis statement?
- What is the reason discussed in the second paragraph?
- What are the controlling ideas in the next paragraphs?
- Is the writer discussing immediate and remote causes, or
are the causes of equal significance?
- Does the conclusion follow logically?
- Make an outline of this essay.
II- Write an essay stating the causes for pollution in a particular
area or city.

2- Cause→ Multiple Effects:

Just as an effect can have multiple causes, so can a cause have
multiple effects.
Example: Several years ago, most people thought that processed

53
sugar was a relatively harmless sweetener that produced a
pleasant taste, provided a small burst of energy, and perhaps
contributed to tooth decay. There was little concern about the
seemingly minor effects of eating sugar has increased
tremendously; in addition, we have begun to uncover some
unpleasant and serious effects of eating so much sugar. Although
sugar may not be the sole cause of some of the following more
remote effects, research has shown it can contribute to them:
excessive consumption of sugar may lead to: blood sugar
imbalances, tooth decay, hyperactivity in children, weight gain.
When you write an analysis of effects, expect to devote a
paragraph to each effect.

-Organisation of the Effect Analysis Essay:

The principles for organisation are much the same as those for
organising a causal analysis. Effects can also be unrelated
(causally) to each other, though they stem from the same cause.
Although effects can be of equal value or importance, usually
some are more important than others. In this case, organize the
paragraphs dealing with effects according to order of importance.
Like causes, effects can be immediate or remote.
Example: An immediate effect of the earthquake in Boumerdes,
Algeria, in 2002 was the death of hundreds of people; a more
remote effect will be, perhaps, buildings constructed under a safe
and more stringent building code.

54
If the analysis is of effects that occur relatively in the same time
relationship with the cause, ie: they are all basically immediate or
remote, it is a good idea to order the effects according to
importance.
On the other hand, if the discussion is of immediate and remote
effects, begin with the immediate and continue to the remote
(identify the quality of the effect to the reader as ‘immediate,
major…’).

-The thesis statement for an effect analysis essay:

In an effect analysis essay, the thesis statement does not have to
be persuasive.

55
 A model composition of an effect analysis development:
For The Love of Winning
I am an avid contest enterer. From childhood I could never
resist entering contests on cereal boxes, in bubble gum packages,
in newspapers, magazines, or on television. I have tried to win
everything from a pet turtle to a yacht to a home in the mountains
to large sums of money. Well, imagine my surprise after years of
entering and losing at being notified last year that I was a winner!
What had I won for the four-line jingle that I had sent into a
cigarette company? The special delivery letter informed me that I
had been awarded the grand prize of $500.000. After my
immediate excitement, I made great plans to spend the money,
and indeed, I have spent a great deal of it. But perhaps more
interesting than my purchases, now six months after that
memorable day, are the effects of my life of winning a great sum

56
of money. Through this experience, I have come to know other
people and myself better.
The most obvious and immediate effect of winning
$500.000 has been material. I made a list of things I have always
dreamed of having but could never before afford, and I went on
the greatest shopping spree of my life. Within a month I had
bought a new stereo system, an expensive sports car, lots of new
clothes, and a cabin in the woods. And I must say, I am very
pleased with my new purchases. I enjoy listening to records on
my stereo and driving my Porsche to the cabin on weekends. I
have found that I very much appreciate the pleasures of having a
lot of money.
Another effect, and less enjoyable, has been the change in
other people toward me. Within the first month, I found that
people who had hardly spoken to me before were suddenly
« friendly ». I was invited to parties by people I hardly knew and I
was expected to return the invitations. Even with some of my
oldest friends, I was expected to foot the bill on our nights out
together, because I had « all that money ». After a while I became
suspicious of people and their motives, thinking that they only
wanted to be with me for my money. Then I came to evaluate my
friends more carefully. I found only a handful of my oldest friends
were still true friends, not caring about the money. Through it all, I
have become a better judge of character.
Perhaps the most significant effect has been the new

57
understanding I acquired about myself. I think I know who I am
better than I did before I won the money. As I said before, I am
happy with my purchases, however, I do not feel that all my
dreams have been fulfilled. In fact, I have learned that the money
is not all that important to me and that I did not enter the contest
in order to get the money. I have realized that I love the challenge
of a good contest and the possibility that with skill and luck I
could win. In short, I simply love winning. I will enter a contest just
for the challenge. For example the other day as I was reading a
magazine, I saw a contest advertised which asked for a fifty-word
summary of a challenging Physical experience. Without thinking, I
rushed to my desk, put some paper in the typewriter, and began
writing. When I thought about what I was doing, I laughed out loud.
I did not particularly want a seven-day trip to Hawaii, I just wanted
to see if I could win !
Winning $500.000 has resulted in a more comfortable life
style for me, it is true. But more importantly, I now understand
other people and myself a little better. I am quite happy with my
trusted friends, and I know that for little better, I am quite happy
with my trusted friends, and I know that for every television ad or
contest letter that promises riches, I will send off my lucky
number or jingle, not so much for the prize, but for the love of
winning.

Exercises: I- Read the essay carefully then answer the following

58
questions.
- What is the thesis?
- Which kind of effects does the writer begin with?
- What is the controlling idea in the third paragraph?
II- write an essay to discuss the effects of a political or social
change in your country.

3- The causal chain:

This is another type of cause-and-effect analysis. Unlike the
multiple-cause-and-effect analyses, the causes and effects in a
causal chain are always directly related. In fact, they are linked. In
the causal chain, one effect can become a cause of another effect,
which in turn becomes a cause of another effect and so on.
Example: A man had problems at work; as a result, he started to
drink heavily. His heavy drinking eventually caused him to behave
in an abusive way to his wife. His wife’s alienation caused him to
feel even more alone and more of a failure; his depression caused
him to commit suicide.
This example shows how the analysis is like a domino chain.
There are two major uses of the causal chain:
a- It is sometimes useful for explaining one of the
causes in a multiple cause essay.
b- It is used in science to analyse various kinds of
cycles, biological or chemical chains.

59
 A model composition for a causal chain development:
Upsetting the Balance of Nature
The members of a living community exist together in a
particular, balanced relationship, or ecosystem. One animal
species eats another animal species which in turn eats another.
Over years, a balance is worked out among the plants and animals
in a community and it remains basically stable. It is like a huge
puzzle with all of the pieces in their proper places. However, at
times this balance in nature is disturbed, resulting in a number of

60
possibly unforeseen effects. Perhaps a disease results in the near
extinction of one species, leaving another species with no natural
predator. The result can be a terrific increase in that one species’
population. This could further result in the devastation of a shared
food supply, which could in turn affect another species. It is
possible for the disruption in the balance of nature to have natural
causes: disease, drought, fire. Sometimes, however, human
beings intervene in a natural environment, perhaps only slightly
and with good intentions. The result is the same. The balance on
nature becomes unbalanced and results in an entire chain
reaction of unforeseen and unwanted effects.
A good example of this occured in the Antilles in the 1870,s
.Sugar cane was a major crop there, but rats were eating and
nesting in the cane, causing a great deal of damage. The
mongoose , a one –and-a-half-foot-long mammal of the East
Indies, was known to be an excellent rat hunter. Several males
and females were imported in 1872, and laws were established
that forbade the killing of them or their offspring. The mongoose
flourished in the Antilles. After ten years it had multiplied
abundantly and had significantly reduced the rat population.
Consequently, damage to the cane fields was greatly reduced. It
seemed that the scheme to add another piece to the ecological
puzzle in the Antilles had been successful.
However, that is not the end of the story. The influence of
the mongoose did not stop there. As the rat population decreased

61
and the mongoose population increased, the mongoose wanted
to enlarge its menu. It attacked young pigs and goats, game,
poultry, and began to destroy bananas, maize, and pineapples.
Because the mongoose could not be hunted, its numbers
increased rapidly, and it became a terrible pest. All of the
indigenous animals suffered damage. The mongoose learned to
enjoy the native birds, snakes, lizards, and turtles and their eggs.
Now, it was specifically these animals that kept the local insect
population in check. There were in the ecosystem of the Antilles a
number of beetles, borers, and other insects that lived on and in
the sugar cane. Until that time, they had not caused significant
damage to the cane, because they were the natural food of so
many local animals that kept their number down. However, as the
birds, snakes, lizards, and turtles disappeared, the insect
population began to increase. With no natural predators to keep
them in check, the insects began to do more and more damage to
the cane fields.
Finally, the people of the Antilles realized that the
introduction of the mongoose had caused a finely and delicately
balanced system to go awry. The law against killing the
mongoose was rescinded, and the mongoose population was
reduced. Gradually, the different members of the plant and animal
community came back into balance with each other and
equilibrium was reestablished. However, the human members of
the community would not soon forget that a single change in an

62
ecosystem can cause a chain reaction that results in completely
unforeseen and sometimes unwanted effects.

Exercises: I-Read the essay carefully then answer the following

questions:
- What is the topic of this essay? What is the central idea?
- What is the incident in the Antilles an example of?
- Is this causal chain logical? Is the relationship among the
causes and effects clearly and logically presented?
- Does the conclusion logically follow?
- Make an outline of this essay?
-
II- Choose a social problem like alcoholism, poverty, or divorce to
write a causal chain.
-Transitions and Expressions for Cause and Effect:
In writing cause-and-effect essays, transitions are necessary to
introduce causes and effects. This is a list of useful transitions
and expressions. Use them to achieve coherence in your essays.
Because of, as a result, caused by, results from, so, for, thus,
therefore, consequently, as a result, for this reason.

The Essay developed by definition

A definition essay will share your special understanding

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about some idea or thing. Sometimes a definition will prove to be
a small but important part of an essay; sometimes a definition will
be the sole work of an entire essay. When it is the major impetus
of an essay, there are several points to remember.
First, don’t rely on that old cliché of the dictionary or encyclopedia
definition. Even if your intent is to show how inadequate or wrong-
headed the dictionary might be, this device has been used far too
often to be effective. The point of your essay is to provide your
reader with a new way of looking at things- your own way.
One way of defining something is to say that it is not. If you
are defining the idea of “home”, you could begin by suggesting
that the old saying “there is no place like home” is silly because
there are, in fact, many places like home- or you could insist that
home is really not a place at all. The opportunity to define is an
opportunity to exercise your poetic imagination, to show how
most people’s sense of something is faulty or inadequate and that
there is a better understanding (yours!) to consider.
In selecting a topic to define, look for something that you can
define within your own experience and that will allow your poetic
imagination some room to play. If you try to define something
that is beyond the comprehension of your paper or your own
experience, the task will become overwhelming and get mired
down in details or abstractions. You could write a book trying to
define a concept such as conservatism or liberalism and you still
would not have said that more than two other people would agree

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with. Students would be wise to avoid abstract notions such as
patriotism, beauty, justice, love….
On the other hand, it can be useful to take a rather abstract notion
and put a spin on it. There does not appear to be much a point in
defining a student, for example, but defining what we mean by a
good student could be interesting. Push that definition to the limit
to make a special point. A good student is not necessarily one
that earns good grades or even one that does his best, a good
student is one that makes the teacher feel like a good teacher. Or
try defining a good teacher, a good parent, a good doctor. In any
case, if you are going to define something that everyone else has
some idea about, you will need to shed fresh, even surprising light
upon your subject.

Developing a definition:
A definition can be developed in a number of ways.
Example: A definition of a business management concept such as
Total Quality Management (TQM) could begin with a history (a
kind of process paper) of its inception in Japanese management
systems, its migration across the pacific, its implementation and
transformation in American systems, and its predicted demise. It
could also (or instead) include examples of the kind of labour
conflict that TQM is supposed to eliminate or alleviate. Or it could
describe TQM as a process, the steps involved in its
implementation, or involve an analysis of its principles and its

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place in management theory. Contrasts to other management
theories might be appropriate, demonstrating what TQM is not as
well as what it is. We could even think of it as a cause and effect
situation in which we describe how TQM responds to certain
needs in the workplace.
A definition essay is not limited to any one method of
development and it may, in fact, employ more than one method at
once.

Some rhetorical points about defining things:

- Avoid using the phrases “is where” and “is when” in your
definition.
Examples: “TQM is when management and labour agree…”
“A computer virus is where….”
- Avoid circular definitions (repeating the defined term within the
predicate, the definition itself):
Example: “A computer virus is a virus that destroys or disrupts
software”.
- Avoid using a too narrow definition, one that would unduly limit
the scope of your paper.
Example: “Reggae music is sung on the Caribbean island of
Jamaica”.

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 The model composition for a development by
definition
What is a Yankee?
To most of the world, a Yankee is an American, anybody
who lives in the United States. It is not always a pleasant
connotation; in fact, “Yankee, go home!” calls up images of angry
Latin American mobs protesting the oppression of American
imperialist policies.
To most Americans, though, the word Yankee means either
the pin-striped New York baseball team or the Northern forces in
the American civil war, the soldiers from north of the Mason-Dixon
Line. In time, though, the idea that the word Yankee suggests has
shrunk geographically until it is on the verge of extinction.
Perhaps the most famous Yankee of all (no offense to the
musical Damn Yankees ! Intended) has star billing in Mark
Twain’s novel Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court. I have
lived most of my life, now, in that Southern New England State.
And I can assure you there are precious few real Yankees around
who might have lived in Connecticut at one time. As television and

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other forms of mass media invade our homes and tend to
diminish regional differences, to make Americans more and more
homogeneous, the Yankee might be one of the first genuine
American characters to disappear.
A neighbour of mine claims he knows what a real Yankee is
all about. Years ago, he says, he lived next door to one. It seems
his plumbing was acting up and he’d actually removed the toilet
from the floor and taken it out into the backyard to do some
surgery on it. Now, he knew that his neighbour, who happened to
be a professional plumber as well as the putative Yankee, was
well aware of the fact that he was struggling to fix his toilet, as he
knew that his neighbour was home, doing nothing in particular
that day, probably watching from the kitchen window. But would
he come over and offer to help? No way. But when my friend
finally gave up and went over and asked for assistance, the
plumber- neighbour not only agreed to help, he did so gleefully. He
spent the entire afternoon finding and fixing the problem and
helping to return the toilet to its proper place. And wouldn’t accept
a dime, of course.
According to my friend, that’s the first tenet of yankee-ness.
You must never offer help because that makes the person to
whom you have offered assistance “beholden” to you. And a
Yankee must never be “beholden” to anyone. (That’s how the
word for this concept is said, and so we must spell it that way,
too.) To be beholden means that you owe something to someone

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else. Now, everyone in the world can owe something to the
Yankee, but the Yankee must never owe anyone else anything, and
he can’t really understand someone who would be willing to be
beholden. Thus, he will not offer help- oh, may be in a real
emergency, he would be as good a Samaritan as anyone else-
until asked. When asked, it’s another story. You will get more help
than you can imagine, help in great abundance, more than you
could ever deserve or pay back. So it’s not that Yankees are stingy;
on the contrary, a Yankee is generous to a fault. But there is a
sense of reserve that prohibits the true Yankee from offering help
before being asked. The sense of inviolate space is paramount:
“Good fences make good neighbours”, says the neighbour in
Robert Frost’s poem, “Mending wall”, and the Yankee will not
cross the fence until asked.
Another friend of mine knows someone, a Yankee, a chap
born so far north in Vermont that he’s nearly Canadian, who
comes over to help with his taxes every year. To re-pay him, my
friend must resort to trickery, leaving something on the doorstep
in the middle of the night. To offer anything else, up front, might
tip the beholden scales in his favour and that would be risky.
That’s what I think defines this dying breed of the American
Yankee: an extraordinary sense of balance and reserve, a holding
off- and yet, behind all that reserve, a reservoir of generosity and
friendliness that can be nearly overwhelming.
Exercises: I-Read the essay then answer the following questions:

69
 1- What is the thesis?
2- What type(s) of development does the writer use in this
essay?
3- Does the conclusion follow logically?
4- Write an outline of this essay.
II- Write an essay developed by definition on the following subject:
What is nationalism?

