1 - Chapter 8 (Matrix)

Engineering Mathematics
Chapter 8: Matrices
by
Dr.Adnan Daraghmeh
Department of Mathematics
An-Najah National University
2021-2022
1
Matrices, 2021 Dr.Adnan Daraghmeh Lecture Notes - Page 2 of 66
Section 8.1: Matrix Algebra
Definition: A matrix is any rectangular array of numbers or functions

 
a11 a12 · · · a1n
 a21 a22 · · · a2n 
 
 .. .. . . .. 
 . . . . 
am1 am2 · · · amn
We denote a matrix by a capital boldfaced letter such as A, B, C, or X.
The numbers or functions are called entries or elements of the matrix.
If a matrix has m rows and n columns we say that its size is m by n (written m × n).
An n × n matrix is called a square matrix or a matrix of order n.
The entry in the ith row and j th column of an m × n matrix A is written aij .
An m × n matrix A is then abbreviated as

A = aij m×n
For an n × n square matrix, the entries a11 , a22 , · · · , ann are called the main diagonal
entries.
Definition: Column and Row Vectors

An n × 1 matrix,  
a1
 a2 
 
 .. 
.
an
is called a column vector.
An 1 × n matrix,
a1 a2 · · · an
is called a row vector.
 −3 
3 −8 π 5  
−3 7 6 12  5 −6 2
 
Example 1: Let A =  4 9 10  and B = −8 9 0 . Find
11 
  
 3 −8 −5 4 
7 −3 5 4
2 3 6 13
a) The size of A.
solution:
b) The size of B.
solution:
c) a22 , b22 , a53 and b42

solution:

 2i ,i > j
Example 2: Find a matrix A = aij 3×4
such that aij = i + 2j ,i = j
3−j ,i < j

solution:
Definition: Equality of Matrices

Two m × n matrices A and B are equal if aij = bij for each i and j.
Example 1: Find the value(s) of x and y

1 x 1 y−2
a) = .
y −3 y 2 −3
solution:
2
x 3 16 3
b) = .
y 2 −8 9 2x
solution:
Definition:
Matrix Addition: If A and B are m × n matrices, then their sum is

A + B = aij + bij m×n
Scalar Multiple of a Matrix:

If k is a real number, then the scalar multiple of a matrix A is
 
ka11 ka12 · · · ka1n
 ka21 ka22 · · · ka2n 
kA =  . = kaij m×n
 
. . .
 .. .. .. .. 

kam1 kam2 · · · kamn
The difference of two m × n matrices is defined in the usual manner:
A − B = A + (−B)

1 3 4 −2 −1 6 7
Example 1: Given A = ,B = and C = . Find if possible
5 −3 7 8 2 −3 9
a) A + B and B + A
solution:
b) A − B and B − A.
solution:
c) A − C and C + B.
solution:
d) 3A − 2B
solution:
Properties of Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication :

Suppose A, B, and C are m × n matrices and k1 and k2 are scalars. Then
A + B = B + A and A − B 6= B − A
A+ B+C = A+B +C

k1 k2 A = k1 k2 A

1A = A
k1 A + B = k1 A + k1 B

k1 + k2 A = k1 A + k2 A

1 3 4 −2
Example 2: Find the matrix X such that 5X + =2 + 3X
5 −3 7 8
solution:
Matrix Multiplication:
Let A be a matrix having m rows and p columns, and let B be a matrix

having p rows and n columns. The product AB is the m × n matrix
  
a11 a12 ··· a1p b11 b12 · · · b1n
 a21 a22 ··· a2p  b21 b22 · · · b2n 
AB =  .
  
.. .. ..   .. .. .. .. 
 .. . . .  . . . . 
am1 am2 · · · amp bp1 bp2 · · · bpn
 
a11 b11 + a12 b21 + ··· +a1p bp1 + ··· +a11 b1n + a12 b2n + ···
+a1p bpn
 a21 b11 + a22 b21 + ··· +a2p bp1 + ··· +a21 b1n + a22 b2n + ···
+a2p bpn 
=
 
.. .. 
 . . 
am1 b11 + am2 b21 + · · · +amp bp1 + · · · +am1 b1n + am2 b2n + · · · +amp bpn
p
!
X
= aik bkj
k=1 m×n
The product C = AB is defined only when the number of columns in the

matrix A is the same as the number of rows in B. The dimension of the
product can be determined from
Am×n × Bn×p = Cm×p

1 3 4 −2 −1 6 7
5 −3 7 8 2 −3 9
a) AB and BA
solution:
b) AC and CA.
solution:
 
3 −8 4 −3  
−3 7 5 −6 2
6 12 
−8 9
 0
Example 2: Let A =  4 9 10 11 
 and B = −3 5
 . If C = AB, find the

 3 −8 −5 4  4 
10 6 −2
2 3 6 13
value of c42
solution:
Properties Matrix Multiplication:
If A is an m × p matrix, B a p × r matrix, and C an r × n matrix, then the

product
A(BC) = (AB)C
is an m × n matrix.
If B and C are both r × n matrices and A is an m × r matrix, then
A(B + C) = AB + AC
Furthermore, if the product (B + C)A is defined, then
(B + C)A = BA + CA
If n is an integer number and A is a square matrix, then
An = AAA
| {z· · · A}
n−times

1 3 4 −2 −1 6
5 −3 7 8 2 −3
a) A3
solution:
b) (AB)C and A(BC).

solution:
Transpose of a Matrix:
The transpose of the m × n matrix

 
a11 a12 ··· a1n
 a21 a22 ··· a2n 
A= .
 
