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Is the Ballpark in the Ballpark?

It depends. Although the mathematical formula associated with each diagram becomes very complicated as the number of loops
grows, string theorists have recognized one basic and essential feature. Somewhat as the strength of a rope determines the
likelihood that vigorous pulling and shaking will cause it to tear into two pieces, there is a number that determines the likelihood
that quantum fluctuations will cause a single string to split into two strings, momentarily yielding a virtual pair. This number is
known as the string coupling constant (more precisely, each of the five string theories has its own string coupling constant, as we
will discuss shortly). The name is quite descriptive: The size of the string coupling constant describes how strongly the quantum
jitters of three strings (the initial loop and the two virtual loops into which it splits) are related—how tightly, so to speak, they are
coupled to one another. The calculational formalism shows that the larger the string coupling constant, the more likely it is that
quantum jitters will cause an initial string to split apart (and subsequently rejoin); the smaller the string coupling constant, the less
likely it is for such virtual strings to erupt momentarily into existence.

We will shortly take up the question of determining the value of the string coupling constant within any of the five string theories,
but first, what do we really mean by "small" or "large" when assessing its size? Well, the mathematics underlying string theory
shows that the dividing line between "small" and "large" is the number 1, in the following sense. If the string coupling constant has
a value less than 1, then—like multiple strikes of lightning—larger numbers of virtual string pairs are increasingly unlikely to erupt
momentarily into existence. If the coupling constant is 1 or greater, however, it is increasingly likely that ever-larger numbers of
such virtual pairs will momentarily burst on the scene.101 The upshot is that if the string coupling constant is less than 1, the loop
diagram contributions become ever smaller as the number of loops grows. This is just what is needed for the perturbative
framework, since it indicates that we will get reasonably accurate results even if we ignore all processes except for those with just a
few loops. But if the string coupling constant is not less than 1, the loop diagram contributions become more important as the
number of loops increases. As in the case of a trinary star system, this invalidates a perturbative approach. The supposed ballpark
approximation—the process with no loops—is not in the ballpark. (This discussion applies equally well to each of the five string
theories—with the value of the string coupling constant in any given theory determining the efficacy of the perturbative
approximation scheme.)

This realization leads us to the next crucial question: What is the value of the string coupling constant (or, more precisely, what are
the values of the string coupling constants in each of the five string theories)? At present, no one has been able to answer this
question. It is one of the most important unresolved issues in string theory We can be sure that conclusions based on a perturbative
framework are justified only if the string coupling constant is less than 1. Moreover, the precise value of the string coupling
constant has a direct impact on the masses and charges carried by the various string vibrational patterns. Thus, we see that much
physics hinges on the value of the string coupling constant. And so, let's take a closer look at why the important question of its
value—in any of the five string theories—remains unanswered.

The Equations of String Theory

The perturbative approach for determining how strings interact with one another can also be used to determine the fundamental
equations of string theory. In essence, the equations of string theory determine how strings interact and, conversely, the way strings
interact directly determine the equations of the theory.

As a prime example, in each of the five string theories there is an equation that is meant to determine the value of the theory's
coupling constant. Currently, however, physicists have been able to find only an approximation to this equation, in each of the five
string theories, by mathematically evaluating a small number of relevant string diagrams using a perturbative approach. Here is
what the approximate equations say: In any of the five string theories, the string coupling constant takes on a value such that if it is
multiplied by zero the result is zero. This is a terribly disappointing equation; since any number times zero yields zero, the equation
can be solved with any value of the string coupling constant. Thus, in any of the five string theories, the approximate equation for
its string coupling constant gives us no information about its value.

While we are at it, in each of the five string theories there is another equation that is supposed to determine the precise form of both
the extended and the curled-up spacetime dimensions. The approximate version of this equation that we currently have is far more
restrictive than the one dealing with the string coupling constant, but it still admits many solutions. For instance, four extended
spacetime dimensions together with any curled-up, six-dimensional Calabi-Yau space provide a whole class of solutions, but even

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More precisely, every virtual string pair, that is, every loop in a given diagram, contributes—among other more complicated terms—a multiplicative factor of the string coupling
constant. More loops translate into more factors of the string coupling constant. If the string coupling constant is less than 1, repeated multiplications make the overall contribution ever
smaller; if it is 1 or larger, repeated multiplications yield a contribution with the same or larger magnitude.