Expository Development by Logical Division (classification)

When analysing a subject, you break it down into parts to

study the relationship of the parts or the nature of the parts. If you
were analysing the Us government, for example, you would
probably begin by dividing the government into three branches –
The legislative, executive, and judicial- and then by studying how
these branches operate to make up the government. The breaking
down of the Us government into parts is analysis by division.

The principle of division:

When you divide, you classify the members of a group into

70
categories whose members share similar characteristics. But on
what basis do you assign the members to categories? When you
classify, you need one principle of classification: classification
according to common characteristics. Avoid using more than one
principle because in this way categories may overlap. Most of the
principles of classification are of three types:
-inferior to superior,
-chronology,
-location
Once you have decided on a principle of classification,
check to see if the classification includes all of the members of
the group.
For instance, if you are classifying the students in a class,
the categories might cover each and every one of the students in
that class, if at all possible. If the students in a class were
classified as brilliant or stupid, an obvious group – the average
students- would be left out. To avoid omission of members, and
to avoid oversimplifying the analysis, therefore, it is generally a
good idea to divide the group into more than two categories. For
student essays, three or four categories are the average.

Organisation of the classification (division) essay:

After deciding on the principle of classification and dividing
the group into categories, you need to discuss each of those
categories. In the developmental paragraphs, it is useful to devote

71
one paragraph to each category. When discussing the category,
include the following points:
1- Identify the group. If it has a special name, identify it.
2- Describe or define the category. What are the general
characteristics of the members of this category? Once you
have established what the category is according to your
classification, discuss the common characteristics of the
members.
3- Give examples: often it is helpful to illustrate the
characteristics (which are generalisations) by giving one or
two examples of typical members of the category.

In the second and subsequent developmental paragraphs, add

another point.
4- Distinguish this category from the other categories:
Discuss the characteristics of the second category by
comparing and contrasting them with those of the first
category. Doing this will help to distinguish between the
categories. How does group 1 really differ from group 2.
(for coherence, try to discuss the characteristics in the
same order of the previous group).
In these respects, classification papers are a combination of
example and comparison and contrast essays.

Introducing the categories:

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 In an introductory paragraph, it is often a good idea to
introduce the categories by mentioning the names of the groups.
The thesis statement for the classification essay can be one that
simply introduces the classification and the categories.
Example: the teachers in this college can be classified according
to the way they dress: those who dress formally, those who dress
semi-formally, and those who dress casually.
Although there is no law that says that the categories must be
identified in the introduction, identifying them will help keep the
essay organised.
When you name the categories in the introduction, express them
in parallel structure; that is, express them in the same parts of
speech.
Example:
There are those who like movies, those who hate movies, and
those who are indifferent toward movies.

Transitions for classification:

A classification essay is really a combination of example and
comparison and contrast essay. Therefore, the transitions for this
type are generally the same as those for the example and
comparison and contrast essays.
1- Transitions to introduce categories: first, second, next, last

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another, in addition.
2- Transitions to show similarities and differences: unlike,
however, like, in contrast…
3- Transitions to introduce examples: a good example, an
excellent example, for example, typical…
4- Transitions to show the importance of the class: Example: Of
the three types of teachers, the negative teachers are the least
agreeable. Fortunately, this group is in the minority.

The model composition:

College Teachers

Before I came to college, I was told not to expect my

professors to care much about me or my work; indeed, I was told

74
that I would be lucky if any of them even knew my name! But
when I came to the university, I soon learned that these
generalisations were too broad. Not all teachers are the same. In
fact, I have found that most of the professors here at State fall
into three categories: the positive teachers, the neutral teachers,
and the negative teachers.
The positive teachers are by far the most agreeable
teachers. A positive teacher is one who seems interested in his
subject and his students. The first thing a positive teacher does is
try to learn all of the students’ names. This kind of teacher allows
for questions and discussions in class and does not seem to
mind if a student disagrees with him. A positive teacher shows his
interest out of class as well. Not only is he available for
conferences, but he encourages students to see him if they need
help. The students tend to feel comfortable in the presence of this
teacher. A good example of a positive teacher is my French
teacher, Monsieur Poirrot. He always allows time during the class
hour for some free discussion. Once, when some of the students
in our class were having trouble with the pronunciation of the
rolled “r” in French, he took several hours of his own time to work
with us in very small groups in his office until we had mastered
the sound. Unfortunately, teachers like Monsieur Poirrot are
relatively small in number.
Unlike the positive teachers, the neutral teachers are not
very agreeable. In general, the neutral teachers just do not seem

75
interested in either the subject or the students. These teachers
usually do not learn all of the students’ names, though they may
learn a few. Their classes tend to be more boring than the positive
teachers’ classes because they allow less time for discussion.
However, like the positive teacher, the neutral teacher allows for
questions and some discussion, but he does not seem to care if
the students are interested enough to want to discuss the subject
or not. Although the neutral teacher is available for conferences,
he does not encourage students to come see him for help; as a
result, most students feel slightly uncomfortable in his presence,
especially during a conference. Professor Hilton, my economics
professor, is typical of the neutral teacher. She comes into class,
opens her notebook, lectures, allows questions and some
discussion, and then leaves class. When I had a problem
understanding one of the concepts we had discussed in class one
day, I went to her office for a conference. She was polite enough
but did not make any special effort to see that I understood the
concept during the conference. She more or less repeated what
she had said in class. Very few students go to see her for a
conference because they think she is simply not interested. From
what I have gathered in my conversation with other students, the
neutral teachers make up the largest category.
Of the three types of teachers, the negative teachers are
the least agreeable. These are the kind that every student dreads.
Not only do they not learn the students’ names, but they seem

76
almost hostile both in class and out of class. In class, the
negative teachers, like the neutral teachers, primarily lecture; they
may want the students to learn, but unlike the neutral and positive
teachers, the negative teachers allow virtually no questions and
no discussion. The negative teachers also seem inimical to the
idea of having conferences if at all possible. An excellent example
of a negative teacher is Dr. Wallen, my physics professor. His
classes are twice as boring as any class of a neutral teacher, and
he is often intimidating in class. One day, for example, when one
student asked him to repeat his explanation of the theory of
relativity, he became quite angry and refused to repeat what he
had just lectured on. The negative teacher is too often inflexible;
in fact, he seems more like a machine than a human being.
Fortunately, this group is in the minority.
The type of teacher students get can directly affect how
much they learn. Obviously, students learn more from a positive
teacher; unfortunately, as we have seen, this type makes up the
minority. Since the mission of the university is to educate,
administrators should try to get the neutral and negative teachers
to improve their teaching methods and attitudes; otherwise, the
administrators should consider dismissing at least the negative
teachers and make every effort to hire those teachers who show
promise of being positive ones.

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Exercises:
I- Answer the following questions:
- What is the thesis?
- What seems to be the writer’s purpose for writing about these
kinds of teachers?
- What is the principle of classification used in this essay?
- What is the controlling idea about the positive teachers?
- What are the characteristics of the positive teachers?
- What is the controlling idea about the neutral teachers? the
negative teachers?
- What are the characteristics of the neutral teachers? The
negative teachers?
- Does the conclusion appear to be logical?
- Write an outline of this essay.

II- Write an essay classifying people’s attitudes toward: work,

leisure time, education, travel. (choose only one option from the
list).

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 The Argumentative Essay
An argument ensues when two parties disagree about
something. One party gives an opinion and offers reasons in
support of it, and the other party gives a different opinion and
offers reasons in support of his or her stand.
An argument must be argued logically. To be so, it should
be based on an opinion that can be supported by evidence such
as facts.
For example: When the three Mile nuclear power plant broke down
in 1979, debate ensued concerning the whole issue of nuclear
power. Those in favour of continuing the construction of nuclear
power plants argued against those who wanted to ban further
construction of the plants.
The issue was whether or not the United States should ban further
construction. The proponents said yes and gave their reasons; the
opponents said no and gave their reasons. There were definitely
two sides to that issue, but more importantly, it was an issue that
was arguable (arguments of belief or faith, preference, or facts
are not arguable).
When you write an argumentative essay, you attempt to

79
change the reader’s mind, to convince him/her to agree with your
point of view or opinion. The argumentative essay attempts to be
highly persuasive and logical. Your thesis should be
argumentative. An argumentative thesis takes a side of an issue
and proposes a course of action (often expressed by the modal
should).
Example: In the argument concerning the power plant, the thesis
for a paper on this topic might be:
“The U.S. should ban further construction of nuclear power plants”.
Or, someone else might argue:
“The U.S. should continue building nuclear power plants”.
When you write an argumentative essay, consider the
audience. Remember that your purpose is to convince the reader
that your position is the better one. Begin by assuming that your
reader disagrees with you. Next, remember that although the
reader disagrees with you, that does not mean that he or she is
any less intelligent than you. Avoid attacking the reader. Address
him/her by writing objectively, logically, and respectfully. The
most important thing to consider about the audience is why they
hold their opinion and the reasons they might use to support their
opinion. It is important to try to understand your opponent’s point
of view. If you do not understand his reasons and you just argue
your own reasons, you are not likely to convince the reader at all.
How can you convince someone who disagrees with you?
First, try to understand what points need to be argued. You must

80
be sure that you understand the “heart” of the issue. This step
comes by thinking of both sides of the issue and determining
what the most important points are. If you know your stand on the
issue, and you know what point or points you have to prove, then
you are on the way to construct a logical argument.
Formal arguments are based on logic. There are two kinds of
formal arguments: Inductive and Deductive.
Induction refers to the process of examining particular details and
arriving at a conclusion based on that evidence.
Deduction refers to the process of arriving at a conclusion about a
particular case based on a generalisation (you begin with a
generalisation and apply it to a specific case)

Explaining and supporting the reasons:

There is no one particular pattern of organisation for an
argumentative paragraph. As far as the purpose is to convince or
persuade, you can use any type of organisation and support that
is suggested by the reason you give (you could develop your
reasons by cause, effect, example, or process). However, you
must be certain to show the progression of your logic. At all times,
you should strive to use details and examples as support. Your
best support is facts. Facts include data that have been
objectively proved and are data that have been objectively proved
and are generally accepted, such as historical facts, scientific
data, statistics…. To obtain facts you may be required to undergo

81
some research.
Avoid using as facts statements from religious books such as the
Koran or the Bible. Although those whose faith is based on either
of these (or other) books regard them as containing the truth,
using them as support would be ineffective in an argumentative
paper. Your reader may have a different religious belief and may
not accept your data as facts.
Another less effective, though sometimes acceptable type
of support includes examples drawn from personal experience. It
is fine to use examples especially if the topic concerns something
you are close to, but the danger is in drawing hasty
generalisations from too few examples. You should remember
that examples should be typical, selected from a sufficient
number of examples to prove the case.

Planning the argumentative essay:

The argumentative essay should contain the following
characteristics:
1- It should introduce and explain the issue or case. The
reader needs to understand the issue being argued. It is
often necessary to define any ambiguous terms that are
key to the discussion. Part of good arguing is clear
communication, and clear communication requires that
each party understands the terms being used.
2- It should offer reasons and support for those reasons. The

82
 essay should prove its point.
3- It should refute opposing arguments. It is this
characteristic that is more particular to the argumentative
essay than to expository essays. Since there are two sides
to the issue, and since the writer wants to convince the
reader that he is right, not only must he prove his own case,
but he should also prove that the opponent is wrong, or at
least that his points are more valid or significant. Refute
means to prove wrong by argument.
4- If an opponent does have a valid point, concede that point
and then go on to show that your points are more
important anyway.
5- The conclusion should logically flow from the argument. It
can summarize the main points and reassert the thesis. It
is very common, in an argumentative essay, to make a
demand for some action or to offer alternatives.

Organization of the argumentative essay:

The basic workable approach that is commonly used as a pattern
for the argumentative essay is the following:
1- Introduction: Sometimes broken into two paragraphs: the
first one introducing the problem and the second one
explaining additional information or providing definitions.
2- Reasons: Spend one paragraph for each reason. Two or
three reasons are typical.

83
 3- Refutation: Depending on how many points the writer
wishes to address, the refutation can take from one to
three paragraphs.
4- Conclusion.
Note: It is possible that the refutation appears before the reasons.

The model composition

Proficiency Examinations- Who needs them?
“I’m frustrated!” These were the two words of a friend of
mine the other day, and international student on an Folvisa
studying at the university. Although he is a junior in electrical
engineering and doing well in his engineering courses, he has
again failed the English Department’s proficiency examination in
composition. And he is not the only one. I know several

84
international students who can pass differential calculus with no
problem, but cannot seem to get out of the freshman English
because of the proficiency exam. As you know, here at State to
pass freshman English you must be able to write a 500-word
essay in fifty minutes with no more than two “major” errors and
five “minor” errors. While most native speakers of English manage
to do this after two or three semesters of freshmen English, non-
native speakers have a much more difficult time. The reason for
this is obvious. Non- native speakers need to spend some of their
fifty minutes looking up new vocabulary words, carefully going
over grammar constructions, and looking everywhere for a
missing third- person S. While international students may have
more original ideas than native speakers, they may fail for
superficial grammatical reasons. This seems very unfair to me. It
seems clear that international students should be considered
special cases, and therefore the composition proficiency
requirements as now stated should not apply.
The case of international students at an American
university is indeed special. First, most international students are
using English as their second language. When it comes to writing
a composition, international students using a second language
usually require more time than native speakers. International
students must spend part of their fifty minutes looking up words,
checking over grammar constructions, and rephrasing tricky
idioms. Furthermore, the composition proficiency exam is biased

85
against international students. As you know it counts grammar
errors, which often have nothing to do with meaning. A good
example of this is the complement after verbs. Often international
students have very good ideas and concentrate on expressing
them. Then they fail because they use an “ing” participle instead
of an infinitive. For most American speakers of English, the
complements after verbs are automatic; they do not have to think
about them at all. Even if native speakers do not have good ideas,
they can still pass the test because they do not make any
grammar errors. Therefore, it seems to me that international
students should not be judged so severely on grammar, but
should be judged on the quality of their ideas.
My opponents might argue that international students need
the level of English indicated by the exam to get through their
other courses. They fear that international students will fail their
math, science, history, and psychology if they cannot write
compositions. This is not true. First, I would estimate that about
75 percent of international students are majoring in maths or
science. In these classes, professors do problems on the board or
demonstrations in the laboratory. Virtually no English composition
skills are necessary. For further proof, I can give several other
examples,, like my friends above, who are proving every day that
they can do very well (A’s and B’s) in their math and science
courses without having passed the composition test. It seems
clear that international students do not need to write English as

86
well as my opponents’ think they do. But what about history and
psychology courses, courses that normally require a certain
amount of writing skills? Here too, I can easily show that the
proficiency level demanded on the test is not necessary. On the
sophomore level, most introductory courses in history and
psychology are mass lecture courses in which multiple choice
tests, not essay tests, are given. As long as international students
can read the textbooks and tape record the lectures, they can
most likely pass these courses with no more writing than a circle
around the correct letter. The level of proficiency that the
composition requires is simply not necessary for more
international students to pass courses in an American university.
Perhaps one might argue that the proficiency requirements
are not necessary for American students, either. However, here, I
must point out several things. First, part of the point of writing
composition is to express yourself well in language. Since English
is the first language for most Americans, they surely need to have
this skill in their native language. And because most native
speakers rarely study composition thoroughly in high school, they
really do need to have a thorough study of it the college level. (Of
course, if they have studied in high school, they can generally
pass the test with no problem). On the other hand, many
international students have studied composition in their own
language quite thoroughly in high school. Furthermore, in terms of
future careers, American students might need to write well in

87
English for their future careers. But most international students
will not need English for their career when they go back home;
they will use their own language. Since they have studied
composition in high school, they are most likely adequately
prepared in composition skills.
It seems clear, then, that the case of international students
at American universities is special. They are using a second
language and this fact should be taken into consideration when
the English Department reads the final proficiency tests. Further,
since the level of proficiency required on the test is not necessary
for most students to pass their courses, I would propose that the
standard used to judge international student papers be relaxed or
done away with. After all, if students can show that they can pass
their other courses, why should the university block their way with
superficial but often insurmountable barriers?
Activities:
I- Answer the following questions:
1- What is the issue discussed by the writer?
2- What is the thesis statement?
3- What is the topic of paragraph 2?
4- Where does the refutation begin in the essay? What is the first
point that the writer refutes?
5- Is the argument convincing? If so, why? If not, why not?
6- Does the conclusion logically follow?
7- Does the writer concede any points? Should some points be

88
conceded? What points?
8- Make an outline of this essay.