.. .. .. 
 .. . . . 
is the n × m matrix AT given by

 
a11 a21 ··· am1
 a12 a22 ··· am2 
AT =  .
 
.. .. .. 
 .. . . . 
a1n a2n · · · amn
In other words, the rows of a matrix A become the columns of its transpose
AT .
Properties of Transpose: Suppose A and B are matrices and k a scalar.
Then
T
AT =A
T
A+B = AT + B T
T
A+B+C = AT + B T + C T
T
AB = B T AT
T
ABC = C T B T AT
T
kA = kAT

1 3 4 −2 −1 6
Example 1: Given A = ,B = and C = . Find
5 −3 7 8 2 −3
T
a) AT
solution:
T
b) A+B+C
solution:
T
c) 2CB
solution:
T
d) 3B
solution:
T
e) A2
solution:
Special Matrices
Zero Matrix :
A matrix that consists of all zero entries and is denoted by 0. For example,
 
0 0 0
0
0 = 0 0 0 , 0 =
0
0 0 0
are zero matrices. If A and 0 are n × m matrices, then
A+0=A
A + (−A) = 0
Triangular Matrix :
A a square matrix A = (aij)n×n is said to be a triangular matrix if all its
entries above the main diagonal are zeros or if all its entries below the main
diagonal are zeros.
If aij = 0 whenever i < j, then the matrix is called lower triangular matrix
 
7 0 0 0 0
5 2 0 0 0
 
−6 4 9 0 0
 
3 1 8 −1 0
−5 7 −3 2 6
| {z }
lower triangular matrix
If aij = 0 whenever i > j, then the matrix is called upper triangular matrix
 
3 4 −6 1 9
0
 2 −5 7 6
0
 0 9 2 −1

0 0 0 −1 8 
0 0 0 0 −6
| {z }
upper triangular matrix
Diagonal Matrix :
A a square matrix A = (aij)n×n is said to be a diagonal matrix if all its
entries not on the main diagonal are zeros.
If aij = 0 for i 6= j, then the matrix is called a diagonal matrix.
 
3 0 0
0 2 0 
0 0 9
| {z }
diagonal matrix
Scalar Matrix:
A diagonal matrix A is called scalar matrix, when the entries aii are all
equal.  
3 0 0
0 3 0 
0 0 3
| {z }
scalar matrix
Identity Matrix:
A scalar matrix is called identity matrix, denoted by In , when the entries
of the main diagonal are all equal to one.
 
1 0 ··· 0
0 1 · · · 0
In =  . . .
 
. . . .. 
. . . .
0 0 ··· 1
| {z }
identity matrix
 
1 0 0
I3 = 0 1 0
0 0 1
is an identity matrix of order 3.
For any m × n matrix A it is readily verified that
Im A = AIn = A
Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric Matrix:

An n × n matrix A is said to be symmetric if AT = A
An n× n matrix T
 A is said to be skew-symmetric if A = −A
1 2 7
A = 2 5 8 is symmetric, why?
7 8 6
 
0 1 −2
B = −1 0 3  is skew-symmetric, why?
2 −3 0
Example 1: Determine whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE.

a) A − B A + B = A2 − B 2 (T) (F)
solution:
2
b) A + B = A2 + 2AB + B 2 (T) (F)
solution:
c) If A 6= 0 and AB = 0, then B = 0 (T) (F)

solution:

1
d) If A is a square matrix, then C = 2 A−AT is a skew-symmetric matrix (T) (F)
solution:
e) If A is an m × n matrix, then AAT is a symmetric matrix (T) (F)

solution:
f ) If AB defined and A has a row of zeros, then AB has a row of zeros (T) (F)
solution:
g) Symmetric and upper triangular matrix must be a diagonal matrix (T) (F)
solution:
h) If AB = 0, then A = 0 or B = 0 (T) (F)

solution:
i) If AC = BC, then A = B (T) (F)

solution:
 
2 1
j) Suppose A = 6 3 Verify that the matrix B = AAT is symmetric (T) (F)
2 5
solution:
Section 8.2: Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations
A system of linear equations (or linear system) is a collection of one or

more linear equations involving the same set of variables.
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2
..
.
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm
The matrix (general) form of this linear system is: AX = b

    
a11 a12 · · · a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22 · · · a2n   x2   b2 
..   ..  =  .. 
    