II- Write an argumentative essay on the following topic:

Teachers are badly paid; therefore their salaries should be raised.

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 Letter writing (formal and informal letters)

I- Formal letter writing:

-Rules for writing formal letters in English:
In English there are a number of conventions that should be used
when writing a formal or business letter. Furthermore, you try to
write as simply and as clearly as possible, and not to make the
letter longer than necessary. Remember not to use informal
language like contractions.
-Addresses:
1- Your address: The return address should be written in the top
right- hand corner of the letter.
2- The address of the person you are writing to: The inside
address should be written on the left, starting below your address.
-Date:
Different people put the date on different sides of the page. You
can write this on the right or the left on the line after the address
you are writing to. Write the month as a word.
- Salutation or greeting:
1- Dear Sir or Madam,
If you do not know the name of the person you are writing to, use
this. It is always advisable to try to find out a name.

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2- Dear Mr Jenkins,
If you know the name, use the title (Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms, Dr, etc.)
and the surname only. If you are writing to a woman and do not
know if she uses Mrs or Miss, you can use Ms, which is for
married and single.
- Ending a letter:
1- Yours Faithfully
If you do not know the name of the person, end the letter this way.
2- Yours Sincerely
If you know the name of the person, end the letter this way.
3- Your signature
Sign your name, then, print it underneath the signature. If you
think the person you are writing to might not know whether you
are male or female, put your title in brackets after your name.
- Content of a formal letter
First paragraph
The first paragraph should be short and state the purpose of the
letter- to make an enquiry, complain, request something, etc.
The paragraph or paragraphs in the middle of the letter should
contain the relevant information behind the writing of the letter.
Most letters in English are not very long. Keep the information to
the essentials and concentrate on organising it in a clear and
logical manner rather than expanding too much.
Last paragraph
The last paragraph of a formal letter should state what action you

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expect the recipient to take- to refund, send you information, etc.
- Abbreviations used in letter writing:
The following abbreviations are widely used in letters:
♦asap = as soon as possible
♦cc = carbon copy ( when you send a copy of a letter to more
than one person, you use this abbreviation to let them know)
♦enc = enclosure (when you include other papers with your letter)
♦pp = per procurationem (a Latin phrase meaning that you are
signing the letter on somebody else’s behalf; if they are not there
to sign it themselves, etc)
♦ps = postscript (when you want to add something after you’ve
finished and signed
♦pto ( informal) = please turn over (to make sure that the other
person knows the letter continues on the other side of the page)
♦RSVP = please reply
-The covering letter:
A covering letter is the one that accompanies your CV when you
are applying for a job. Here is a fairly conventional plan for the
layout of the paragraphs.
Opening paragraph
Briefly identify yourself and the position you are applying for. Add
how you found out about the vacancy.
Paragraph 2
Give the reasons why you are interested in working for the
company and why you wish to be considered for that particular

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post. State your relevant qualifications and experience, as well as
your personal qualities that make you a suitable candidate.
Paragraph 3
Inform them that you have enclosed your current CV and add any
further information that you think could help your case.
Closing paragraph
Give your availability to interview, thank them for their
consideration, restate your interest and close the letter.

The letter of enquiry:

A letter of enquiry is when you are approaching a company
speculatively, that is you are making an approach without their
having advertised or announced a vacancy.
Opening paragraph
Introduce yourself briefly and give your reason for writing. Let
them know of the kind of position you are seeking, why you are
interested and how you heard about them.
Paragraph 2
Show why their company in particular interests you, mention your
qualifications and experience along with any further details that
might make them interested in seeing you.
Paragraph 3
Refer to your enclosed CV and draw their attention to any
particularly important points you would like them to focus on it.

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Closing paragraph
Thank them, explain your availability for interview and restate your
enthusiasm for their company and desire to be considered for
posts that might as yet be unavailable.

II- Friendly/ Personal letters

Personal letters, also known as friendly letters and social notes
normally have five parts
1- The Heading: This includes the address, line by line, with
the last line being the date. Skip a line after the heading.
The heading is indented to the middle of the page. If using
preaddressed stationery, add just the date.
2- The Greeting: The greeting always ends with a comma
.The greeting may be formal, beginning with the word
“dear” and using the person’s given name or relationship, or
it it may be informal if appropriate. Formal: Dear Uncle Jim,
Dear Mr. Wilkins. Informal: Hi Joe, Greetings
(occasionally very personal greetings may end with an
exclamation point for emphasis).
3- The body: Also known as the main text. This includes the
message you want to write. Normally in a friendly letter, the
beginning of paragraphs is indented. If not indented, be
sure to skip a space between paragraphs. Skip a line after

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 the greeting and before the close.
4- The complementary close: This short expression is always
a few words on a single line. It ends in a comma. It should
be indented to the same column as the heading. Skip one
to three spaces (two is usual) for the signature line.
5- The signature line: Type or print your name. The
handwritten signature goes above this line and below the
close. The signature line and the handwritten signature are
indented to the same column as the close. The signature
should be written in blue or black ink. If the letter is quite
informal, you may omit the signature line as long as you
sign the letter.
Postscript: If your letter contains a postscript, begin it with P.S.
and end it with your initials. Skip a line after the signature line
to begin the postscript.

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 The Research Paper

What is a research paper?

A research paper presents the results of your
investigations on a selected topic. Based on your own thoughts
and the facts and ideas you have gathered from a variety of
sources, a research paper is a creation that is uniquely yours. The
experience of gathering, interpreting, and documenting
information, developing and organizing ideas and conclusions,
and communicating them clearly will prove to be an important and
satisfying part of your education.

Gathering materials:
Once your topic has been approved, begin to gather
information from authoritative reference sources: pertinent books,
encyclopedias, and articles in magazines, journals, and
magazines. Librarians will show you how to use the various
research tools within the library and may suggest other sources of
information. Important new resources are now available to you
through electronic services which provide many learning and

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reference tools as well as access to the internet, where you can
often discover an abundance of information.
Depending on the sources available and the length requirements
of your assignment, you may find it necessary to widen or restrict
the scope of your topic.

Taking notes:
As you examine each source, make a separate note of each
fact or quotation you might want to use in your paper. You may
need to use index cards when preparing notes. Be sure to identify
the source of the information on the listing (include the author’s
name and page number on which the information appears). Try to
summarize the information in your words (paraphrasing). Use
quotation marks if you copy the information exactly. (This rule
should apply whether you are copying a great deal of material or
only a phrase). Give each listing a simple descriptive.
Your listings –whether they appear on index cards or within some
format on your computer- will now provide the authoritative basis
for your paper’s content and documentation. By arranging and
rearranging the lists and using your descriptive headings, you may
well discover a certain order or different categories which will help
you prepare an outline. You may need additional information or
that some of the listings may not be appropriate and should be
set aside or discarded.

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Preparing and using an outline:
Using an outline can help you organize your material and
can also help you discover connections between pieces of
information that you were not aware of when you first conceived
the plan of your paper. It can also make you aware of material
that is not really relevant to the purposes of your paper or material
that you have covered before and should therefore be removed.
A working outline might be only an informal list of topics and
subtopics which you are thinking of covering in your paper.
Sometimes, however, an instructor might require that a working
outline be submitted at the beginning of your work; then your
instructor might suggest ways in which the work needs to be
further developed or cut back. Your instructor might also see that
you are trying to accomplish too much or too little for the scope
of the assignment he or she has in mind. The working outline can
be revised as you discover new material and get new ideas that
ought to go into your paper. Most word processing programs
have outlining features with automatic formatting that make it
easy to create and revise outlines. It is a good idea to keep copies
of old outlines in a computer folder in case new versions of the
outline lead you in false directions that you will later have to
abandon.
A final outline should enhance the organization and coherence of
your research paper. Instructors sometimes require that a final
outline be submitted along with the final version of your paper.

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Material that is not relevant to the purpose of your paper as
revealed in your outline should be excised from the paper; if
portions of your outline seem weak in comparison to others, more
research may be required to create a sense of balance in your
argument and presentation. Outlines can be organised according
to your purposes. Are you attempting to show the chronology of
some historical development, the cause –and – effect
relationship between one phenomenon and another, the process
by which something is accomplished, or the logic of some
position? Are you defining or analyzing something? comparing or
contrasting one thing to another? Presenting an argument (one
side or both)? In any case, try to bring related material together
under general headings and arrange sections so they relate
logically to each other. An effective introduction will map out the
journey your reader is about to take, and a satisfactory conclusion
will wrap up the sequence of ideas in a nice package.
A final outline can be written as a topic outline, in which you use
only short phrases to suggest ideas, or as a sentence outline, in
which you use full sentences (even very brief paragraphs) to show
the development of ideas more fully. If your instructor requires an
outline, follow consistently whichever plan he or she prefers.

Plagiarism:
Using someone else’s ideas or phrasing and representing
those ideas or phrasing as our own, either on purpose or through

99
carelessness, is a serious offence known as plagiarism. “ideas or
phrasing” includes written or spoken material, of course- from
whole papers and paragraphs to sentences, and, indeed, phrases-
but it also includes statistics, lab results, art work, etc. “Someone
else” can mean a professional source, such as a published writer
or critic in a book, magazine, encyclopedia, or journal; an
electronic resource; another student at our school or anywhere
else.
The penalty for plagiarism is usually determined by the instructor
teaching the course involved. It could involve failure for the paper
and it could mean failure for the entire course and even expulsion
from school.

Working with quotations:

Quotations that constitute fewer than five lines in you paper
should be set off with quotation marks “ “ and be incorporated
within the normal flow of your text. For material exceeding that
length, omit the quotation marks and indent the quoted language
one inch from your left- hand margin. If an indented quotation is
taken entirely from one paragraph, the first line should be even
with all the other lines in that quotation; however, if an indented
quotation comes from two or more paragraphs, indent the first
line of each paragraph an additional one- quarter inch.

Research paper’s format:

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Paper: Use white, twenty- pound,81/2- by 11- inch paper.
Margins: Except for page numbers, leave one inch margins all
around the text of your paper- left side, right side, and top and
bottom. Paragraphs should be indented half an inch; set- off
quotations should be indented an inch from the left margin.
Spacing: According to the MLA Guide the research paper must be
double-spaced, including quotations, notes, and the list of works
cited.
Heading and title: Your research paper does not need a title page.
The title should be neither underlined nor written in all capital
letters. Capitalize only the first, last, and principal words of the
title. Titles might end with a question mark or an exclamation
mark if that is appropriate, but not in a period.

Page numbers:
Number your pages consecutively throughout the manuscript
(including the first page) in the upper right hand corner of each
page, one- half inch from the top.
Tables and figures:
Tables should be labelled ‘Table”, given an Arabic numeral, and
captioned (with those words flush to the left- hand- margin). Other
material such as photographs, images, charts, and line-drawings
should be labelled “figure”.

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 Narrative writing

There is no proper topic for writing a narrative essay. It can

be about a variety of personal experiences. You, the writer, have
the right to say what you want about your personal experience.
You can write about anything, for instance, the worst day of your
life, your last birthday…. No topic or subject is off- limits; therefore,
there are endless opportunities to write an essay about your
personal point of view of what happened. Often, the reason
behind wanting to write a personal essay is unclear. Once the

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writer begins and the events are recorded and recounted, it
becomes clear that the writer is searching to find the meaning, the
universal truth, the lesson learned from the experience. When
writing, rewriting and good editing, a personal narrative essay
becomes a beautiful thing. It shows how the past or a memory’s
significance affects the present or even the future.
We all have stories to tell. But facing a blank page is
intimidating. Knowing where to begin becomes a real dilemma. A
good place to start is with the word “I”. Write I was, I saw, I did, I
went, I cried, I screamed, I took for granted. “I” is an empowering
word. Once you write it on the page, it empowers you to tell your
story. That is exactly what you are going to do next. Tell the story.
Get it all out. Do not worry about how many times “I” appeared in
the text. Do not worry how scattered and unfocused thoughts are.
Write however your mind tells you to write. The style is often
called freewheeling writing or stream of consciousness. Once the
story is all down on paper, you will go back and begin to shape the
essay into a form that says exactly what you want it to say about
your experience. If you are discouraged over what you have
written, leave it away. Let it rest. Take a walk. Do something that
distracts your mind from writing the essay. Many writers find that
even while doing something other than writing, their writing mind
continues to work out what needs to be said.
Personal narrative essays are essentially non- fiction stories, ones
that are neatly arranged like a road map that take the reader from

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point A to point B to point C. In life, and in our personal experience
things are not so straightforward as A- B- C. Characters, facts,
places, conversations and reporting what happened, where you
went, what you saw and what you did is not always so neatly
pulled together. That is your job, as the writer, to pull together all
the elements so they bring the reader to the universal truth, the
lesson learned or insight gained in your experience. How do you
do this? Through rewriting and rewriting.
Each time you redo the story more will be revealed to you.

Steps in writing a narrative essay:

1- Write “I” on a blank page.
2- Tell the story as it flows from your mind.
3- Let the story rest in its scattered, unfocused form.
4- Begin re-writing, shaping events in a way to best suit what
you want to say.
5- Re-write, re-write, and re-write.
6- Use language that is full of words that tap into the senses.
7- Get feedback from a reader.
8- Re-write.
9- Have the essay read aloud. Listen.
10- Fine tune your essay.

Features of a narrative essay:

1- The story should have an introduction that clearly indicates

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 what kind of narrative essay it is (an event recurring activity,
a personal experience, or an observation), and it should
have a conclusion that makes a point.
2- The essay should include anecdotes. The author should
describe the person, the scene, or the event in some detail.
There is no harm to include dialogue as long as you know
how to punctuate it correctly and as long as you avoid
using too much.
3- The occasion or person described must be suggestive in
that your description and thoughts lead the reader to
reflect on the human experience.
4- The point of view in narrative essays is usually first person.
The use of “I” invites your readers into an intimate
discussion.
5- The writing in your essay should be lively and show some
style. Try to describe ideas and events in new and different
ways. Avoid using clichés. Again, get the basic story down,
get it organised, and in your final editing process, work on
word choice.

Poetry Writing

What is poetry?
It is a short piece of imaginative writing, of a personal

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nature and laid- out in lines. Poetry definitions are difficult, as is
aesthetics generally. What is distinctive and important tends to
evade the qualified language in which we attempt to cover all
considerations. Perhaps we could say that poetry was a
responsible attempt to understand the world in human terms
through literary composition.
Poetry today is an amalgam of three distinct viewpoints.
- Traditionalists argue that a poem is an expression of a
vision that is rendered in a form intelligible and pleasurable
to others and so likely to arouse kindred emotions.
- Modernists argue that a poem is an autonomous object
that may or may not represent the real world but is created
in language made distinctive by its complex web of
references.
- Postmodernists look on poems as collages of current
idioms that are intriguing but self- contained- they employ,
challenge and or mock preconceptions, but refer to nothing
beyond themselves.
What distinguishes poetry from other literary compositions?
Nothing, says a vociferous body of opinion; they are all texts, to be
understood by the same techniques as a philosophic treatise or
tabloid newspaper. But what makes sense only to readers of
advanced magazines, for poetry does indeed seem different. Even
if we accept that poetry can be verse or prose- verse simply
having a strong metrical element- poetry is surely distinguished by

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moving us deeply. In fact, it is an art form, and must therefore do
what all art does- represent something of the world, express or
evoke emotion, please us by its form, and stand on its own as
something autonomous and self- defining.
Poetry has its beliefs and patterns of excellence. Its insights have
to be acquired by participation: by writing and having that writing
evaluated, by being able to appreciate a wide range of work, and
by acquiring the crafts of literary composition. For a beginning
poet, it is essential to read widely, join many groups, take criticism
seriously and remember the following points:
1- Poetry may well be the art of the “unsayable”. A good poem
lies somewhere beyond mere words. Any poem that can be
completely understood or paraphrased is not a poem, but
simply versified or emotive prose.
2- Poems are an act of discovery, and require immense effort-
to write and to be understood. The argument against
popular amateur poetry is not that it uses out-of- date
forms but that poetry finds its conceptions too readily.
Poetry does not have to be challenging, it has to explore
the nature and geography of the human condition.
3- A poem is something unique to its author, but is also
created in the common currency of its period, style,
preoccupations, and shared beliefs. You may therefore
grow out of the habit of writing Elizabethan sonnets, if
indeed you ever write them, not by colleagues telling you

107
 that the style is old but by understanding the limits of the
Elizabethan world. You will probably write through many
enthusiasms and styles. And because your experience of
the world will be shaped by your literacy efforts, your
conceptions of poetry will change as you develop a voice
commensurate with your vision.
4- Poems are not created by recipe, or by pouring content into
a currently acceptable mould. Shape and content interact
in the final product and throughout the creation process, so
that the poems will be continually asking what you are
writing and why. The answers you give yourself will be
illustrating your conceptions of poetry. Once again, those
conceptions will develop, eventually to include experiences
that are part of you.
5- Many poets have theorized on the nature of their craft.
Artists rarely paint the whole picture. To understand their
pronouncements, you need first to love their work.

Approaches to writing poetry:

No infallible advice can be given on how to write a poem, because
poets develop their own approaches in time. Nonetheless, here
are few suggestions:
1- Plan. Ask yourself: How much time is available? Opening
lines can be dashed off in minutes but completion may
take days or weeks. Be cautious, and aim perhaps for 5- 10

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 lines in an evening. Do not wait for the muse, but write
what you can when you can. Odd phrases and lines are at
least something to work from, and more inspiring than a
blank page. When you write letters or tell stories, do you
usually start from a newspaper article you have read, an
anecdote told or overheard, something witnessed, a
general reflection? Start a poem in the way you are most
comfortable with. What sort of poem do you have in mind?
A story, a comment, a protest, an elegy, a character study,
or a memorial? Skim through contemporary examples to
start yourself off. Imagine the poem were a newspaper
article: what points would you make, with what evidence
and arguments? Got it together? Go on then: let yourself go.
Something will emerge.
2- Make sure the subject is important to you.
3- Give yourself up to reverie. Go for a walk, lie on the sofa
and close your eyes, go to bed, cut down the surrounding
world. Jot down the things that come to you, in whatever
order or confusion. Put the scribblings away for the present,
and only open the folder hours or weeks later to see what
you have got. You will be amazed at what is inside you.
4- Free the imagination.
5- Work through metaphors.
6- Write a pastiche- take a stanza of something well known
and rewrite it so that the idiom is entirely different, the lines

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 end with nonsense rhymes, the piece is ruined with the
smallest possible change and the piece looks completely
fresh and contemporary.
7- Take the last line of one of your poems. Carry on from
there, ignoring entirely what you drafted before.
8- Repeat some of these exercises with a fellow student or
poet.
Short Stories

Creative short stories do not need all to look alike, but they
do all share a basic structure that makes them “work”. They are
readable, entertaining or profound. This involves learning certain
basic skills that support all successful writing. Once these skills
are developed, one may want to explore various ways of using
them, or even breaking the rules; but as all serious artists know,
one must know the rules before they can be broken.

The “passionate” first draft:

In the first place, the writer must have both passion and
patience. When you write, you leave the territory of the mundane.
The first draft of your story does not need to follow any rules
necessarily, but should be an outpouring of words. Believe in what
you are writing. Explore the interior realm and pull words from
your grief, pleasure, happiness, anger, and pain. Describe
concretely and specifically what you see with the inner eye, how

110
you feel, what matters to you. Do not write out of a sense of duty.
Good writers do not try to teach a lesson, or to be socially or
politically correct. A first draft should lie on the page
spontaneously, buzzing with the joy of creative energy, regardless
of form or quality of content. As one learns to write, stories will
tend to shape themselves in the first draft, since the basic rules
become basic to one’s nature, but beginners should not worry if
the first draft is messy. Learning to write a short story that works
is like learning anything less.
Revisions:
After you write a first draft, it is a good idea to let the story
sit for a while, a few days or even weeks. When you come back to
the story for its first revision, start to notice a few things. Does the
story have the basic elements? Does it have a believable plot?
What is the theme, or the point of the story? Are the characters
real? How does the plot build to the point of tension wherein
everything is resolved in the denouement? Is the conclusion
satisfying?

The basic elements of a short story:

1- The plot: This refers to the premise and action that takes
place in a story. A traditional plot involves conflict and
there are all kinds of conflicts that can be used. These
include conflicts between people, interior conflicts
regarding decisions, conflicts between obligation and

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 desire, or even good versus evil. Be aware of the conflicts
in your story. Do they support and move the plot forward?
Is the plot believable in terms of character motivation?
2- The theme: The theme refers to the point you are
expressing in the story. This might be very subtle. Does the
point come across as a natural outgrowth of the plot, or
does it seem forced or “preachy”? Stories that work
express themselves without the feeling of didacticism, or
that one is being taught a moral lesson; rather, the lesson
of the story sits within the plot and development of
character naturally and therefore powerfully.
3- Characters: In stories that work, the characters are more
than cardboard caricatures with wooden hands. When you
look at your first draft, consider character motivation. Do
they react reasonably in proportion with the traits you have
granted them? Do they speak naturally, or does the
dialogue sound like an actor reading lines? It might be a
good idea to make up a history for your characters, known
only by you, which is not necessarily expressed in the story.
A writer should know more about each character than he or
she tells. This gives each character an aura of mystery and
believability.
4- Denouement: This French word refers to the way the
conflicts in the plot come to a pique and are concluded.
The short story that works handles this with care, since this

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 is usually the point where the implicit theme stands or falls.
Do the conflicts resolve or not resolve themselves in the
story? If we are left hanging, not knowing whether the
conflicts have gone in either direction, the story usually
does not work.
5- Conclusion: How does the story conclude? Has the
character changed in any way? Has he learned or not from
the resolution of conflict?

Tightening things up:

Once you establish these elements in your short story, go
through and scratch out every word, paragraph, or page that does
not contribute to them. A short story is not a novel; it is more like
a poem, where every word and sentence counts.
Listen to the advice of others. If a lot of people are distracted by
some sentence you happen to love, think about changing it. Do
not be afraid to revise. You are the creator, the writer, and you
have it in your power to produce something beautiful. This means
revision, which is not an act of mutilation, but of creation- though
it may feel temporarily painful now and then. Re-read your story
with a critical mind when you are in different moods, and re-write
it accordingly. A story that works is the fruit of rewriting and
revision. You will discover that you will see it differently and find
various new things you want to change according ot your various
moods.

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Once you have the basics down, you can begin to work on your
own style and unique voice. But these come later. Short story
writing takes skill as well as an artistic temper. You must learn the
skills before you can shape it into art.

Part Two: Grammar

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 General Review of “phrase, clause, sentence”

-The Sentence:
A common definition of a sentence is “a complete thought that is
marked by a capital letter at the beginning and a full stop at the
end”.
A sentence contains a subject and a predicate.
Examples:
Subject Predicate

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The cat smiled
The cat smiled enigmatically at Alice

A sentence can stand alone.

-Sentence Types:
There are four basic sentence types: Statements- commands-
questions- and exclamations.

1- Statements:
They are also referred to as declarative sentences or declaratives.
The function of statements is to convey information.
Example: My dog has buried his bones in the lawn.

2- Commands:
They are also referred to as imperatives. Example: Stop arguing
3- Questions:
They are referred to as interrogatives or interrogative sentences.
There are four main types of questions:
♦Yes/no Questions:
These sentences expect “yes” or “no” for an answer.
Examples:
-Is your brother still at school?
- Would you like some tea?
♦”Wh “Questions:
These sentences begin with a “wh” word: what, which, when, who,

116
why, where, how. They cannot be answered with “yes” or “no”.
Examples:
-Why is your shirt dirty?
- What do you think about casinos?

♦Alternative Questions:
They are very similar to “yes/ no”, but they offer a choice of
answer.
Examples:
-Did it happen on Monday or Tuesday?
- Should I ring up, or should I write?
♦Tag Questions:
Tag questions are statements with a question tag at the end. Tag
questions, a peculiarity of English, are usually spoken rather than
written.
Examples:
- It’s a lovely day, isn’t it?
- He can swim well, can’t he?
- It wasn’t much of a film, was it?

The form of tag questions is quite regular:

-If the statement is positive, the tag will be negative.
Example: He is an inspiring teacher, isn’t he?
- If the statement is negative, the tag will be positive.
Example: He isn’t an inspiring teacher, is he?

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♦Exclamations:
They are also referred to as exclamatives or exclamative
sentences. They are used to express strong feelings. They can
begin with “what” or “how”.
Examples:
-What a naughty dog he is!
- What an amazing game that was!
- How well everyone played!

- Clauses:
A clause is a group of words consisting of a subject and a
predicate. A clause is either a whole sentence or in effect -a
sentence within a sentence.
Clauses are often contrasted with phrases, which do not express
complete thoughts through combinations of subjects and
predicates. Phrases generally do not contain verbs except as
verbals ( gerunds, participles and infinitives).
Examples:
-I didn’t know that the dog ran through the yard.
(through the yard) is not a clause, but a phrase since it has no
subject or verb.
(The dog ran through the yard) is a clause; it is a whole sentence
contained within a larger sentence.
-Categories of clauses:
There are two basic categories: Independent clauses and

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Dependent clauses.
♦Independent clauses:
They are also referred to as main clauses, or coordinate clauses.
An independent clause can stand by itself as a grammatically
viable simple sentence. Multiple independent clauses can be
joined (usually with a comma and a coordinating conjunction) to
form a compound sentence.
Examples:
-I am a bus driver. (simple sentence).
-I drive a bus. (simple sentence).
-I am a bus driver, and I drive a bus. (compound sentence).
-I want to be an astronaut, but I haven’t gotten my diploma
(compound sentence).
♦Dependent clauses:
A dependent clause (or subordinate clause) cannot stand alone
as a sentence. It usually begins with a subordinating conjunction
or in the case of an adverb or an adjective clause, a relative
pronoun. A sentence with an independent clause and one or more
dependent clauses is referred to as a compound complex
sentence.
Examples:
-My sister cried because she scraped her knee. (complex
sentence).
-When they told me I won the contest, I cried, but I didn’t faint.
(compound complex sentence)

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-Types of dependent clauses:
Dependent clauses are often classified by their part of speech:
- A noun clause functions as a noun.
- An adjective clause functions as an adjective.
- An adverb clause functions as an adverb.

Examples:
-That the kid was making so much money bothered me. (a noun
clause is the subject of bothered)
-Her eyes were a shade of blue that reminded me of the sea. (an
adjective clause modifying a shade of blue).
- I have a tendency to hyperventilate when I’m upset. (adverb
clause modifying the entire main clause).

-Phrases:
A phrase is a group of related words, without subject and
predicate, functioning as a verb, a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
Phrases are generally classified as:
♦Verb phrases.
♦Prepositional phrases. They function as adjectives or adverbs.
♦Participial phrases. They are used as adjectives.
♦Gerund phrases. They are used as nouns
♦Infinitive phrases. They are often used as nouns, adjectives or
adverbs.

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 Determiners

What are determiners?

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A determiner is any word that limits the meaning of a noun and
comes before adjectives that describe the same noun, but the
determiner is not an adjective
Examples: -My house.
- I caught a fish yesterday.
There are two main groups of determiners:
- Group A determiners:
These help to identify things to say whether they are known or
unknown to the hearer, which one(s) the speaker is talking about.
Whether the speaker is thinking of particular examples or
speaking in general.
1- Articles: a, an, the
The is definite. It is used for singular or plural nouns
Examples: The boys- The table which I write on .
A and An are both indefinite
Examples: A table- An apple.
2- Possessives: My, your, his, her, its, yours, theirs, whose
Examples: His car- your book- their pens
3- Demonstratives: This, these, that, those.
Examples: This book- These cakes- that pen, those boys.
Note:
We cannot put two group A determiners together.
Example: The my house or my this house. In order to put together
the meanings of possessive and article/ demonstrative, we have
to use the structure “This…of mine…”

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Group B determiners:
Most of these are quantifiers. They say how much or how many
we are talking about; some, any, none, little, much, both, each, no,
every, either, neither, half, all, several, enough, few, most, many,
what, whatever, which, whichever.
Some of group B determiners are used with singular nouns
Examples: Each one, each woman, every girl.
Some of them are used with plural nouns
Examples: Many people, several days.
Some of them are used with countable nouns
Examples: a few people, all the group.
Some of them are used with uncountable nouns
Examples: Much time, a little information.
Group B determiners can be put together if the combination
makes sense.
Examples: We meet every few days.
I’ve read all six novels.
Have you got any more coffee?

Group B + group A determiners:

1- “Of” with determiners:

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Group B determiners can be used directly before nouns without
“of”.
Examples: Have you got any sugar? (not :any of sugar).
Most people agree with me. (not most of people).
But if we want to put a group B determiner before a noun which
has a group A determiner (article possessive or demonstrative),
we have to use “of”.
Examples: Some people- Some of the people
Each child- Each of my children.
Neither door- Neither of these doors.
Most shops- Most of the shops.
“Of” can be used directly before a noun with no group A
determiner in a few cases. This happens with proper nouns such
as place names, and sometimes uncountable nouns that refer to
the whole of a subject or activity.
Examples: Most of Wales was without electricity last night.
Much of philosophy is concerned with questions that have no
answers.
We can have “of” after: all, both and half when they are followed
by nouns (but not when they are followed by pronouns).
Examples: All (of) his ideas
Both (of) her income, but: All of us (not all us).
Note: When each, every, either, and neither are used directly
before nouns without “of” the nouns are singular.

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Examples: Each tree- neither partner.
Each of the trees- neither of partners.