 .. .. . .
 . . . .  .   . 
am1 am2 · · · amn xn bm
| {z } | {z } | {z }
A X b
A: The coefficients matrix

X: The variables matrix
b: The constants matrix.
Homogeneous Systems :
The system AX = b is called homogeneous system, if the matrix (vector)
b is zero.
The system AX = b is called non-homogeneous system, if the matrix (vector)
b is non-zero.
Augmented Matrix
The augmented matrix ( or the matrix of the system) of the system AX = b
is defined as  
a11 a12 · · · a1n b1
  a21 a22 · · · a2n b2 

A |b =  . .. .. .. 
 .. . ··· . . 
am1 am2 · · · amn bm
Example 1: Write the linear system represented by the augmented matrix

1 −3 5 2
4 7 −1 8
solution:
Example 2: Find the augmented matrix ( or the matrix of the system)
x1 − 5x3 = −1
2x1 + 8x2 = 7
x2 + 9x3 = 1
solution:
Elementary Row Operations on A Matrix :
Interchange any two rows i and j : Ri ←→ Rj
Multiply the ith row by a nonzero constant c : cRi
Multiply the ith row by c and add to the j th row : cRi + Rj −→ Rj

2 −4
Example 1: Apply elementary row operations on the matrix: A =
5 1
1 1
a) 2 R1 c) 11 R2
b) −5R1 + R2 d) 2R2 + R1
solution:
Elimination Methods:
We say that two matrices are row equivalent if one can be obtained from
the other through a sequence of elementary row operations.
The procedure of carrying out elementary row operations on a matrix to

obtain a row-equivalent matrix is called row reduction.
Row-Echelon Form (REF): We row-reduce the matrix until we arrive at a

row-equivalent matrix in row-echelon form:
1. The first nonzero entry in a nonzero row is a 1.

2. In consecutive nonzero rows, the first entry 1 in the lower row appears
to the right of the 1 in the higher row.
3. Rows consisting of all zeros are at the bottom of the matrix
Reduced Row-Echelon Form (RREF): We row-reduce the matrix until we

arrive at a row-equivalent matrix in reduced row-echelon form:
1. The first nonzero entry in a nonzero row is a 1.

2. In consecutive nonzero rows, the first entry 1 in the lower row appears
to the right of the 1 in the higher row.
3. Rows consisting of all zeros are at the bottom of the matrix
4. A column containing a first entry 1 has zeros everywhere else.
Example 1: Determine whether the matrix is in row echelon form, reduced row echelon
form, both, or neither
 
1 5 0 2
a) 0 1 0 −1 
0 0 0 0
 
1 0 0 7
b) 0 1 0 −1 
0 0 1 0

0 0 1 −6 2 2
c)
0 0 0 0 1 4

0 0 1 −6 0 −6
d)
0 0 0 0 1 4
 
0 0 1 2 3 6
e) 0 1 0 0 0 4 
0 0 1 0 0 7
Elimination Methods for Solving Linear Systems:

To solve a linear system using an augmented matrix, we shall use either Gaussian
elimination or the Gauss–Jordan elimination method.
In the Gaussian elimination, we stop when we have obtained an augmented

matrix in row-echelon form.
In the Gauss–Jordan method, we stop when we have obtained an augmented

matrix in reduced row-echelon form.
A linear system of equations is said to be consistent if it has at least one

solution (a unique solution) or infinitely many solutions.
A linear system of equations is said to be inconsistent if it has no solutions.
Example 1: Solve the linear system
a)
3x1 + 6x2 = 3
x1 − 4x2 = 7
solution:
b)
3x1 + 6x2 = 3
−x1 − 2x2 = −1
solution:
c)
3x1 + 6x2 = 3
−x1 − 2x2 = 2
solution:
Example 2: Verify that x1 = 14 + 7t, x2 = 9 + 6t, x3 = t, where t is any real number, is a

solution of the system
2x1 − 3x2 + 4x3 = 1

x1 − x2 − x3 = 5
solution:
Example 3: Solve the linear system using
1. Gaussian elimination.
2. Gauss–Jordan elimination.
a)
2x1 + 6x2 + x3 = 7
x1 + 2x2 − x3 = −1
5x1 + 7x2 − 4x3 = 9
solution:
b)
x + 3y − 2z = −7
4x + y + 3z = 5
2x − 5y + 7z = 19
solution:
   
2 2 2 4
Example 4: Let A =  1 3 1 ,b =  0 
−2 −4 −2 −2
a) Write A in REF.
solution:
b) Find all solutions to AX = b ( if exist)

solution:
Example 5: Use Gauss–Jordan elimination to solve the system
i1 − i2 − i3 = 0
i1 R1 + i2 R2 = E
i2 R2 − i3 R3 = 0
when R1 = 10 ohms, R2 = 20 ohms, R3 = 10 ohms, and E = 12 volts. solution:

Example 6: Solve
x1 + x2 = 1
4x1 − x2 = −6
2x1 − 3x2 = 8
solution:
Homogeneous Systems:
A homogeneous system AX = 0 is always consistent and either possesses

only the trivial solution X = 0 or possesses the trivial solution along with
infinitely many nontrivial solutions.
A homogeneous system AX = 0 possesses nontrivial solutions if the number

m of equations is less than the number n of variables (m < n).
If X1 is a solution of AX = 0, then so is cX1 for any constant c.
If X1 and X2 are solutions of AX = 0, then so is X1 + X2 .
Example 1: Solve
2x1 − 4x2 + 3x3 = 0

x1 + x2 − 2x3 = 0
solution:
Section 8.3: Rank of a Matrix
Rank of a Matrix by Row Reduction :
a) rank(A) = the number of nonzero rows in B.