Determiner+ of + pronoun:
Group B determiners can also be used with “of” before a pronoun.
Examples: Neither of them, which of us? Most of you.
Group A+ group B:
Certain group B determiners can be used after group A
determiners. They are: many, most little, last and few.
Examples: His many friends- These few days- the least time- the
most money- a little time- a few questions.

Other determiners:
There are a few other determiners that do not fit into groups A
and B. They are: other, such, what (in exclamation) and only.
Other and only come after group A determiners ; such and what
can come before the article a/ an.
Examples: My other sister- Such a nice day- the only possibility-
what a pity!
Other and such can also come after some group B determiners
Examples: Many other problems- Most such requests.
Much, many, a lot, plenty:
Much is used with the uncountable nouns (much time, much
luck…)
Many is for the countable nouns (many people, many cars…).

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We use much and many especially in negative sentences and
questions (we didn’t spend much money, do you know many
people?).
A lot, lot(s) of, plenty of are used with both countable and
uncountable nouns (a lot of good luck, a lot of friends, lots of
people, plenty of ideas).
A lot of is more usual in positive sentences (I have got a lot of
exercises to do).
Little- a little- few- a few:
Little and a little are used for uncountable nouns (little energy, a
little ideas)
Few and a few are used for countable nouns (few boys, a few
days).
A little and a few mean a small amount or a small number (Let’s
go and have a drink, we have a little time before the train leaves)
Few and little are used in a negative context. They mean “not
much”. (We must hurry; there is little time).
Only a little, only a few have a negative meaning (We must be
quick. We’ve only got a little time).
No and none:(nothing, no one, nobody, nowhere).
We can use them at the beginning of the sentence or alone (no
cars are allowed here, none of this money is mine)
We use no + noun (there was no cars, I’ve got no time).
Any (anything, anybody, anyone), some:
Any: We use it for negative statements and in most questions (I

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didn’t find any book, do you want anything?).
It is often used with “if”(tell me if you need any help).
Some: It is used for positive statements (I have something to do,
would you like something to drink?)

Exercises:
Exercise 01:
Complete the sentences with “no”, “none”, or “any”.
1- It was a public holiday, so there were …… shops open.
2- I haven’t got …….money. Can you lend me some.
3- I couldn’t make an omelette because there were …… eggs.
4- I couldn’t make an omelette because there were not …… eggs.
5- We took a lot of photographs but …… of them were very good.
6- What a stupid thing to do? …….intelligent person would do such
a thing.
7- I will try to answer …… of the questions you ask me.
8- We cancelled the party because …… of the people invited were
able to come.

Exercise 02: Complete the sentences with “some” or “any”.

1- We didn’t buy ….. flowers.
2- This evening I’m going out with ……… friends of mine.
3- Have you seen …… good films recently?
4- I didn’t have …… money , so I had to borrow……..

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5- Can I have …….. milk in my coffee, please?
6- I was too tired to do …….work.

Exercise 03: Put “that” or “what”.

1- I gave her all the money….. I had.
2- They gave their children everything….. they wanted.
3- Tell me …….. you want and I’ll try to get it for you.
4- Why do you blame me for everything…… goes wrong.
5- I won’t be able to do much but, I’ll do ….. I can.

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 Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that can be used in the place of a noun or a
noun phrase.
Kinds of pronouns:
1- Personal pronouns:
Nominative: I- you- she- he- it (singular).
We- you- they (plural).
Accusative and dative: Me- you- him- her- it (singular)
Us- you- them (plural).
Use of personal pronouns:
- Nominative: as a subject of a verb (he knows how many houses
he has).
As a complement of the verb “to be” (it is I - was it
they?)
In formal conversation the accusative is often used after the verb
“to be”( it is me- was it them?).
But the nominative must be used if the pronoun is followed by a
clause. (Is it I who do it?).
- Accusative and dative:
Accusative: as a direct object of a verb: I saw her.
After prepositions: with him- to her- for us.
Dative: as indirect objects to replace to+ noun pronoun or for+
noun pronoun: I gave him a book.

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2- Possessive adjectives and pronouns:
Possessive adjectives: my, your, his, hers, its , our, your , their.
Possessive pronouns: Mine, yours, his, her, its, ours, yours, theirs.
Possessive adjectives in English refer to the possessor and not to
the thing being possessed: Tom’s father- is his father.
Note that the possessive adjective remains the same whether the
thing possessed is singular or plural. (my book- my books).
Possessive pronouns are used to replace possessive adjectives +
noun. They follow the same rule as possessive adjectives.
This is my pen or, this is mine.

3- Reflexive and emphasizing pronouns:

Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves,
themselves.
Reflexive pronouns are used as object of a verb when the action
of the verb returns to the doer.
I cut myself- ha shaved himself.
Reflexive pronouns are used similarly after a preposition: he
spoke to himself. I did it myself.
Reflexive pronouns can be used for emphasis: to emphasize a
noun or pronoun: The king himself gave her the medal.
When used in this way, the pronoun is never essential and can be
omitted without changing the meaning. It usually emphasizes the
subject of the sentence and is then placed after the subject.(Ann

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herself opened the door).

4- Relative pronouns:
- Defining relative clauses: these describe the preceding noun in
such a way as to distinguish it from other nouns of the same
class. A clause of this kind is essential to the clear understanding
of the noun.
Example: The man who dined here last night was taken to hospital
this morning.
-Relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses: These are
relative very slightly according to whether they refer to persons or
things and according to their case. They don’t vary from singular
or plural or masculine or feminine.
The forms are as follows: For persons: Nominative: who- that.
Accusative: which- that
Possessive: whose- of which.
For things: Nominative: which- what
Accusative: which- that
Possessive: whose- of which.
-Non- defining relative clauses: they are placed after nouns which
are definite already. They do not therefore define the noun, but
merely add something ti it by giving some information about it.
Unlike defining relative clauses, they are not essential in the

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sentence and can be omitted without causing confusion.
Relative pronouns used in non- defining relative clauses:
For persons: Nominative: who
Accusative: whom- who
Possessive: whose
For things: Nominative: which
Accusative: which
Possessive: of which, whose.

5- Interrogative Adjectives and Pronouns:

Form: For persons: who, whom, whose.
For things: what.
Examples of use: who took my gun?
-Whom did you see?
- Whose are these?
- What delayed you?
- What did they eat?
- Which of them is the eldest?
- Which do you like best?

6- Other pronouns: so, not

So: placed after the verbs (think, hope, expect, suppose, afraid)
can represent a whole clause.
Example: Will Mr. Pitt be here?
Yes, I think so.

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Not: can be placed after the verbs hope and afraid to represent a
negative clause.
Examples: Can you play football?
No, I ‘m afraid not.
It is going to rain.
Oh, I hope not.
7- Quantitative adjectives and pronouns:
These are all numerals together with some, any, no, none, much,
many, little, few.

Exercises:
Exercise 01: Add the appropriate reflexive pronoun to each
sentence. If impossible, put a cross near the example.
1- All you have to do is hide …….behind the door.
2- They are always complaining ……. About my cooking.
3- John’s mother didn’t want him to take the job on the oil rig. In
fact, George didn’t feel very happy about it ……..
4- There’s no need for you to come, I can carry the shopping.
5- Young people …..need to get involved in politics.

Exercise 02: Underline the pronoun in the following sentences and

identify their types.
1- New York city is under siege by gangs with cans of paint.
2- Its walls are covered with layers of paint and obscenities.
3- What is to be done?

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4- Some have proposed that the city create an area in which the
young people may paint buildings at no risk.
5- Many want stronger laws and harder punishment that will
discourage the messy criminals from the practice.

Complex tenses in the active form

1- The present continuous:

Form: Subject + am, is, are + stem + ing
Example: We are studying grammar
Uses:
- We use the present continuous when the action is happening at
the moment of speaking.
Example: Ann is in her car. She is on her way to work. She is
driving to work.
This means she is driving now, at the time of speaking. The action
is not finished
- It is not necessarily happening at the time of speaking
Examples: Tom and Ann are talking in a café.
I’m reading an interesting book at the moment.
Tom is not reading the book at the time of speaking. He means
that he started it but not finished it yet. He is in the middle of
reading.
- We use the present continuous when we talk about things
happening in a period around now (today, this week, this evening).

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Example: You are working hard today.
- We use the present continuous when we talk about changes
happening around now.
Example: The population of the world is rising very fast.
- We use the present continuous with “always” when the action is
annoying the speaker.
Example: You are always watching television. You should do
something more active.

2- The present perfect:

Form: Subject + have, has + past participle.
Uses:
-We use the present perfect simple when an action in the past has
a result now.
Example: Tom is looking for his key. He can’t find it.
He has lost his key. (He lost it and still hasn’t got it).
- We often use the present perfect simple to give new information
or to announce a recent happening.
Example: The road is closed. There has been an accident.
- We can use the present perfect simple with just, already, yet,
recently, so far, since
- We use the present perfect simple when we mention that it is the
the first time something has happened
Examples: Bob is having a driving lesson. He is very nervous and
unsure, because it is his first lesson.

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 - It’s the first time he has driven a car.
- He has never driven a car before.

3- The Present perfect continuous:

Form: Subject+ have, has + been + stem + ing
Example: It has been raining.
Uses:
- We use the present perfect continuous for an activity that has
recently stopped or just stopped. There is a connection with now.
Example: You are out of breath. Have you been running?
Paul is very tired. He has been working very hard.
- We use the present perfect continuous with “how long, for” and
“since” when the action is still happening or has just stopped.
Example: It is raining now. It began raining two hours ago and is
still raining. How long has it been raining? It has been raining for 2
hours.
- We can use the present perfect continuous for an action
repeated over a period of time.
Example: John is a very good tennis player. He has been playing
since he was eight.

4- Past continuous:
Form: Subject + was, were + stem + ing.
Example: This time last year, I was living in Brazil.
Uses:

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- We use the past continuous to say that somebody was in the
middle of doing something at a certain time. The action or
situation had already started before this time but had not finished.
Example: Yesterday Karen and Jim played tennis, they began at
10 o’clock and finished at 11.30. So at 10.30, they were playing
tennis.
- We often use the past simple and the past continuous together
to say that something happened in the middle of something else.
Example: Tom burnt his hand when he was cooking the dinner.
- While I was working in the garden, I hurt my finger.

5- The past perfect:

Form: Subject+ had+ past participle.
Example: John had gone to London.
Use:
We use the past perfect if we want to talk about things that
happened before the starting point of the story.
Example: Sarah went to a party last week. Paul went to the party
too but they didn’t see each other. Paul went home at 10.30 and
Sarah arrived at 11 o’clock.
When Sarah arrived at the party, Paul wasn’t there. He had gone
home.

6- Past perfect continuous:

Form: Subject+ had + been+ stem + ing.

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Example: Yesterday morning I got up and looked out of the
window. The sun was shining but the ground was very wet. It had
been raining.
Use: You can say that something had been happening for a period
of time before something else happened.
Example: Ken gave up smoking two years ago.
He had been smoking for 30 years.

7- The future perfect:

Form: Subject+ will+ have+ past participle.
Example: Tomorrow at 09.30, the match will have finished.
Use: We use the future perfect to say that something will already
be complete.
Example: Sally always leaves for work at 08.30 in the morning. So,
she won’t be at home at 09 o’clock. She’ll have gone to work.

8- The future continuous:

Form: Subject+ will+ be + stem+ ing.
Example: After 3 years, I will be teaching English.
Uses:
- We use the future continuous when we will be in the middle of
doing something.
Example: The football match begins at 07.30 and ends at 09.15.

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So during this time for example at 08.30, Kevin will be watching
the match.
- We also use the future continuous to talk about complete
actions in the future
Example: If you see Sally, can you ask her to phone me?
- Sure, I’ll be seeing her this evening. So, I’ll tell her then.
- We can use the future continuous to ask about somebody’s
plans, especially if we want him to do something.
Example: Will you be passing the post office when you are out?

Exercises:
Exercise 01: Complete the sentences with one of the following
verbs in the correct form:
Look, make, have, work, learn, try, see.
1-You ……hard today? Yes? I have a lot to do.
2-Would you like something to eat? No thanks, I …..just……lunch.
3- Maria…… English for two years.
4- You ……. A lot of noise. Could you be quieter? I …….to
concentrate.
5- Is Ann coming to the cinema with us? No, she ……already……the
film.
6- Hello Tom, I ……for you all morning. Where have you been?

Exercise 02: Read the situation and write sentences from the

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words:
1- I invited Rachel to the party, but she couldn’t come. (she
arrange to do something else)
2- You went to the cinema last night. You arrived at the cinema
late. (the film already begin)
3- I was very tires when I arrived at home. (I work hard all day).
4- I haven’t seen Alan for ages when (I last see him) (he try to find
a job).
5- There was nobody in the room, but there was a small cigarette.
(somebody smoke in the room).
6- We were in a very difficult position (we not know what to do).

Exercise 03: Put the verbs into the correct form: “will be doing” or
“will have done”.
1- Don’t phone me between 7 and 8 we (have) dinner then.
2- Phone me after 8 o’clock (we finish) by then.
3- Tomorrow afternoon we are going to play tennis from 3 o’clock
until 4.30, so at 4 o’clock (we play) tennis.
4- Do you think (you still do) the same job in ten years time?
5- If you need to contact me (I stay) at the Hilton hotel until Friday.

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 Complex Tenses in the Passive Form

Here only the forms are presented. The uses are the same as with
these tenses in the active.
1- The present perfect: Have, has been + pp.
Example: The room looks nice. It has been cleaned.

2- The past perfect: Had+ been + past participle.

Example: The room looks nice. It had been cleaned.

3- The present continuous: am, is, are being + past participle.

Example: The room is being cleaned at the moment.

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4- The past continuous: Was, were + being + past participle.
Example: The room was being cleaned when I arrived.
5- The present perfect continuous: Have, has + been+ being done.
Example: The ceiling has been being painted by Ann because her
clothes are covered in paint.
6- The past perfect continuous: Had been being + past participle.
Example: The ceiling had been being painted by Ann because her
clothes were covered in paint.

Exercises:
Exercise 01: Rewrite the sentences. Instead of using “somebody”
or “they”, write passive sentences.
1- Somebody has cleaned the room.
2- They have postponed the concert.
3- Somebody is using the computer at the moment.
4- I didn’t realize that somebody was recording our conversation.
5- When we got to the stadium, we found that they cancelled the
match.
6- They have built a new hospital near the airport.

Exercise 02: Make sentences from the words in brackets.

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Sometimes the verb is active and sometimes the verb is passive.
1- There is somebody behind us (I think we follow).
2- The room looks different (you paint).
3- My car has disappeared (it steal).
4- Tom got a higher salary now (he promote).
5- The man next door disappeared six months ago (nobody see
him since then).

Sentence Tags

A “tag” is something small that we add to something larger. For

example, the little piece of cloth added to a shirt showing size or
washing instructions is a tag
In grammar, a tag question is a special construction in English. It
is a statement followed by a mini- question. The whole sentence
is a “tag question”, and the mini- question at the end is called a
“question tag”.
We use tag questions at the end of statements to ask for
information. They mean something like: “am I right?” or “do you

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agree?” They are very common in English.
The basic structure is:
- Positive statement, negative tag? Snow is white, isn’t it?
- Negative statement, positive tag? You don’t like me, do you?

Some special cases:

- I am right, aren’t I? (not amn’t I).
- You have to go, don’t you? (you do have to go).
- I have been answering, haven’t I? Use first auxiliary.
- Nothing came in the post, did it? (Treat statements with
nobody, nothing etc like negative statements).
- Let’s go, shall we?
- He’d better do it, hadn’t he?

How do we answer a tag question?

Often, we just say “yes” or “no”. Sometimes we may repeat the tag
and reverse it (….do they? Yes, they do).
Be careful about answering tag questions. In some languages, an
opposite system of answering is used, and non- native English
speakers sometimes answer in the wrong way. This can lead to a
lot of confusion.

Question tags with imperatives:

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Sometimes we use question tags with imperatives (invitations,
orders), but the sentence remains an imperative and does not
require a direct answer. We use “won’t” for invitations, we use
“can, can’t, will, would” for orders.
Examples: Take a seat, won’t you?
Help me, can you?
Help me, can’t you (friendly).
Close the door, would you?
Do it now, will you?
Don’t forget, will you?

Same- way question tags:

It is sometimes possible to use a positive- positive or negative-
negative structure. We use same- way question tags to express
interest, surprise, anger, and not to make a real question.

Examples:
So you’re having a baby, are you? That’s wonderful.
She wants to marry him, does she? Some chance!
So you think that’s amusing, do you? Think again.
Negative- negative tag questions usually sound rather hostile: So
you don’t like my looks, don’t you?

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 Phrasal verbs
What is a phrasal verb?
Phrasal verbs are idiomatic expressions, combining verbs and
prepositions to make new verbs whose meaning is often not
obvious from the dictionary definitions of individual words. They
are widely used in both written and spoken English, and new ones
are formed all the time as they are a flexible way of creating new
terms.
A phrasal verb consists of a verb and a preposition or adverb that

146
modifies or changes the meaning; “give up” is a phrasal verb that
means “stop doing something”, which is very different from “give”.
The words that modify a verb in this manner can also fall under
the name “particle”.

Phrasal verbs can be divided into groups:

1- Intransitive verbs: These don’t take an object. “They had an
argument, but they’ve made up now”.
2- Inseparable verbs: The object must come after the particle.
“They are looking after their grand children”.
3- Separable verbs: With some separable verbs, the object
must come between the verb and the particle. “The quality
of their work sets them apart from their rivals”.
With some separable verbs, the object can come before or
after the particle, though when a pronoun is used it comes
before the particle. “Turn the TV off.”, “turn off the TV”,
“turn it off”.

Some examples of phrasal verbs: This is not an exhaustive list of

phrasal verbs, for more practice check on a dictionary of phrasal
verbs.
Add up= add
Break down= analyze
Break into= go into a room suddenly, begin.
Bring off= accomplish.

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Bring on= cause.
Carry on with= continue.
Come down with= become ill with.
Fall back on= use for emergency purpose.
Drop off= decline gradually.
Drop out= Cease to participate.
Get around= evade.
Talk over= discus

Verb Types

Verbs carry the idea of being or action in the sentence.

Examples: I am a student.
The students passed all their courses.
Verbs are classified in many ways.

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- Transitive verbs:
Some verbs require an object to complete the meaning.
Example: She gave……, gave what? She gave money to the church.

- Intransitive verbs:
They do not require objects. “The building collapsed”.
In English you cannot tell the difference between a transitive and
intransitive verb by its form; you have to see how the verb is
functioning within the sentence. In fact, a verb can be both
transitive and intransitive. “The monster collapsed the building by
sitting on it”.
Although you will seldom hear the term a “ditransitive verb” such
as cause or give, is one that can take a direct object or an indirect
object at the same time. “That horrid music gave me a headache”.
Ditransitive verbs are slightly different , then from factitive verbs,
in that the latter takes two objects.

-Finite verbs:
A finite verb makes an assertion or expresses a state of being and
can stand by itself as the main verb of a sentence.
Examples: The truck demolished the restaurant.
The leaves were yellow and silky.

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- Non- finite verbs:
(unfinished verbs) cannot , by themselves, be main verbs.
Examples: The broken window………
The wheezing gentleman……..
Another more useful term for non- finite verbs is verbals
which are : infinitives, gerunds, and participles.
Verbals are words that seem to carry the idea of action or being
but do not function as a true verb. Becaust time is involved with
all verb forms (finite- non- finite), following a logical tense
sequence is important. Verbals are frequently accompanied by
other, related words in what is called a verbal phrase.
Participle:It is a verb form acting as an adjective. A present
participle like “running” describes a present condition; a past
participle describes something that has happened. The distinction
can be important to the meaning of a sentence, there is a huge
difference between “a confusing student” and “a confused
student”.

Infinitive: The root of the verb + the word “to”.

A present infinitive describes a present condition ‘I like to sleep”.
The perfect infinitive describes a time earlier than that of the verb
“I would like to have won the game”.

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Gerund: A verb form ending in “ing”, which acts as a noun.
“Running in the park after dark can be dangerous”. Gerunds are
frequently accompanied by other associated words making up a
gerund phrase.

-Basic forms of verb construction:

There are four basic forms:
Base form, past form, present participle, past participle.

- Linking verbs:
A linking verb connects a subject and its complement. Sometimes
called copulas, linking verbs are often forms of the verb “to be”,
but are sometimes related to the five senses (look, sound, smell,
feel, taste) and sometimes verbs that somehow reflect a state of
being (appear, seem, become, grow, turn, prove, remain). What
follows the linking verb will be either a noun complement or an
adjective complement.
-Those people are all professors.
- Those professors are brilliant.
- This room smells bad.
- I feel great.
- A victory today seems unlikely.
A handful of verbs that reflect a change in state of being, are
sometimes called “resulting copulas”. They, too, link a subject to a

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predicate adjective.
Examples: - His face turned purple
- She became older.
- The crowd grew ugly.
-
-Voice:
Voice in verbs refers to its being active or passive.

- Mood:
Mood in verbs refers to one of three attitudes that a writer or
speaker has to what is being written or spoken.
The indicative mood is used to make a statement or ask a
question.
The imperative mood is used to give a directive, strong
suggestion or order.
The subjunctive mood is used in dependent clauses that do the
following:
-Express a wish.
- Begin with “if” and express a condition that does not exist.
- Begin with “as if” and “as though” to describe a speculation or
condition contrary to fact.
- Begin with “that” and express a demand, requirement, request or
suggestion.

-Auxiliary/ Helping verbs:

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“Will, shall, may, might, can, could…” are used in conjunction with
main verbs to express shades of time and mood.

-Phrasal verbs:
They consist of a verb and another word or phrase, usually a
preposition. The resulting combination creates what amounts to a
new verb, whose meaning can sometimes be puzzling to non-
native speakers.

- Causative verbs:
They designate the action necessary to cause another action to
happen. “The devil made me do it”. The verb “made” causes the
“do” to happen.
Here is a brief list of causative verbs:
Let, help, allow, have, require, motivate, get, make, convince, hire,
assist, encourage, permit, employ, force.

-Factitive verbs:
Verbs like “Make, choose, judge, elect, select, name” are called
factitive verbs. These transitive verbs can take two objects, or
seem to.
Example: U.S. News and World Report named our college the
best in the northeast. (direct object: our college, second
complement: best).

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 Catenative verbs

I- Definition:
Catenative verbs are verbs that take other verb forms as
object. Catenative means to link in a chain. Catenatives can be
joined at the head of a series of linked constructions as in: “We
agreed to try to decide to stop eating between meals.
Catenative verbs are also characterized by their tendency
to describe mental process and resolutions.
Example: I want to try to remember to use that website.
Catenatives are said to be a group of chaining verbs and it
means that the verb is accompanied by another verb as object.
Example: I try to avoid to make mistakes.
I hope to go to visit Mecca.

II- The construction of Catenative verbs:

Example: She seems to start to cover her mistake.
The construction of catenative verbs is that they join a series of
linked verbs.
Other examples:
Ann is trying to think to visit her uncle.
My mother seems to start to blame me.

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Notes with examples:
-A great deal about catenative verbs is that we can have a
limitless string of them.
Examples: I hope to hope to hope to hope to hope to be able to
help you.
I am trying to try to try to try to be good.
- Catenative means “join on”, and on this basis a model verb is not
a catenative.
Example:
I will will will will go via the shop. (will will will will) are not
catenative verbs because they are not preceded by the infinitive
mark “to”.
- Catenative verbs are lexical verbs which are used as if they were
auxiliaries.
Examples:
I never need to think about this.
I need never think about this.
We notice the difference in the positioning of the adverb “never”
and also the use or non use of the infinitive mark “to”.
- Just one interpretation of the term catenative, another
school of thought says that any “joining on” is sufficient to
give a verb the designation “catenative”, so the modals are

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 catenatives in the sense that they go with another verb.
Example: I may will buy a new car.

III- Some catenative verbs:

-Intend: I intend to intend to go to America.
- Hope: I hope to hope to make you good.
- Expect: I expect to expect to receive a gift from her.
- Need: I need to think to take a vacation.
- Seem: It seems to start to rain today.

- Gonna and Wanna verbs:

- Examples with “to be going to”:
I’m going to read a book about the Algerian revolution.
She’s going to make herself ill because she worked hard.
- Examples with “want to”:
- I want to justify my previous attitude.
- He wants to borrow a novel.

-Meaning of “wanna” and “gonna” verbs:

Gonna: It is a variant of “going to”. We might as well make
“gonna” a legitimate word
Example: Some day, I’m gonna wring his neck.
Wanna: It is a replacement of “want to”

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 Example: I wanna kiss you.

- The contractive relation between “to be going to” and

“gonna”.
Examples: He’s going to cook dinner ( the form is subject+ be+
going to+ verb+ noun.
We can say “he’s gonna cook dinner” because after “going to”
there is a verb.
But, in “ He’s going to school, we never say “he’s gonna
school”. After going to there is a noun.
Exercises:
1- Fill in the gaps with the verbs in a logical order:
-John ……..to …….to …….. to …….. a new house (think, buy, go, need).
- Peter ……..to …….to ……to ……..a letter (expect, receive, expect).
- He …….to …….to ……….the mountain (go, climb suppose).
- The situation ………to ……..to ………better. (be, seem, change).
- They ……….to ……….to …………a new factory far from the city (build,
decide, are going).
2-Choose the correct verbs to complete the sentences, then read
the statements with contractions if necessary. (want to, let me,
let’s go, suppose, give me, is going to, should have, supposed to).
- Next week, Susan ………start a new job.
- He ……….to a stadium.
- I ……….be free.
-……….dream.

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-…………peace on earth.
- New words………..many times on the day we learned them.
- We are………..have a test tomorrow.
- Do you ………I could borrow your notes?
- …………..to the party.
Stative verbs
A stative verb is one which asserts that one of its arguments has
a particular property in relation to its other argument. Stative
verbs are static. They have no duration and no distinguished end-
point. Verbs which are not stative are often called dynamic verbs.

Examples of sentences with stative verbs:

-I am tired.
- I have two children.
- I like the blue colour.
- I think they want something to eat.
- We believe in one God.
- The case contains six bottles.
- This would imply that we didn’t care.
In languages where the copula is a verb, it is a stative verb, as is
the case in English”be”.
Some other English stative verbs are: Believe, know, seem, have.
All these generally denote states rather than actions. However, it
should be noted that verbs like “have” and “be”, which are usually
stative, can be dynamic in certain situations.

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Exercises:
Exercise 01: Decide which verb is normally stative or dynamic.
Seem, read, paint, smell, remember, believe, change, understand,
jump, want.

Exercise 02: Put the verb into the correct form. Use either the
present simple or the present continuous.
1- Please don’t make so much noise. I (study).
2- How many languages (Tom speak)?
3- I (not belong) to a political party.
4- Hurry! The bus (come). I (not want) to miss it.
5- The river Nile (flow) into the Mediterranean
6- The river (flow) very fast today- much faster than usual.
7- ( It ever snow) in India?
8- We usually (grow) vegetables in our garden, but this year we
(not grow) any.
9- You can borrow my umbrella. I (not need) it at the moment.
10- I usually (enjoy) parties but I (not enjoy) this one very much.

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 Indirect Speech
Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech)
doesn’t use quotation marks to enclose what the person said and
it doesn’t have to be word for word.
When reporting speech, the tense usually changes. This is
because when we use reported speech, we are usually talking
about a time in the past (because obviously the person who spoke
originally spoke in the past). The verbs usually have to be in the
past too.
Example: Direct: “I am going to the cinema”, he said.
Indirect: He said that he was going to the cinema.
Tense change: As a rule, when you report something someone
has said you go back a tense.
Direct Indirect
Present simple Past simple
Present continuous Past continuous
Present perfect simple Past perfect simple
Present perfect continuous Past perfect continuous
Past simple Past perfect
Past perfect Past perfect (no change)

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Past perfect continuous Past perfect continuous (no
Will change)
Can Would
Must Could
Shall Had to
May Should
Might

Note: There is no change to : could, would, should, might, and

ought to.
You can use the present tense in reported speech if you want to
say that something is still true.
Example: My name has always been and will always be Lynne so:
Direct: “My name is Lynne”, she said.
Indirect: She said that her name was Lynne. Or: She said her name
is Lynne.
- You can also use the present tense if you are talking about a
future event.
Direct: “Next week’s lesson is on reported speech”, she said.
Indirect: She said next week’s lesson is on reported speech.

Time change:
If the reported sentence contains an expression of time, you must
change it to fit in with the time of reporting. We need to change
words like “here”, “yesterday” if they have different meanings at

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the time and place of reporting.
Example: Direct: “Today’s lesson is on presentations”.
(+24 hours) Indirect: She said yesterday’s lesson was on
presentations.

Expressions of time if reported on a different day:

Direct Indirect
This That
Today yesterday
These Those
Now Then
A week ago A week before
Last week end The week end
Here before
Next week There
Tomorrow The following week
The next day
In addition, if you report something said in a different place where
you heard it, you must change the place (here) to the place (there).

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- Pronoun change:
In reported speech, the pronoun often changes.
Example: “I teach English”.
She said that she teaches English.

- Reporting verbs:
“Said”, “told”, and “asked” are the most common verbs used in
indirect speech.
We use “asked” to report questions.
We use “told” with an object.
We usually use “said” without an object.
- Use of “that” in reported speech:
In reported speech, the word “that” is often used, However, that is
optional.
In questions “that” is not used. We often use “

Exercise: Write the following sentences in the reported speech.

1- He complained: “The neighbours are noisy”.
2- She thought:” I bought some biscuits yesterday, but I can’t find
them in the cupboard”.
3- The teacher explained: “The exam will be different this year”.
4- The shop keeper assured me: “The freezer will be delivered
tomorrow”.
5- The authorities warned us: “The building is unsafe”.

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 Cleft Sentences

Cleft sentences are used to help focus on a particular part

of the sentence and to emphasize what we want to say by
introducing it or building up to it with a kind of relative clause.
Because there are two parts to the sentence it is called cleft (from
the verb cleave) which means divided into two.
Cleft sentences are particularly useful in writing where we
cannot use intonation for purposes of focus or emphasis, but they
are also frequently used in speech.
Cleft structures include: the reason why, the thing that, the
person/ people who, the place where, the day when and what
clauses which are usually linked to the clause that we want to
focus on with is or was.
Examples: Compare the following sets of sentences and notice

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how the cleft structure in each case enables us to select the
information we want to focus on.
- I’ve come to discuss my future with you.
- The reason why I’ve come is to discuss my future with you.

-Your generosity impresses more than anything else

- The thing that impresses me more than anything else is your
generosity.

- The jewels are hidden under the floor at 23 Robin Hood

Road, Epping.
- The place where the jewels are hidden is under the floor at
23 Robin Hood Road, Epping.

- Mary works harder than anybody else in this organization.