b) A linear system of equations AX = b is consistent if and only if
rank(A) = rank(A|b)
 
1 1 −1 3
Example 1: Given A = 2 −2 6 8. Find rank(A)
3 5 −7 8
solution:
Section 8.4: Determinants
A determinant of an n×n matrix A is said to be a determinant of order n denoted

by |A| or det(A) (a number).
Determinant of a 1 × 1 Matrix:
If A = (a)1×1 , then det(A) = a
Determinant
ofa 2 × 2 Matrix:
a11 a12 a a
If A = , then det(A) = 11 12 = a11 × a21 − a12 × a22
a22 a21 2×2 a22 a21

1 2 4 −2
Example 1: Given A = ,B = and C = −3 . Find
4 −3 −5 −1
a) det(A)
solution:
b) det(B)
solution:
c) det(C)
solution:
d) det(AT )
solution:

e) det A + B
solution:

f ) det 2A − 3B
solution:

g) det AB
solution:
x−2 x 3 −8
Example 2: Find the value(s) of x such that =
3 x 0 2
solution:
Determinant of a n × n Matrix:
Let  
a11 a12 ··· a1n
 a21 a22 ··· a2n 
A= . ..  = aij n×n
 
.. ..
 .. . . . 
be an n × n matrix.
The cofactor of aij is the determinant
Cij = (−1)i+j Mij
where Mij is the determinant of the submatrix obtained by deleting the

ith row and the jth column of A. The determinant Mij is called a minor
determinant.
The matrix of cofactors corresponding to the entries of A denoted by cof (A)

and defined as:  
C11 C21 · · · Cn1
 C12 C22 · · · Cn2 
cof (A) =  .
 
.. .. .. 
 .. . . . 
C1n C2n · · · Cnn
For each 1 ≤ i ≤ n, the cofactor expansion of det(A) along the ith row is
det(A) = ai1 Ci1 + ai2 Ci2 + · · · + ain Cin
For each 1 ≤ j ≤ n, the cofactor expansion of det(A) along the j th column is
det(A) = a1j C1j + a2j C2j + · · · + anj Cnj
.
 
2 −4 7
Example 1: Given A = 6 2 3.
1 5 3
a) Find the matrix of cofactors corresponding to the entries of A ( find cof (A))
solution:
b) Evaluate the determinant of A using cofactor expansion along the first row.
solution:
c) Evaluate the determinant of A using cofactor expansion along the third column.
solution:
Example 2: Evaluate the determinant of the matrix

 
6 5 0
a) A = −1 8 −7
−2 4 0
solution:
 
5 1 2 4
−1 0 2 3
b) B = 
1

1 6 1
1 0 0 4
solution:
Example 2: Evaluate
2 2 0 0 −2
1 1 6 0 5
a) 1 4 2 −1 −1
2 0 1 −3 3
0 1 0 0 1
solution:
0 0 0 3 0
−2 0 0 2 0
b) 8 −1 0 −7 2
−1 2 2 3 2
2 2 3 6 4
solution:
Example 3: Find the values of λ that satisfy the given equation.

−3 − λ 10
a) =0
2 5−λ
solution:
1−λ 0 −1
b) 1 2−λ 1 =0
3 3 −λ
solution:
Section 8.5: Properties of Determinants
Determinant of a Transpose
If AT is the transpose of the n × n matrix A, then
det(AT ) = det(A)

2 −4
Example: Given A = . Find det(A) and det(AT )
6 2
solution:
Two Identical Rows

If any two rows (columns) of an n × n matrix A are the same, then
det(A) = 0
 
6 2 2
Example: Given A = 4 2 2. Find det(A)
9 2 2
solution:
Zero Row or Column

If all the entries in a row (column) of an n × n matrix A are zero, then
det(A) = 0
 
6 2 0
Example: Given A = 4 3 0. Find det(A)
9 5 0
solution:
Interchanging Rows
If B is the matrix obtained by interchanging any two rows (columns) of an
n × n matrix A, , then
det(B) = −det(A)
a1 a2 a3
Example: Given that b1 b2 b3 = 5
c1 c2 c3
a3 a2 a1
a) Find b3 b2 b1
c3 c2 c1
solution:
a1 b1 c1
b) Find a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
solution:
Constant Multiple of a Row

If B is the matrix obtained from an n × n matrix A by multiplying a row
(column) by a nonzero real number k, then
det(B) = kdet(A)
a1 a2 a3
c1 c2 c3
2a1 a2 a3
a) Find 6b1 3b2 3b3
2c1 c2 c3
solution:
2a1 4b1 2c1

b) Find 5a2 10b2 5c2
a3 2b3 c3
solution:
Constant Multiple of a Matrix

If A is an n × n matrix and k real number , then
det(kA) = k n det(A)
Example: Let A and B are both 3 × 3 matrices such that |A| = −4 and |B| = 21 . Find
a) |2A|
solution:
b) |4B|
solution:
c) |(4B T )|
solution:
Determinant of a Matrix Product