- The person who works harder than anybody else in this
organization is Mary.
- Mary is the person in this organisation who works harder than
anybody else.

- The Second World War ended on 7 MAY 1945 in Europe.

- The day (when) the Second World War ended in Europe
was 7 May 1945.
- 7 May 1945 was the day (when ) the Second World War in
Europe.

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- We now need actions rather than words.
- What we now need is actions rather than words.
- Actions rather than words are what we need now.

- I enjoyed the brilliant music most of all in the ballet

performance.
- What I enjoyed most in the ballet performance was the
brilliant music.
- The brilliant music was what I enjoyed most.

Note from the last two examples that cleft structures with
what clauses are often used with verbs expressing an emotive
response to something like: adore, enjoy, hate, like, love, need…
Cleft structures with what clauses are also often used with does,
do, did and with the verb happen when we want to give emphasis
to the whole sentence rather than a particular clause.
Compare the following:
- The police interviewed all the witnesses to the accident
first.
- What the police did first was (to) interview all the
witnesses to the accident.
It is sometimes very effective to use all instead of what in a cleft
structure if you want to focus on one particular thing and nothing
else.

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 - I want a new coat for Christmas.
- All I want for Christmas is a new coat.
- A new coat is all I want for Christmas.
We can also use preparatory “it” in cleft sentences and join the
words that we want to focus on to the relative clause with that,
who, or when. In the following example, note how the construction
enables us to focus on different aspects of the information which
may be important at the time:
- My brother bought his new car from our next- door
neighbour last Saturday.
- It was my brother who…….
- It was last Saturday when……..
- It was a new car that………..
- It was our next-door neighbour that……..
Exercises:
Exercise 01: Make cleft sentences from the following examples:
1- John broke the window.
2- John broke the window with a hammer.
3- John broke the window today.
4- I will remember her kindness.
5- Professor Plum was murdered by Miss Scarlett in the library
with the dagger.

Exercise 02: Put the parts in order to form a cleft sentence.

1- that loved he was it sailing world most the in.

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2- December we that was met first it in.
3- It’s cooking in the of my the does sister
family most who.
4- Of was he all own to a wanted have car his.
5- The what was she did police phone.

Comment clauses
The comment clause is defined in terms of its discourse
function. It is to provide the speaker’s comment on the content of
another clause (the matrix clause). Syntactically, the comment
clause functions as a disjunct in the matrix clause.
One type of comment clause has the formal characteristics
of a main declarative clause, but it differs from ‘normal” main
clauses in that it can occur within another clause (thus
resembling a subordinate clause).
Example: John, I think, is a fool.
John is a fool, I think.

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In initial position such a comment clause would be
indistinguishable from a main clause. “I think John is a fool”.
Semantically, such a comment clause indicates that the matrix
clause expresses the speaker’s own opinion. Other comment
clauses can be used to modify or mark the discourse function of
the matrix.
Examples:
You see, it’s too late to do anything about this now. (softening a
statement).
Why are you so late? Well you see, the bus broke down, so I had to
walk. (explanation)
You know, this is something we’ll have to think about. (seeking
agreement).

Unlike “I think” and “I believe”, “You know” and “You see”

can be used in initial position, too. Their status as comment
clauses is marked in speech by the fact that they typically form
separate tone units. The tone unit boundary is conventionally
represented in writing by a comma.
Another type of comment clause has the formal
characteristics of an adverbial sub-clause introduced by “as”.
Examples:
As I keep saying, we can’t solve these problems without
increased funds.
John has resigned, as you may have heard.

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This type of clause serves as a comment on the communicative
status of the matrix clause, ie: whether the information presented
in the matrix clause has been mentioned before, is known to the
hearer, and so on.

Conditionals

The conditional says that an action is reliant on something

else. The two most common conditionals are real and unreal, they
are sometimes called “if clauses”.
- The real conditional (type I) describes situations based on

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 facts.
- The unreal conditional (type II) describes unreal or
imaginary situations.
- There is also what we call the third conditional (type III) ,
used to express no possibility of something having
happened in the past, and the conditional 0 (zero
conditional) , used to express absolute certainty.

-Type 1:
If I see you tomorrow, I’ll buy you a drink.
I’ll buy you a drink if I see you tomorrow
Note: Never use will or won’t in the if clause.
Use: To express situations based on fact in the present or future
(things which may happen).

- Type2:
If I won the lottery, I would buy a new house.
I would buy a new house if I won the lottery.
Use: to express unreal situations in the present or future. Often
used to express a wish.

- Type 3:
If I had worked harder, I would, could, should have passed my
exam.
I would, could, should have passed my exam if I had worked

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harder.
Use: To express conditions in the past that did not happen. Often
used to express criticism or regret with would have, could have or
should have.

-Type 0:
If you heat water to 100°c, it boils.
Water boils if you heat it to 100°c.
Use: To express general truths and facts (often based on
scientific facts).

Exercises:
Exercise 01: Put the verb into the correct form:
1- They would be rather offended if I (not/ go).
2- If you took more exercise, you (feel) better.
3- I’m sure Amy will lend you the money. I’d be very surprised if
she (refuse).
4- A lot of people would be out of work if the factory (close down).
5- I’m sure Sue (understand) if you had explained the situation to
her.

Exercise 02: Use you own ideas to complete these sentences.

1- If you took more exercise,………
2- I’d feel angry if…………..
3- If I didn’t go to work tomorrow,……….

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4- Would you go to the party if………….
5- If you bought some new clothes……………………
6- Would you mind if…………………………

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 Questions, Answers, Negatives
I- Basic question structure:
The basic structure of a question in English is very simple:
Auxiliary verb+ subject+ main verb
Examples :
-Do you like Mary?
- Are they playing football?
- Will Anthony go to Tokyo?
- Have you seen it?

Basic Question Types:

There are three basic types of questions:
1- Yes/ No questions:
A question that can be answered by “yes” or “no”.
Examples:
Does Ann live in Montreal? Yes, she does.
Do you want dinner? Yes, I do.
Can you drive? No, I can’t.
Has she finished her work? Yes, she has.
Did they go home? No, they didn’t.

2- Question word questions:

A question that asks for information by using a question word:
where- when- who- why.
Examples:

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Where do you live? In Paris.
When will we have lunch? At 01 pm.
Who did she meet? She met John.
Why hasn’t Tara done it? Because she can’t.

3- Choice Questions:
They are formed by using “or” to make the choice.
Examples:
- Do you want tea or coffee? Coffee, please.
- Will we meet John or James? John.
- Did she go to London or New York? She went to London.
II- Asking and answering negative questions:
- We can sometimes use negative “yes/ no” or “wh” questions to
make a suggestion, to persuade someone, to criticize or to show
that we are surprised.
Example:
Why don’t we go out for a meal? A suggestion.
Wouldn’t it be better to go tomorrow instead? Persuading
somebody.
- We usually make a negative “yes/ No” or “wh” question with an
auxiliary verb+ not before the subject.
Examples:
Doesn’t he want to come with us?
Haven’t you got anything better to do?
Why can’t we go by bus?

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In more formal speech and writing, or when we want to give some
special emphasis to the negative, we can put “not” after the
subject.
Examples:
Did she not realize that she had broken the window?
Can’t they remember anything about it?
Why did you not return the money?
If the question word is the subject, we put “n’t” or not after the
auxiliary verb.
Example: Who wouldn’t like to own an expensive sports car? (not
who not would like….).
- We sometimes use negative words other than “not” or “n’t” such
as: never, no, nobody, nothing, nowhere.
Examples:
Why do you never help me with my homework?
Have you no money left?
Have you nowhere to go?
- We can make a suggestion by “why not+ verb” or “why don’t/
doesn’t”.
Examples:
Why not decorate the house yourself?
Why don’t you decorate the house yourself?
Why not give her what she wants?
Why don’t we give her what she wants?
Note: “Why didn’t” is not for suggestion but for criticism.

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Example: Why didn’t you tell me the truth?

Exercise 01:
Write an appropriate negative question for each situation. Use
“n’t” in your answer.
1- Can you show me where his office is?
2- A: ’m afraid I won’t be able to give you a lift home.
B: Why not……
3- A: I’ve left my job at sonelgaz
B: Why?.............
4- A: Will you help me look for my purse?
B: WhY?…………
5- A: May be it would be better not to give that vase to
David for Christmas.
B: Why not?..................

Exercise 02:
Look at the long answer and then write the appropriate
“yes/no” question. Do not use a negative verb in the
question. An example is provided.
I don’t know your brother.
A: Do you know my brother?
B: No, I don’t.
1- Aspirin relieves pain.
2- Snakes don’t have legs.

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3- Snakes can’t move backward.
4- The United States is in North America.
5- I enjoyed the movie.
6- David has left.
7- He left with Ann.

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 Substitution

It is a way of avoiding repetition . The most important

words and expressions used for substitution are:
1- Reflexive pronouns:
Reflexive pronouns are: myself, yourself, himself, herself,
itself, ourselves, themselves and, yourselves.
They are use when the subject and object of a sentence
refer to the same person or thing. They are used as object
rather than subject pronoun. Reflexive pronouns can also
be used for emphasis
Examples:
I hope you like the ice cream, I made it myself.
We phoned the number and he came himself.
Some verbs are rarely or never used with reflexive
pronouns: complain, concentrate, get yp, lie down, meet,
relax, remember, sit down, wake up.
Example: She concentrated hard on getting the job finished.
(not she concentrated herself).
After a preposition of place or position, we use a personal
pronoun not a reflexive pronoun.
Example:
Jim had the money with him (not with himself).

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2- One and ones:
One is used instead or repeating a singular countable noun
when it is clear from the context what we are talking about.
Example:
Nowadays, many people have a mobile phone, but I have
never used one.
Ones can be used instead of repeating a plural noun
Example:
I think his best poems are his early ones.
Notice that we can’t use ones without additional
information (small ones). I nstead, we use “some”
Example:
We need new curtains. Ok, let’s buy green ones this time.
We need new curtains. Ok, let’s buy some (not , lets buy
ones).

3- So:
So is used instead of repeating an adjective, adverb or
whole clause.
Examples:
The workers were angry and they every right to be so.
Ali took the work and Asma perhaps even more so.

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Bob should be the new director. At least I think so.
We often use “so” after verbs concerned with thinking such
as: be afraid, appear, seem, assume, believe, expect, guess,
hope, imagine, presume, suppose, suspect, think, and also
after say and tell.
We do not use “so” after certain verbs including: accept,
admit, agree, be certain, claim, doubt, hear, intend, promise,
suggest and be sure.
Examples:
The train will be on time today. I’m sure it will. Not: I’m sure
so.
In negative sentences we use not or not….so

Examples:
Is the socialist party offering anything new I, its statement?
It would appear not or: it would not appear so.
They want to buy the house although they didn’t say so
directly.

4- Do so:
We use “do so” instead of repeating a verb + object or verb
+ complement when it is clear from the context what we
are talking about. We can also use does so, did so, doing
so…..
Examples:

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She won the competition in 1997 and seems likely to do so
again this year.
Doctor Smith said “sit down”. Mary did so (sat down).
We can also use “do” alone rather than “do so” in less
formal English, especially after modals or perfect tenses.
Example:
Will this programme work on your computer? It should do.

5- Such:
We use “such” + a (an) + noun to refer to something
mentioned before, with the meaning (of this / that kind).
We use such+a / an + noun when the noun is uncountable.
Such is used in this way in formal speech and writing.
Example:
We allow both men and women to have time off work to
bring up children. We were the first department to
introduce such a scheme.

Other examples of substitution:

To avoid repeating words from a previous clause or
sentence, we can use an auxiliary verb (be, have, can, will)
instead of the whole verb group.
Examples:
She says she’s finished but I don’t think she has.
Are you going to read it? Well, no, I am not.

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If there is more than one auxiliary verb in the previous
clause or sentence, we leave out all the auxiliaries.
If there is no auxiliary verb in the previous clause or
sentence or if the auxiliary is a form of “do” , we use a form
of “do” instead of repeating the main verb
Examples:
I now play chess as well as he does.
I didn’t steal the money. No one thinks that you did.
If ‘be’ is the main verb in the previous clause or sentence or
if the auxiliary is a form of “do” , we use the main verb.
Examples:
The children are noisy again. They always are.
I’m not happy in my job. I thought you are.
Exercises:
Exercise 01: If possible replace the underlined words or
phrases with one /ones. I f it is not possible, write “no”
after the sentence.
1- Their marriage was a long and happy marriage.
2- We have got most of the equipment we need, but there
are still some small pieces of equipment we have to buy.
3- Traffic is light in most of the city, but there is heavy
traffic near the football stadium.
4- “Are these your shoes?” “No, the blue shoes are mine”.
5- All the cakes look good, but I think I’ll have that cake on
the left.

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 6- I was hoping to borrow a suit from Chris, but his suit
doesn’t fit me.
7- At present, the music industry is in a better financial
state than the film industry.
8- Have you seen that the clothes shop on the corner has
re-opened as a shoe shop?
9- The damage to the car was a problem, of course, but an
easily solved problem.

Exercise 02: Complete these sentences with one of the following

words: and, either, to (or to be), allowed, appears, continue,
deserved, fail.
1- The weather was good yesterday and will……..over the next
few days.
2- “Is it a beetle?” No, it is a spider. At least it ………to be.
3- You should hand in your work by Thursday, but you won’t
have marks deducted if you ……to.
4- She was fined 500 dinars and ……..to be.
5- I couldn’t keep the cat. I wasn’t……. to.

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 Ellipsis

We often leave out words to avoid repetition, or in other

cases when the meaning can be understood without them. This is
called ellipsis.

Ellipsis with “and”, “but” and “or”:

When expressions are joined by “and, but, or”, we often leave out
repeated words or phrases of various kinds.
Examples:
A knife and (a) fork.
She can read, but (she) can’t write.
She was poor, but (she was) honest.
We drove (across America), rode (across America), flew (across
America) and sailed across America.
Word order:

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Note that when two verbs, objects…are the same, it is not always
the second that is left out. We leave out the first if that will
produce a simpler word order and sentence structure.
Examples:
Cats (catch mice) and dogs catch mice. Not: cats catch mice and
dogs.
I can (go) and will go.
In formal speech and writing, ellipsis does not usually interrupt
the normal word order of a clause or sentence. Sentences like the
following are typical of a more formal style.
Example:
Peter planned and Jane paid for the holiday.
Kevin likes dancing and Ann athletics.
The children will carry the small boxes and the adults the large
ones.
- We can sometimes drop a verb that is repeated in a different
form.
Example: I have always paid my bills and I always will (pay).

Singular and plural:

When one verb follows two singular subjects connected by “and”,
a plural verb is of course used if necessary.
Example:
My mother and father smoke (not smokes).
When two singular subjects are connected by “or”, the verb is

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singular.
Example:
Either John or Jack was here this morning.
The same could be said for singular and plural verbs with
neither…nor.
Example:
Neither Mohamed nor Ali speaks German.

Ellipsis at the beginning of a sentence:

- Words that can be left out: In formal spoken English, we often
leave out unstressed words at the beginning of the sentence if the
meaning is clear without them. Words that can be left out include
articles (the , a , an), possessives (my, your), personal pronouns (I,
you), auxiliary verbs (am, have) and the preparatory subject there.

Examples:
(The) Cat’s running badly.
(My) wife’s on holiday.
(I) couldn’t understand a word.
(There is) nobody at home.
(Be) careful what you say.

Tags: Ellipsis is very common in sentences that have some sort

of tag at the end, especially in British English.
Example: Dutch, aren’t you?