If A and B are both n × n matrices, then
det(AB) = det(A) · det(B)
Example: Let A and B two 3 × 3 matrices such that |A| = −4 and |B| = 12 . Find
a) |AB|
solution:
b) |(4BA)T |
solution:
c) |A + B|
solution:
Determinant Is Unchanged
Suppose B is the matrix obtained from an n × n matrix A by multiplying

the entries in a row (column) by a nonzero real number k and adding the
result to the corresponding entries in another row (column). Then
det(B) = det(A)
a b
Example: Given that =5
c d
a b
a) Find
2a + c 2b + d
solution:
a b − 3a
b) Find
c d − 3c
solution:
a1 a2 a3
c1 c2 c3
−a1 −a2 −a3

a) Find b1 b2 b3
c1 − a1 c2 − a2 c3 − a3
solution:
a1 − 2b1 + 3c1 a2 − 2b2 + 3c2 a3 − 2b3 + 3c3

b) Find b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
solution:
Determinant of a Triangular Matrix

Suppose A is an n × n triangular matrix (upper or lower). Then
det(A) = a11 × a22 × · · · × ann
, where a11 , a22 , · · · , ann are the entries on the main diagonal of A.
Example: Find
2 0 0 0 0
9 1 0 0 0
a) 3 4 2 0 0
2 −5 1 −3 0
4 1 7 0 1
solution:
2 0 0 0
0 6 0 0
b)
0 0 −2 0
0 0 0 −5
solution:
 
2 9 1 8
1 3 7 4
Example 1: Evaluate the determinant of the matrix A = 
0

1 6 5
3 1 4 2
solution:
 
a a+1 a+2
Example 2: Evaluate the determinant of the matrix A =  b b + 1 b + 2 
c c+1 c+2
solution:
1 1 1 1
a b c d
Example 3: Evaluate 2 2 2 2
a b c d
a3 b3 c3 d3
solution:
1 1 1
Example 4: Show that a b c = (b − a)(c − a)(c − b).
a2 b2 c2
solution:
Example 5: Determine whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE.
a) Suppose A is an n × n matrix such that A2 = I. Then |A| = ±1 (T) (F)

solution:
b) Suppose A is an n×n matrix such that A2 = A. Then |A| = 0 or |A| = 1 (T) (F)
solution:
c) If A and B are n × n matrices, then det(AB) = det(BA) (T) (F)

solution:
d) If A is an n × n skew-symmetric matrix, then |A| = 0 or |A| = 1 (T) (F)

solution:
e) If A is an n × n symmetric matrix, then |A| = 0 (T) (F)

solution:
f ) If A is a 5 × 5 skew-symmetric matrix, then |A| = 0 (T) (F)

solution:
Section 8.6: Inverse of a Matrix
Non-singular Matrices and det(A)
An n × n matrix A is non-singular (invertible) if and only if det(A) 6= 0
An n × n matrix A is singular (non-invertible) if and only if det(A) = 0
Example 1: determine whether the given matrix is singular or non-singular.

1 12

a)
2 32
solution:
 
1 −2 3
b) 5 4 7
2 −4 6
solution:
 
1 2 1 1
0 0 3 0
c) 
3 2 1

0
1 1 1 0
solution:
 
2 −3 4
Example 2: Find all values of x ∈ R such that the matrix is non-singular 6 1 9
4 x 8
solution:
The Inverse of a Matrix
Inverse of a Matrix
Let A be an n × n matrix. If there exists an n × n matrix B such that
AB = BA = I
where I is the n × n identity, then the matrix A is said to be nonsingular or

invertible. The matrix B is said to be the inverse of A.
An n × n nonsingular matrix A has an inverse denoted by A−1 such that
AA−1 = A−1 A = I
An n × n singular matrix A has no inverse.
Note that the symbol −1 in the notation A−1 is not an exponent; in other
words, A−1 is not a reciprocal.
If A is nonsingular, then its inverse is unique.
Properties of the Inverse

−1
a) A−1 =A
−1
b) AB = B −1 A−1
−1 T
c) AT = A−1
1 −1
d) If k is a non-zero constant, then (kA)−1 = A
k
1
e) If A is non-singular matrix, then det(A−1 ) =
det(A)
Finding the Inverse
Adjoint Method:
Let A be an n × n matrix. The matrix that is the transpose of the matrix
of cofactors is called the adjoint of A and is denoted by adj(A).
T
adj(A) = cof (A)
Let A be an n × n matrix. If det(A) 6= 0, then

1
A−1 = adj(A)
det(A)

a11 a12
For a 2 × 2 non-singular matrix A = , then
a21 a22

−1 1 a22 −a12
A =
det(A) −a21 a11
 
a11 a12 a13
For a 3 × 3 non-singular matrix A = a21 a22 a23 , then
a31 a32 a33
 
C C21 C31
1  11
A−1 = C12 C22 C32 
det(A)
C13 C23 C33
Example 1: Find the inverse of the matrix (if it exist)

1 4
a) A =
2 10
solution:
 
2 2 0
b) A = −2 1 1
3 0 1
solution:
Example 2:

4 3
a) If A−1 = , what is A ?
3 2
solution:

5 3
b) If (2A)−1 = , what is (3A) ?
−3 −2
solution:
Finding the Inverse
Row Operations Method:
If an n × n matrix A can be transformed into the n × n identity matrix I

by a sequence of elementary row operations, then A is non-singular. The
same sequence of operations that transforms A into the identity I will also
transform I into A−1 .

Row
A|I −−−−−−−→ I|A−1
Operations
If the matrix to the left of the vertical bar has a row of zeros, we can stop
at this point and conclude that A is singular and has no inverse.
Example 1: Find the inverse of the matrix (if it exist)

 
2 0 1
a) A = −2 3 4
−5 5 6
solution:
 
1 −1 −2
b) A = 2 4 5
6 0 3
solution:
 
2 1 3 1
4 3 6 2
c) A = 
2 1

4 1
0 1 2 1
solution:
 
1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
d) A = 
0 0

0 1
0 1 0 0
solution:
Using the Inverse to Solve Linear Systems
The linear system
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2
..
.
an1 x1 + an2 x2 + · · · + ann xn = bn
can be written compactly as a matrix equation AX = b, where

     
a11 a12 · · · a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22 · · · a2n   x2   b2 
A= . ..  , X =  ..  , b =  .. 
     
.. ..
 .. . . .  . .
an1 an2 · · · ann xn bn
If A is non-singular, then the system AX = b can be solved by multiplying

both of the equations by A−1
X = A−1 b
A non-homogeneous system AX = b has:
a) A unique solution if and only if det(A) 6= 0 (A non-singular)

b) No solution or infinitely many solution if and only if det(A) = 0 (A
singular)
A homogeneous systems AX = 0 of n linear equations in n variables has:
a) Only the trivial solution if and only if A is non-singular (det(A) 6= 0)

b) A nontrivial solution if and only if A is singular (det(A) = 0).
Example 1: Find the pair (a, b) such that the system

     
1 b a x 3
2 1 −1 , y  = 6
1 1 −2 z 3
has unique solution.

solution:
Example 2: Use the inverse of the coefficient matrix to solve the system
2x1 − 9x2 = 15
3x1 + 6x2 = 16
solution:
Example 3: Use the inverse of the coefficient matrix to solve the system
2x1 + x3 = 2
−2x1 + 3x2 + 4x3 = 4
−5x1 + 5x2 + 6x3 = −1
solution:
Example 4: The sequence of elementary row operations
R3 ←→ R2 , R1 + 2R3 −→ R1 , R3 + 3R2 −→ R3 , R2 − 2R1 −→ R2
were applied on a 3 × 3 identity matrix to obtain matrix A.
a) Find A−1 .
solution:
b) Find A.
solution:
Example 4: The 3 × 3 identity matrix was obtained by applying the following sequence
of elementary row operations on a 3 × 3 matrix A
1
R1 −→ R2 , R1 −2R2 −→ R1 , R1 +R3 −→ R1 , −6R3 −→ R3 , R3 +2R2 −→ R3 , −R2 +R1 −→ R2
2
.
a) Compute det(A).
solution:
 
4
b) Solve the system AX = b, where b = 11 .
3
solution:
Section 8.7: Cramer’s Rule
Cramer’s Rule
Let A be the coefficient matrix of the system:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2
..
.
an1 x1 + an2 x2 + · · · + ann xn = bn
     
a11 a12 ··· a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22 ··· a2n   x2   b2 
A= . ..  , X =  ..  , b =  .. 
     
.. ..
 .. . . .   .  .
an1 an2 · · · ann xn bn
If det(A) 6= 0, then the solution of this system is given by
det(A1 ) det(A2 ) det(An )

x1 = , x2 = , · · · , xn =
det(A) det(A) det(A)
where Ak is the same as the matrix A except that the k th column of A has been
replaced by the entries of the column matrix
 
b1
 b2 
b=.
 
 .. 
bn
Example 1: Use Cramer’s rule to solve the system
2x1 − 9x2 = 15
3x1 + 6x2 = 16
solution:
Example 2: Use Cramer’s rule to solve the system
3x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 7
x1 − x2 + 3x3 = 3
5x1 + 4x2 − 2x3 = 1
solution:
Example 3: Use Cramer’s rule to determine the solution of the system
(2 − k)x1 + kx2 = 4
kx1 + (3 − k)x2 = 3
For what value(s) of k is the system inconsistent? solution:

Section 8.8: The Eigenvalue Problem
Eignvalues and Eigenvectors
Let A be an n × n matrix. A number λ is said to be an eigenvalue of A if

there exists a nonzero solution vector X of the linear system
AX = λX
The solution vector X is said to be an eigenvector corresponding to the

eigenvalue λ.
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are also called characteristic values and char-
acteristic vectors, respectively.
To find the eigenvalues of a n × n matrix A
a) Find the nth -degree characteristic polynomial in λ:

P (λ) = det A − λI
b) The eigenvalues of A are the roots of the characteristic equation

det A − λI = 0
c) To find an eigenvector corresponding to an eigenvalue λ, we simply

solve the system of equations

A − λI X = 0
by applying Gauss-Jordan elimination to the augmented matrix

A − λI|0
When an n×n matrix A possesses n distinct eigenvalues λ1 , λ2 , · · · λn , it can be

proved that a set of n linearly independent eigenvectors K1 , K2 , · · · , Kn can
be found. However, when the characteristic equation has repeated roots, it
may not be possible to find n linearly independent eigenvectors for A.
   