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Ellipsis in noun clauses:
A repeated noun can sometimes be dropped after an
adjective if the meaning is clear especially when one is talking
about common kinds of choice.
Example:
What kind of potatoes would you like? Boiled (potatoes), please.

Ellipsis after determiners:

Nouns can also be dropped after most determiners and similar
words, including numbers, nouns with possessive’s own and (an)
other.
Examples:
These are Mary’s gloves, and these (gloves) are mine.
I’m not sure how many packets I need, but I’ll take two (packets).
Our train is the second (train) from this platform.
You take John’s car and I’ll take Mary’s (car).
Can I borrow your pen? No? find your own (pen).
Well -known names:
The last words of well known names are often dropped.
Example:
She’s staying at the Hilton.( the Hilton hotel).
When we talk about people’s houses and shops, the words
“house” and “shop” are often dropped.
Examples:

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We spent the week end at John and Mary’s (house).
Could you pick up some meat from the butcher’s (shop).

Ellipsis after auxiliary verbs:

Auxiliary instead of complete verb phrase: We can avoid repetition
by using an auxiliary verb instead of a complete verb phrase if the
meaning is clear. The auxiliary verb usually has a “strong”
pronunciation, and contractions are not normally used except in
negatives.
Example:
He said he’d write, but he hasn’t (hasn’t written).
Other words, as well as the rest of the verb phrase, can be left out
after the auxiliary, for example, an object, a complement, an
adverbial or even a whole clause.
Example:
I can’t see you today, but I can tomorrow.
Ellipsis is used regularly in short answers, reply questions and
tags.
Examples:
Have you finished? Yes, I have.
You don’t drive, do you?

Ellipsis with the infinitive:

We can use “to” instead of a whole infinitive of a repeated verb if
the meaning is clear.

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Examples:
Let’s go for a walk. I don’t want to (walk).
I don’t dance much now but I used to. (dance).
Sorry I shouted at you. I didn’t mean to (shout).
In some cases, the whole infinitive can be left out. This happens
after nouns and adjectives, and after verbs which can stand alone
without a following infinitive.
Examples:
He’ll never leave home, he hasn’t got the courage to
You can’t force him to leave home if he’s not ready to.
Can you start the car? I’ll try to.
Exercise: Give the ellipted form of the following sentences if
necessary
1- Is she out this evening? Yes, she is working this evening.
2- She was poor but she was honest.
3- Have you seen Ali? Yes, I have seen Ali.
4- My car isn’t working. I’ll have to use Jack’s car.
5- I was planning to go to Paris next week, but I can’t go to Paris
next week.
6- Are you and John getting married? We hope to get married.
7- This is the restaurant which I was talking about .
8- Phone me if it is necessary.
9- The food is ready and the drinks are ready.
10- I have always paid my bills and I will always pay my bills.

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 Modals
All the auxiliary verbs except “be”, “do” and “have” are
called Modals. Unlike the other auxiliary verbs, modals only exist
in their helping form; they cannot act alone as the principle verb in
a sentence.
“Be, do, and have” differ from the other auxiliaries in that they can

191
also serve as ordinary verbs in a given sentence.The modal verbs
are: can, could, may, might, shall, should, ought to, will, would.

Modal Example Uses

Can -They can control -Ability, possibility
budgets - Inability, impossibility
- We can’t fix it - Asking for
- Can I smoke here? permission
- Can you help me? - Request

Could -Could I borrow your - Asking for

dictionary? permission
- Could you say it - Request
again more slowly?
- We could try to fix it - Suggestion
ourselves. - Future possibility
- I think we could
have another Gulf - Ability in the past
war.
- He gave up his old
job so he could work
for us
May - May I have another - Asking for
cup of tea? permission
- China may become - Future possibility

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 a major economic
power.
Might - They might give us - Future possibility
a discount.
Must - We must say good - Necessity, obligation
bye now. - Prohibition
- They mustn’t
disrupt the work
more than necessary
Ought to - We ought to - Saying what’s right or
employ a correct
professional writer
Shall - Shall I help you with - Offer
the luggage?
- Shall we say 2.30 - Suggestion
then? - Asking what to do
- Shall I do that or
will you?
Should - We should sort out - Saying what’s right or
this problem at once correct
- I think we should
check everything - Recommending
again action
- Profits should
increase next year - uncertain prediction

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Will - I can’t see any taxis - Instant decision
so I’ll walk - Offer
- I’ll do that for you if - Promise
you like
- I’ll get back to you - Certain prediction
first thing on
Monday
- Profits will increase
next year
Would - Would you mind if I - Asking for
brought a colleague permission
with me?
- Would you pass the - Request
salt please? - Request
- Would you mind
waiting a moment? - Invitation
- Would you like to
play tennis this - Making
Friday? arrangements
- Would three o’clock - Preferences
suit you?
- Would you prefer
tea or coffee?

Note: Modals are always followed by the base form of the verb.

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Exercises:
Exercise 01: Complete the sentences using “can”, “be able to”,
“can’t”, “could”, “couldn’t”.
1- George traveled a lot. He …..speak four languages.
2- I can’t understand Martin. I’ve never ……..understand him.
3- I used to …….stand on my head but I can’t do it now.
4- You look tired. Yes, I ……….sleep last night.
5- I was feeling sick yesterday. I …….eat anything.
6- I’m afraid I ……… come to your party next week.

Exercise 02: Read the situations and use the words in brackets to
write sentences with “must have” and “can’t have”.
1- The phone rang but I didn’t hear it. (I /asleep).
2- Jane walked past me without speaking (she / see/ me).
3- The jacket you bought is very good quality (it / very /
expensive).
4- I can’t find my umbrella. (I / leave/ it in my office/ yesterday).
5- Fionna did the opposite of what I asked her to do. (she/
understand/ what I said).

Exercise 03: Write these sentences in a different way using “may”

or “might”.
1- Perhaps Margaret is in her office.
2- Perhaps she is busy.

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3- Perhaps she is working.
4- Perhaps she wants to be alone.
5- Perhaps she was ill yesterday.
6- Perhaps she went home early.
7- Perhaps she was working yesterday.

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 Semi modals
Semi modals are called so because they are partly like modal
helping verbs and partly like main verbs.
Here are few examples of semi modals:
1- Have (got) to:
-We use “have to” to say what is necessary to do. “Have to” is
impersonal, we use it for facts, not our personal feelings. It can be
used in all forms: past (I had to go to hospital), present perfect
(have you ever had to go to hospital?).
-In questions and negative sentences with “have to”, we normally
use “do, did, does”.
Examples:
What do I have to do to get a driving license? (What have I to do?)
Why did you have to go to hospital?
Karen doesn’t have to work on Saturdays.
-We can use “have got to” instead of “have to”. So you can say:
I’ve got to work tomorrow or : I have to work tomorrow.
When has Ann got to go? or: When does Ann have to go?
-Although “have got to” is less formal than “have to” and
particularly common in spoken English.

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2- Ought to:
We can often use “ought to” to talk about obligations and
recommendations and probability and advice.
- “Ought to” is used particularly in speech and most often to talk
about obligation rather than probability.
- We use “ought to” to say that something is advisable.
Example: John ought to find a new job.
- We use “ought to+ have+ past participle” to talk about
something that didn’t happen in the past and we are sorry that it
didn’t.
- The negative form is “ought not to”
Example: The builders ought not to have finished by the end of the
week.

3- Had better:
We use “had better” for urgent advice when you believe that
something bad will happen if a person doesn’t follow the advice.
The negative of “had better” is “had better not”.
Example: You had better not be late (not you not….).
“Had better” always refer to the present or the future, never to the
past.

4- Dare:

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In the negative and the interrogative “dare” can be conjugated like
an ordinary or like an auxiliary verb.

5- Used to:
We use “used to” to talk about something that happened
repeatedly and regularly in the past and don’t happen now. The
structure is “I used to do” not “I am used to do”.
We also use “used to” for something that was true but is not true
anymore.
Example: I used to think he was unfriendly, but now I realize he is
a very nice person.
The negative form is: I didn’t use to like him. or: I used not to like
him.
The question form is: Did you use to eat a lot of sweets when you
were a child?

6- Be able to:
We use “be able to” to talk about ability in the present. We prefer
“be able to” when we talk about a specific achievement
(particularly if it is a difficult task requiring some effort) rather
than a general ability.
Example: Sami could read when he was four. He was able to use a
computer too.

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The negative form is: I was not able to do one problem.

7- Need/ not:
When i t is a modal verb, “need” is most commonly used in
negative sentences, often with verbs like: bother, concern, fear,
worry, panic.
Example: I have already cleaned the car so you needn’t bother to
do it.
We use “need not” to give permission, serve. We can use either
needn’t or don’t need to .
Example: You needn’t cut the grass. I will do it later. Or: You don’t
need to cut the grass.

Exercises:
Exercise01:
Complete the sentences with the appropriate semi modal (have to,
ought to, had better, dare, used to, be able to, and need not).
1- I doubt that he will …….to work; his injuries are so severe.
2- I ……. Like going to pop concerts when I was a teenager.
3- Here is someone you really ……..meet.
4- Jane had to get………driving on the left.
5- I had some free time yesterday, so I was…….to write few letters.
6- As I will not be at home tonight, I ……. Do my homework during
my lunch break.
7- We have got plenty of time. We ……hurry.

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8- He doesn’t ……….to say anything.
9- I need some money. I …….go to the bank.

Exercise 02: Choose the best answer:

1- I have not…….sleep very well recently (be able to / can).
2- Sandra……..drives, but she hasn’t got a car (be able to / can).
3- I …….. got up early tomorrow, I’m going away and my train
leaves at 07.30 (have to / must)
4- I …… get up early tomorrow, there are a lot of things I want to do.
(must / have to).
5- I have an appointment in ten minutes, I ……go now, or I will be
late. (had better / should).
6- It is a great film, you ……..go and see it. You will really like it.
(had better / should).
7- When the weather was good, we………go walking in the hills
every week end (would / used to).

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 Adverbs with two forms
In some case, the adverb may have two forms, one like the
adjective and the other with “ly”. There is usually a difference of
meaning or use. Some examples are given below:

Dead and Deadly:

In certain expressions, the adverb “dead” is used to mean
“exactly”, “completely” or “very”.
Deadly is an adjective. It means “fatal”, causing death. The adverb
for this meaning is fatally.
Examples:
Cyanide is a deadly poison.
She was fatally injured.

Fine and Finely:

The adverb “fine” means “well”.
How are you? I am fine.

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The adverb “finely” is used to talk about small careful
adjustments and similar ideas.
A finely tuned machine.

Free and Freely:

When used after a verb, the adverb “free” means without payment.
Buy two shirts and get one free.
Can I eat free in your restaurant?
Freely means “without limit or restriction”
Speak freely.

Hard and Hardly:

The adverb hard means “heavily”, “severely” or “with difficulty”.
You must work hard.
Hardly means “almost not”.
I have hardly any money left.

Late and Lately:

The adverb late has a similar meaning to the adjective late. Lately
means “a short time ago” and “recently”.
We will be late for dinner.
It is getting late.
I haven’t read anything lately.

Most and Mostly:

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Most is the superlative of much. It is used to form superlative
adjectives and adverbs.
Those who have the most are not always the happiest.
What pleased me most was his helping nature.
Mostly means ”chiefly”, “generally” or “in most cases”.
My friends are mostly non smokers.

Real and Really:

In informal American English, real is often used before adjectives
and adverbs. It means the same as really.
That was real nice = really nice.
She sings real well = really well.

Sure and Surely:

In an informal style, sure is often used to mean “certainly”. This is
common in American English.
Can I borrow your bicycle? Sure.

Exercise: Choose the correct adverb.

1- He works (hard, hardly).
2- He followed the lecture (closely, close).
3- They (hardly, hard) do any work.
4- She (flat, flatly) refused to help.
5- It’s supposed to be a secret, but it is (widely, wide) known.

204
6- The dentist asked her to open her mouth (widely, wide).
7- That idiot (near, nearly) crashed into us.
8- He always comes (late, lately).
9- She’s been coming here every day (late, lately).
10- Pensioners can travel (free, freely) on local buses.
11- The road runs (nearly, near) the town centre.
12- She’s (high, highly) thought of by her colleagues.
13- Feeling ran (high, highly) during the conflict.
14- Homeless people have to sleep (roughly, rough).
15- The police treated the hooligans (rough, roughly).

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 Intensifiers

An intensifier is an adverb which is used to modify adjectives and

adverbs, but which is not usually used to modify verbs.
Examples:
I am very happy
The film was quite good
You did that rather well
Must you leave so soon?

Intensifiers are called adverbs of degree. They answer the

questions how, how far, how much. They modify other words
especially adjectives, adverbs and verbs.

Use:
We use degree words to place an idea or quality on a scale from
positive to negative

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Example: John said: What was the movie mum?
It was absolutely perfect. (really excellent, very good indeed, very
good, quite good, fairly good).
Not very good, rather poor, bad, very bad, extremely bad, dreadful.

Scales of degrees:
- The highest degree: completely, full, totally different.
- High degree: Very, full, extremely.
- Middle / low degree. Rather full, pretty, good.

Position of degree words:

Degree words usually go before adjectives, adverbs and
comparative words.
Examples:
Quite young
So quiet
Very often
Too slowly
Too quickly
Much older
Rather more
“Enough” is a special exception to the rule as a degree word. It
follows the word it modifies, even when it is an adjective or
adverb.
The position of degree words with verbs varies. Some degree

207
words go before the verb (quite, rather).
Examples:
I rather like her.
Have you quite finished?
”most” goes before and after the verb+ the object.
Example: We failed completely. We completely failed.

Exercise: Put one of these adverbs in the appropriate place: very,

very much, enough, much, far, fairly, too, so, completely, rather.
1- At the age of five, my son was ……afraid of dark, he felt…..alone.
2- I think her presentation is ……. The best, she speaks far……..fast.
3- She cooks well ……, I suppose she could be excellent if she took
more trouble.
4- That is a …….. pleasant room.
5- I walk …… fast, but Ann walks ……..slowly.
6- The wallet was …….big to put in my pocket.
7- All what you have done is …….wrong, you are ……insane.
8- There were ……… twenty people there.
9- I was ……. Busy when I met Ann, I …….. looked at her, but she
looked…… at me.
10- You work hard ……. For the firm, but you never spend any time
with the family.
11- I ……. Like the smell of petrol.

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 Bibliography

- Bander G. Robert: American English Rhetoric (third edition) ,

Holt, Rineheart and Winston, 1983.
- Smalley L. Regina and Ruetton K. Mary (second edition), Mc
Millan publishing Company, New York.
- Dornan A. and Dawe W. Charles: The Brief English
Handbook. 1984.
- Murphy Raymond: English Grammar in Use (second edition)
CUP 1994.
- Hewings Martin : Adavnced Grammar in Use. CUP 1999.
- Thomson A.J and Martinet A.V: A Practical English
Grammar OUP 1980.
- http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/ mla/ practical _guide.shtml.
A Guide for Writing Research Papers Based on Modern

209
Language Association (MLA) Documentation.
- http://www.rscc.cc.tn.us/ow/&writing center / owl/
narration.html/. A Brief Guide to Writing Narrative Essays .
The RSCC online writing lab.1988 Jennifer Jordan- Henley.
- http://www.Poetrymagic.co.uk/ whatis poetry.html. Writing
Poetry: Approaches.
- http://ok.essortment.com/writingshortst-rrmi.html. Writing
Short Stories That Work.
- http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs.questions-
tag.htm. Tag Questions. English Club.com.
- http://www.learnenglish.de/grammarpage.htm.
-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/stative_verb.

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