1 0 −1 −3
Example 1: Verify that X = −1 is an eigenvector of the 3×3 matrix A =  2 3 3
1 −2 1 1
solution:
   
2 0 −1 −3
Example 2: If X = −2 is an eigenvector of the 3 × 3 matrix A =  2 3 3 , find
2 −2 1 1
the corresponding eigenvalue.
solution:

4 2
Example 3: Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A =
5 1
solution:
 
1 2 1
Example 4: Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A =  6 −1 0 
−1 −2 −1
solution:
 
9 1 1
Example 5: Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A = 1 9 1
1 1 9
solution:
 
4 6 6
Example 6: Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A =  1 3 2
−1 −5 −2
solution:
Example 7:

3 4
a) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A =
−1 7
solution:

6 −1
b) Find the eigenvalues of A =
5 4
solution:
 
1 2 1
Example 8: Given the matrix A =  6 −1 0 
−1 −2 −1
a) Find the characteristic equation of A.

solution:
b) Find the eigenvalues of A.

solution:
c) Find an eigenvector corresponding to the largest eigenvalue

solution:
 
−1 4 0
Example 9: Given the matrix A =  1 1 3
0 1 0
a) Find the characteristic equation of A.

solution:
 
3
b) Given that X = 3 is an eigenvectors of A, find the eigenvalue associated with

1
X.
solution:
c) Find all eigenvalues of A.

solution:
Let A be an n × n matrix with eigenvalues λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn
The set of all eigenvalues of A is called spectrum of A and denoted by
σ(A) = {λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn }
The determinant of A is the product of its eigenvalues.
det(A) = λ1 λ2 · · · λn
The eigenvalues of the transpose AT are the same as the eigenvalues of A.
σ(AT ) = {λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn }
Triangular and Diagonal Matrices:

The eigenvalues of an upper triangular, lower triangular, and diagonal ma-
trix are the main diagonal entries.
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of A−1 :

Let A be a non-singular matrix. If λ is an eigenvalue of A with corresponding
1
eigenvector X, then is an eigenvalue of A−1 with the same corresponding
λ
eigenvector X.
Eigenvalues and Singular Matrices:
a) λ = 0 is an eigenvalue of A if and only if A singular.

b) A matrix A is non-singular if and only if the number 0 is not an eigenu-
value of A.
Example 1: Let λ1
= 3,
λ2 = 4are
the eigenvalues of a 2×2 matrix A with corresponding
1 0
eigenvectors X1 = ,X2 = . Find the eigenvalues of A−1 and the corresponding
2 1
eigenvectors.
solution:
Example 2: Let λ1 = 11, λ2 = λ3 = 8 be the eigenvalues of a 3 × 3 matrix A

a) Find the characteristic polynomial of A.
solution:
b) Find σ(AT ).
solution:
c) Find σ(A−1 ).
solution:
d) Determine whether A is singular or non-singular.

solution:
 
2 0 0
Example 3: Given the matrix A = 1 −3 0
1 1 4
a) Find the characteristic polynomial of A.
solution:
b) Find σ(AT ).
solution:
c) Find σ(A−1 ).
solution:
d) Determine whether A is singular or non-singular.

solution:

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Engineering Mathematics

Section 8.1: Matrix Algebra

 Definition: A matrix is any rectangular array of numbers or functions

 We denote a matrix by a capital boldfaced letter such as A, B, C, or X.

 The numbers or functions are called entries or elements of the matrix.

 An n × n matrix is called a square matrix or a matrix of order n.

 An m × n matrix A is then abbreviated as

 Definition: Column and Row Vectors

c) a22 , b22 , a53 and b42

 Definition: Equality of Matrices

Example 1: Find the value(s) of x and y

 Matrix Addition: If A and B are m × n matrices, then their sum is

 Scalar Multiple of a Matrix:

kam1 kam2 · · · kamn

 The difference of two m × n matrices is defined in the usual manner:

Properties of Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication :

 Let A be a matrix having m rows and p columns, and let B be a matrix

 The product C = AB is defined only when the number of columns in the

Am×n × Bn×p = Cm×p

Properties Matrix Multiplication:

 If A is an m × p matrix, B a p × r matrix, and C an r × n matrix, then the

 If B and C are both r × n matrices and A is an m × r matrix, then

Furthermore, if the product (B + C)A is defined, then

 If n is an integer number and A is a square matrix, then

b) (AB)C and A(BC).

 The transpose of the m × n matrix

is the n × m matrix AT given by

 Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric Matrix:

Example 1: Determine whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE.

c) If A 6= 0 and AB = 0, then B = 0 (T) (F)

e) If A is an m × n matrix, then AAT is a symmetric matrix (T) (F)

h) If AB = 0, then A = 0 or B = 0 (T) (F)

i) If AC = BC, then A = B (T) (F)

Section 8.2: Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations

 A system of linear equations (or linear system) is a collection of one or

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

 The matrix (general) form of this linear system is: AX = b

A: The coefficients matrix

Example 1: Write the linear system represented by the augmented matrix

Example 2: Find the augmented matrix ( or the matrix of the system)

Elementary Row Operations on A Matrix :

 Interchange any two rows i and j : Ri ←→ Rj

 Multiply the ith row by a nonzero constant c : cRi

 Multiply the ith row by c and add to the j th row : cRi + Rj −→ Rj

 The procedure of carrying out elementary row operations on a matrix to

 Row-Echelon Form (REF): We row-reduce the matrix until we arrive at a

1. The first nonzero entry in a nonzero row is a 1.

 Reduced Row-Echelon Form (RREF): We row-reduce the matrix until we

1. The first nonzero entry in a nonzero row is a 1.

Elimination Methods for Solving Linear Systems:

 In the Gaussian elimination, we stop when we have obtained an augmented

 In the Gauss–Jordan method, we stop when we have obtained an augmented

 A linear system of equations is said to be consistent if it has at least one

 A linear system of equations is said to be inconsistent if it has no solutions.

Example 1: Solve the linear system

Example 2: Verify that x1 = 14 + 7t, x2 = 9 + 6t, x3 = t, where t is any real number, is a

2x1 − 3x2 + 4x3 = 1

Example 3: Solve the linear system using

b) Find all solutions to AX = b ( if exist)

Example 5: Use Gauss–Jordan elimination to solve the system

when R1 = 10 ohms, R2 = 20 ohms, R3 = 10 ohms, and E = 12 volts. solution:

 A homogeneous system AX = 0 is always consistent and either possesses

 A homogeneous system AX = 0 possesses nontrivial solutions if the number

Definition: A matrix is any rectangular array of numbers or functions

We denote a matrix by a capital boldfaced letter such as A, B, C, or X.

The numbers or functions are called entries or elements of the matrix.

An n × n matrix is called a square matrix or a matrix of order n.

An m × n matrix A is then abbreviated as

Definition: Column and Row Vectors

Definition: Equality of Matrices

Matrix Addition: If A and B are m × n matrices, then their sum is

Scalar Multiple of a Matrix:

The difference of two m × n matrices is defined in the usual manner:

Let A be a matrix having m rows and p columns, and let B be a matrix

The product C = AB is defined only when the number of columns in the

If A is an m × p matrix, B a p × r matrix, and C an r × n matrix, then the

If B and C are both r × n matrices and A is an m × r matrix, then

If n is an integer number and A is a square matrix, then

The transpose of the m × n matrix

Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric Matrix:

A system of linear equations (or linear system) is a collection of one or

The matrix (general) form of this linear system is: AX = b

Interchange any two rows i and j : Ri ←→ Rj

Multiply the ith row by a nonzero constant c : cRi

Multiply the ith row by c and add to the j th row : cRi + Rj −→ Rj

The procedure of carrying out elementary row operations on a matrix to

Row-Echelon Form (REF): We row-reduce the matrix until we arrive at a

Reduced Row-Echelon Form (RREF): We row-reduce the matrix until we

In the Gaussian elimination, we stop when we have obtained an augmented

In the Gauss–Jordan method, we stop when we have obtained an augmented

A linear system of equations is said to be consistent if it has at least one

A linear system of equations is said to be inconsistent if it has no solutions.

A homogeneous system AX = 0 is always consistent and either possesses

A homogeneous system AX = 0 possesses nontrivial solutions if the number

If X1 is a solution of AX = 0, then so is cX1 for any constant c.

If X1 and X2 are solutions of AX = 0, then so is X1 + X2 .

Rank of a Matrix by Row Reduction :

The cofactor of aij is the determinant

The matrix of cofactors corresponding to the entries of A denoted by cof (A)

For each 1 ≤ j ≤ n, the cofactor expansion of det(A) along the j th column is

Two Identical Rows

Zero Row or Column

Constant Multiple of a Row

Constant Multiple of a Matrix

Determinant of a Matrix Product

Determinant of a Triangular Matrix

An n × n matrix A is non-singular (invertible) if and only if det(A) 6= 0

An n × n matrix A is singular (non-invertible) if and only if det(A) = 0

An n × n nonsingular matrix A has an inverse denoted by A−1 such that

An n × n singular matrix A has no inverse.

If A is nonsingular, then its inverse is unique.

Properties of the Inverse

Let A be an n × n matrix. If det(A) 6= 0, then

Row Operations Method:

The linear system

If A is non-singular, then the system AX = b can be solved by multiplying

A non-homogeneous system AX = b has:

A homogeneous systems AX = 0 of n linear equations in n variables has: