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Chapter 5 Part 1—Price Elasticity of Demand and Supply
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. Suppose that a jewelry store found that when it increased prices by 10 percent, sales revenue increased
by 3 percent. Which of the following is true about the price elasticity of demand for the store’s goods?
a. Demand is perfectly inelastic.
b. Demand is inelastic, but not perfectly.
c. Demand is unitary classic.
d. Demand is elastic, but not perfectly.
e. Demand is perfectly elastic.
ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
STA: DISC: Elasticity TOP: Price Elasticity of Demand
KEY: Bloom's: Comprehension
2. Suppose an increase in symphony tickets prices reduces the total revenue. This is evidence that
demand is:
a. price elastic.
b. price inelastic.
c. unitary elastic.
d. perfectly elastic.
ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
STA: DISC: Elasticity TOP: Price Elasticity of Demand
3. Suppose the Pleasant Corporation cuts the price of its American Girl dolls by 10 percent, and as a
result, the quantity of the dolls sold increases by 25 percent. This indicates that the price elasticity of
demand for the dolls over this range is:
a. 2.5. c. 0.5.
b. 0.4. d. 5.0.
STA: DISC: Supply and demand | DISC: Elasticity TOP: Price Elasticity of Demand
KEY: Bloom's: Application
4. An increase in total revenue results occurs from which of the following?

a. Price decreases when demand is inelastic.
b. Price increases when demand is elastic.
c. Price decreases when demand is elastic.
d. Price increases when demand is unitary elastic.
ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
STA: DISC: Supply and demand TOP: Price Elasticity of Demand
5. Suppose that Starbucks reduces the price of its premium coffee from $2.20 to $1.80 per cup, and as a
result, the quantity sold per day increased from 350 to 450. Over this price range, the price elasticity of
demand for Starbucks coffee is:
a. 0.40. c. 1.25.
b. 0.80. d. 2.50.
6. Suppose you are the manager of a local water company, and you are instructed to get consumers to
reduce their water consumption by 10 percent. If the price elasticity of demand for water is 0.25, by
how much would you have to raise the price of water?
a. 10 percent c. 40 percent
b. 25 percent d. 100 percent
ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
KEY: Bloom's: Analysis
7. If the quantity demanded increases by 20 percent in response to a 10 percent decrease in price, demand
is classified as:
a. unstable. c. relatively elastic.
b. relatively inelastic. d. of unitary elasticity.
8. A local Krispy Kreme doughnut shop reduced the price of its doughnuts from $4 per dozen to $3.50
per dozen, and as a result, the daily sales increased from 300 to 400 dozen. This indicates that the price
elasticity of demand for the doughnuts was:
a. elastic.
b. inelastic.
c. of unitary elasticity.
d. indeterminate; more information is needed to determine the price elasticity of demand.
ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
9. If a demand curve for a good were completely vertical, it would be considered:
a. perfectly elastic. c. of unitary elasticity.
b. perfectly inelastic. d. relatively inelastic.
10. If the demand for cigarettes is highly inelastic, this indicates that:
a. higher cigarette prices will increase the demand for cigarettes.
b. the price elasticity coefficient of cigarettes exceeds 1.
c. the price elasticity coefficient of cigarettes equals 1.
d. the quantity of cigarettes purchased by consumers is not very responsive to a change in the
price of cigarettes.
ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: Easy NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
11. The price elasticity of demand for gasoline measures the:

a. responsiveness of gasoline producers to changes in the quality of gasoline.
b. responsiveness of customers to changes in the price of gasoline.
c. responsiveness of consumer preferences to changes in the quality of gasoline.
d. both a and c above.
ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: Easy NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
12. When demand is price inelastic:

a. price and total revenue move in the same direction.
b. price and total revenue move in the opposite direction.
c. total revenue increases whether price goes up or down.
d. total revenue decreases whether price goes up or down.
13. If demand is inelastic, an increase in the price of a good will cause total revenue to:
a. fall.
b. remain constant since the decrease in quantity sold is exactly offset by the price increase.
c. rise.
d. rise if it is a normal good and fall if it is an inferior good.
14. Price elasticity of demand refers to the ratio of the:

a. percentage change in price of a good in response to a percentage change in quantity
demanded.
b. percentage change in price of a good to a percentage increase in income.
c. percentage change in the quantity demanded of a good to a percentage change in its price.
d. none of these.
15. Price elasticity of demand is defined as the ratio of the:

a. percentage increase in price to an increase in quantity demanded.
b. unit change in quantity demanded to the dollar change in price.
c. maximum amount that consumers will pay to increase quantity.
d. percentage change in quantity demanded to the percentage change in price, other things
being equal.
16. Price elasticity of demand refers to the:

a. percentage increase in price in response to a percentage increase in quantity demanded.
b. percentage decrease in price in response to a percentage increase in income.
c. minimum amount that consumers will pay for a percentage change in quantity demanded
or supplied.
d. responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in the price of a good.
STA: DISC: Supply and demand | DISC: Elasticity TOP: Price Elasticity of Demand
17. If demand is price elastic, a decrease in price causes:

a. an increase in total revenue.
b. a decrease in total revenue.
c. no change in total revenue.
d. an increase in quantity, but anything can happen to revenue.
18. If a decrease in the price of movie tickets increases the total revenue of movie theaters, this is evidence
that demand is:
a. price elastic. c. unit elastic with respect to price.
b. price inelastic. d. perfectly inelastic.
19. A perfectly elastic demand curve has an elasticity coefficient of:

a. 0. c. less than 1.
b. 1. d. infinity.
ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge
20. Over the elastic portion of a demand curve, a decrease in price causes:
a. an increase in total revenue.
d. an increase in quantity demanded, but anything can happen to revenue.
21. Using the midpoints formula, what would be price elasticity of demand for a gallbladder operation if
the number of operations fell from 6,000 to 4,000 per week after its price increased from $6,000 to
$10,000?
a. 0.25. c. 0.80.
b. 0.50. d. 1.25
22. If the percentage change in the quantity demanded of a good is less than the percentage change in
price, price elasticity of demand is:
a. elastic. c. perfectly inelastic.
b. inelastic. d. unitary elastic.
23. If the percentage change in the quantity demanded of a good is greater than the percentage change in
price, price elasticity of demand is:
a. elastic. c. perfectly inelastic.
b. inelastic. d. perfectly elastic.
24. If the percentage change in the quantity demanded of a good equals the percentage change in price,
price elasticity of demand is:
a. elastic. c. perfectly elastic.
b. inelastic. d. unitary elastic.
25. Along the elastic range of a demand curve, a decrease in price causes:
a. no change in total revenue.
c. an increase in total revenue.
d. an unpredictable change in total revenue.
26. If a decrease in the price of theater tickets increases the total revenue earned by the theater, this is
evidence that demand is:
a. price elastic. c. unitary elastic.
b. price inelastic. d. perfectly inelastic.
27. Along the elastic range of a demand curve, a price change causes:
a. a change in total revenue in the opposite direction.
b. a change in total revenue in the same direction.
d. an unpredictable change in the total revenue.
28. Suppose the president of a college argues that a 25 percent tuition increase will raise revenues for the
college. It can be concluded that the president thinks that demand to attend this college is:
a. elastic. c. unitary elastic.
b. inelastic, but not perfectly inelastic. d. perfectly elastic.
ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
29. Suppose Good Food's supermarket raises the price of its steak and finds its total revenue from steak
sales does not change. This is evidence that price elasticity of demand for steak is:
a. perfectly elastic.
b. perfectly inelastic.
c. unitary elastic.
d. inelastic.
e. elastic.
30. The price elasticity of demand for a vertical demand curve is:
c. unitary elastic.
d. elastic.
e. inelastic.
31. The president of Tucker Motors says, "Lowering the price won't sell a single additional Tucker car."
The president believes that the price elasticity of demand is:
c. unitary elastic.
d. elastic.
e. inelastic.
32. If the price elasticity of demand is computed for two products, and product A measures .79, and
product B measures 1.6, then:
a. product A is more price elastic than product B.
b. product B is more price elastic than product A.
c. consumers are more sensitive to price changes in product A than in product B.
d. product B is more price inelastic than product A.
e. products A and B must be substitutes.
33. Demand price elasticity measures:

a. how much supply will change as price changes.
b. how consumers change their purchases in response to a change in income.
c. how consumers change their purchases in response to a change in the price of a substitute
good.
d. how consumers change their purchases in response to a change in the price of a product.
e. the change in price brought about by a change in consumer demand.
Exhibit 5-1 Demand curve
34. In Exhibit 5-1, the demand curve between points a and b is:
a. price elastic.
b. price inelastic.
c. unit elastic.
e. perfectly inelastic.
35. In Exhibit 5-1, the demand curve between points b and c is:
a. price elastic.
b. price inelastic.
c. unit elastic.
e. perfectly inelastic.
36. In Exhibit 5-1, between points a and b, the price elasticity of demand measures:
a. 0.67.
b. 1.5.
c. 2.0.
d. 1.56.
e. 1.0.
ANS: E PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
37. In Exhibit 5-1, between points b and c, the price elasticity of demand measures
a. 4.27.
b. 1.5.
c. 1.56.
d. 0.636.
e. 0.425.
ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
38. If demand price elasticity measures 2, this implies that consumers would:
a. buy twice as much of the product if the price drops 10 percent.
b. require a 2 percent drop in price to increase their purchases by 1 percent.
c. buy 2 percent more of the product in response to a 1 percent drop in price.
d. require at least a $2 increase in price before showing any response to the price increase.
e. buy twice as much of the product if the price drops 1 percent.
39. If the demand curve over a certain range is "price elastic," this implies that the:
a. percentage change in the quantity demanded exceeds one.
b. percentage change in the quantity demanded exceeds the percentage change in product
price.
c. percentage change in price exceeds the percentage change in quantity demanded.
d. product is non-reactive.
e. product has no good substitute.
40. If the demand curve is unit elastic, this implies that:

a. consumers do not react to a change in product price.
b. the good can only be purchased in units of 1.
c. this good has no good substitutes.
d. the good is a basic food staple.
e. the percentage change in the quantity demanded = the percentage change in product price.
ANS: E PTS: 1 DIF: Easy NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
41. Which of the statements below does not describe a demand curve that is unit elastic?
a. The percentage change in the quantity demanded = percentage change in product price.
b. An increase in product price will not change total revenue.
c. The price elasticity of demand equals one.
d. A change in price does not change quantity demanded.
e. A decrease in product price will not change total revenue.
42. Demand price elasticity is measured by the:

a. percentage change in income / percentage change in price.
b. percentage change in quantity demanded / percentage change in income.
c. percentage change in price / percentage change in quantity demanded.
d. percentage change in quantity demanded / percent change in price.
e. percentage change in total revenue / percentage change in price.
43. If Sam, the Pizza Man, lowers the price of his pizzas from $6 to $5 and finds that sales increase from
400 to 600 pizzas per week, then the demand for Sam's pizzas in this range is:
a. price inelastic.
b. price elastic.
c. unit elastic.
d. cross elastic.
e. income inelastic.
44. If Herbert, the hair stylist, raises the price of his cuts from $13 to $15 and finds the number of cuts
falls from 300 to 260, then the demand for Herbert's cuts in this range is:
a. price inelastic.
b. price elastic.
c. unit elastic.
d. cross elastic.
e. income inelastic.
45. If a 10 percent cut in price causes a 15 percent increase in sales, then:

a. total revenue will decrease.
b. demand is price inelastic in this range.
c. demand is price elastic in this range.
d. demand is unit elastic in this range.
e. total revenue will remain the same.
46. If Pete raises his price of muffins from $2 to $3 and his sales revenue increases from $35,000 to
$38,000, then:
a. the demand for Pete's muffins in this range is price elastic.
b. the demand for Pete's muffins in this range is price inelastic.
c. the demand for Pete's muffins in this range is unit elastic.
d. the percentage change in quantity demanded must exceed the percentage change in
product price.
e. this is impossible since this would violate the law of demand.
47. You are part of a local community theater group. It is the goal of the group to increase the amount of
revenue earned through ticket sales. Mary says the obvious solution is to increase ticket prices. Is
Mary correct?
a. Mary is correct if the demand for tickets is price inelastic.
b. Mary is incorrect if the demand for tickets is price inelastic.
c. Mary is correct. The increase in ticket prices will always increase revenue.
d. Mary is incorrect. The increase in ticket prices will never increase revenue.
e. Mary is incorrect. The way to increase revenue is to decrease ticket prices.
48. Elasticity measures how "sensitive" consumers are by measuring their change in ____ as the price of
the product changes.
a. attitude
b. income
c. quantity demanded
d. supply
e. taxes
ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: Easy NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
49. If the price elasticity of demand for a product measures .45,

a. this good has many available substitutes.
b. this good must be a nonessential good.
c. this good is a high-priced good.
d. a decrease in price will increase total revenue.
e. this good is demand price inelastic.
50. If a straight-line demand curve slopes down, price elasticity will:

a. remain the same at all points on the demand curve.
b. change between any two points along the demand curve.
c. always be greater than one.
d. always equal one.
e. always be less than one.
STA: DISC: Supply and demand
TOP: Price Elasticity of Demand Variations along a Demand Curve
51. As one moves down a straight-line, down-sloping demand curve, price elasticity will:
a. change from elastic, to unit elastic, then to inelastic.
b. remain the same between any two points.
c. change from inelastic, to elastic, then to unit elastic.
d. change from unit elastic, to elastic, then to inelastic.
e. change from elastic, to inelastic, then to unit elastic.
52. Since it is always a negative number, economists use the convention of taking the absolute value of:
a. income elasticity of demand.
b. cross price elasticity of demand.
c. price elasticity of supply.
d. price elasticity of demand.
e. any elasticity calculation.
53. Leo's Bakery reduces the price of wheat bread from $3 to $1 and finds that quantity demanded
increases from 100 to 122 loaves. Leo calculates that his price elasticity of demand for wheat bread is:
a. 0.
b. 0.2.
c. 1.0.
d. 1.5.
e. 2.0
54. Tara buys four music cassettes when the price is $10 and two cassettes when the price is $14. Her
price elasticity of demand is:
a. 0.
b. 1.
c. 2.
d. 3.
e. 4.
55. As price decreases and we move down further along a linear demand curve, the price elasticity of
demand will:
a. decrease.
b. increase.
c. stay the same.
d. approach infinity.
e. increase or decrease.
56. If the price elasticity of demand for football tickets is estimated to be 4.5, then a 10 percent increase in
football ticket prices would be expected to cause a:
a. 4.5 percent decrease in quantity demanded.
b. 4.5 percent increase in quantity demanded.
c. 45 percent decrease in quantity demanded.
d. 45 percent increase in quantity demanded.
e. 450 percent increase in quantity demanded
57. A health club sells 50 memberships when the monthly price is $60 and 70 memberships when the
monthly price is $40. The price elasticity of demand for memberships at this health club is (using the
average values method):
a. 0.25.
b. 0.6.
c. 1.0.
d. 1.1.
e. 0.83
ANS: E PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
58. Within different price ranges along a linear demand curve, elasticities are:
a. constant.
b. different.
c. equal.
d. the same as slope.
e. negative 1.
59. If demand for a good is price elastic, then the price elasticity will be:
a. equal to one.
b. equal to zero.
c. greater than one.
d. less than one.
e. less than zero.
60. An economist estimates that .67 is the price elasticity of demand for disposable diapers. This suggests
that disposable diaper producers could:
a. advertise more to raise the price elasticity of demand.
b. encourage more parents to use cloth diapers.
c. lower the price of disposable diapers to raise more revenue.
d. raise the price of disposable diapers to raise more revenue.
e. maximize revenues by staying at the current price.
61. If demand is price elastic, then when price decreases, total revenue:
a. decreases.
b. increases.
c. does not change.
d. is less than one.
e. is negative.
62. When a 2 percent increase in price generates a greater than 2 percent decrease in quantity demanded,
then:
a. demand is price inelastic.
b. total revenue increases.
c. demand is positively sloped.
d. demand is unit elastic.
e. total revenue decreases.
63. The short-run price elasticity of demand for airline travel is .05, while the long-run elasticity is 2.36.
This means that a significant increase in airline ticket prices will cause airline companies to:
a. collect less revenue from short-notice travelers.
b. collect more revenue from travelers who book well in advance.
c. lose money on short-notice travelers.
d. collect less revenue from travelers who book well in advance.
e. lose many of its short-notice travelers.
64. On a part of the demand curve where the price elasticity of demand is less than 1, a decrease in price:
a. is impossible.
b. will increase total revenue.
c. will decrease total revenue.
d. raises the price elasticity of demand.
e. decreases quantity demanded.
65. A public transit company finds that when it reduces the price of a bus ticket, total revenues remain the
same. One can conclude from this that:
a. the demand curve is horizontal, reflecting infinite price elasticity.
b. the company sells the same number of bus tickets both before and after the price change.
c. the demand curve for bus tickets must have shifted to the right.
d. the firm is operating in a range of the demand curve that is unit elastic.
e. the price should be lowered further so that a larger quantity can be sold.
66. It is Valentine's Day and Jason is desperately looking all over town for a dozen roses to give to Judy.
Most likely, Jason's price elasticity of demand is:
a. infinitely large.
b. negative.
c. equal to one.
d. greater than one.
e. less than one.
ANS: E PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic
67. Sally is an average shopper, with average income. When she is in the store she buys a few items which
cost more than $20, several items which cost between $5 and $20, and many items which cost less
than $1. The price elasticity of Sally's demand for these goods most likely ____.
a. increases as the price decreases
b. decreases as the price decreases
c. increases as the price increases
d. decreases as the price increases
e. remains constant over all price ranges
68. Elasticity has which special meaning for economists?

a. b and c.
b. A ratio of percentage changes.
c. How easily prices adjust to market changes.
d. How price changes as quantities demanded change.
e. When consumers will no longer react to price changes.
69. Which statement about price elasticity of demand along a linear demand curve is true?
a. As the quantity demanded increases, so does the buyer's sensitivity to price.
b. When price elasticity of demand is equal to 1, consumers are indifferent to subtle price
changes.
c. The ratio of current price to quantity demanded is a good estimate of the elasticity of
demand.
d. As the prices of goods increase, the elasticity of demand increases.
e. When an individual buys 4 units of a good his/her elasticity of demand for each unit
increases.
70. Looking at the relationship between elasticity and total revenue, we can see that ____.
a. b and c
b. when demand is unit elastic, small price changes don't change total revenue
c. when a good is price inelastic, revenue increases when prices increase
d. when a good is price elastic, revenue increases when prices increase
e. total revenue is maximized when the elasticity has stopped changing
71. Which of the following statements is true?

a. b and d.
b. Total revenue is maximized when elasticity is one.
c. Goods are said to be price inelastic when the elasticity is greater than two.
d. Demand for milk is more elastic than demand for football tickets.
e. Demand for 5-cent candy is more elastic than demand for sweaters.
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II. Siluridæ Heteropteræ.—The rayed dorsal fin is very little
developed, and, if it is present, it belongs to the abdominal portion of
the vertebral column; the adipose fin is exceedingly small or absent.
The extent of the anal is not much inferior to that of the caudal
vertebral column. The gill-membranes overlap the isthmus,
remaining more or less separate: Silurina.
Saccobranchus.—Adipose fin none; dorsal very short, without
pungent spine, placed above the ventrals. Cleft of the mouth
transverse, anterior, of moderate width; barbels eight. Eyes rather
small. The upper and lateral parts of the head osseous or covered
with a very thin skin. Gill-cavity with an accessory posterior sac,
extending backwards between the muscles along each side of the
abdominal and caudal portions of the vertebral column. Ventrals six-
rayed.
Small fishes from East Indian rivers; four species are known. The
lung-like extension of the branchial cavity receives water, and is
surrounded by contractile transverse muscular fibres by which the
water is expelled at intervals. The vessels of the sac take their origin
in the last branchial artery, and pass into the aorta.
Silurus.—No adipose fin; one very short dorsal, without pungent
spine. Barbels four or six, one to each maxillary, and one or two to
each mandible. Nostrils remote from each other. Head and body
covered with soft skin. The eye is situated above the level of the angle
of the mouth. The dorsal fin is anterior to the ventrals which are
composed of more than eight rays. Caudal rounded.
This genus, of which five species are known, inhabits the
temperate parts of Europe and Asia. The species which has given
the name to the whole family, is the “Wels” of the Germans, Silurus
glanis. It is found in the fresh waters east of the Rhine, and is,
besides the Sturgeons, the largest of European Freshwater-fishes,
and the only species of this family which occurs in Europe. Barbels
six. It attains to a weight of 300 or 400 lbs., and the flesh, especially
of smaller specimens, is firm, flaky, and well flavoured. Aristotle
described it under the name of Glanis. Its former occurrence in
Scotland has justly been denied. In China it is represented by a
similar species, S. asotus, which, however, has four barbels only.
Fig. 260.—The “Wels,” Siluris glanis.
This sub-family is well represented by various other genera in the

fresh waters of the African as well as Indian region. African genera
are Schilbe and Eutropius; East Indian: Silurichthys, Wallago,
Belodontichthys, Eutropiichthys, Cryptopterus, Callichrous,
Hemisilurus, Siluranodon, Ailia, Schilbichthys, Lais, Pseudeutropius,
Pangasius, Helicophagus, and Silondia.
III. Siluridæ Anomalopteræ.—Dorsal and adipose fins very
short, the former belonging to the caudal vertebral column; anal very
long. Ventrals in front of the dorsal. Gill-membranes entirely
separate, overlapping the isthmus: (Hypophthalmina.)
Hypophthalmus.—Dorsal fin with seven rays, the first of which is
slightly spinous. The lower jaw is rather the longer. Barbels six, those
of the mandible long. No teeth; intermaxillaries very feeble. Head
covered with skin. Eye of moderate size, situated behind and below
the angle of the mouth. Ventrals small, six-rayed.
Four species from tropical America. The second genus of this

sub-family is Helogenes from the Essequibo.
IV. Siluridæ Proteropteræ.—The rayed dorsal fin is always
present, short, with not more than twelve short rays, and belongs to
the abdominal portion of the vertebral column, being placed in
advance of the ventrals. The adipose fin is always present and well
developed, although frequently short. The extent of the anal is much
inferior to that of the caudal vertebral column. The gill-membranes
are not confluent with the skin of the isthmus, their posterior margin
always remaining free even if they are united with each other.
Whenever the nasal barbel is present it belongs to the posterior
nostril.
a. Bagrina.
Bagrus.—Adipose fin long; a short dorsal with a pungent spine
and nine or ten soft rays; anal fin short, with less than twenty rays.
Barbels eight. The anterior and posterior nostrils are remote from
each other, the posterior being provided with a barbel. Teeth on the
palate in a continuous band. Eyes with a free orbital margin. Caudal
forked; ventrals six-rayed.
This genus consists of two species only, common in the Nile, viz.
the “Bayad,” B. bayad, and B. docmac. Both grow to a large size,
exceeding a length of five feet, and are eaten. Chrysichthys and
Clarotes are two other Siluroid genera from African rivers, closely
allied to Bagrus. Similar Siluroids are common in the East Indies,
and have been referred to the following genera: Macrones,
Pseudobagrus, Liocassis, Bagroides, Bagrichthys, Rita,
Acrochordonichthys, Akysis.
b. Amiurina.
Amiurus.—Adipose fin of moderate length; a short dorsal with a
pungent spine and six soft rays; anal fin of moderate length. Barbels
eight. The anterior and posterior nostrils are remote from each other,
the posterior being provided with a barbel. Palate edentulous. Head
covered with skin above. Ventrals eight-rayed.
The “Cat-fishes” of North America, of which about a dozen
different species are known. One species occurs in China. Allied, but
smaller forms are Hopladelus and Noturus, likewise from North
America.
c. Pimelodina.
Platystoma.—Adipose fin of moderate length; a short dorsal fin
with a pungent spine and six or seven soft rays; anal fin rather short.
Snout very long, spatulate, with the upper jaw more or less projecting;
the upper surface of the head not covered by the skin. Barbels six; the
anterior and posterior nostrils remote from each other, none with a
barbel. Palate toothed. Caudal forked; ventrals six-rayed, inserted
behind the dorsal.
Twelve species from South America, some attaining a length of
six feet, the majority being ornamented with deep-black spots or
bands. Allied genera from South America, likewise distinguished by
a long spatulate snout, are Sorubim, Hemisorubim, and
Platystomatichthys, whilst Phractocephalus, Piramutana,
Platynematichthys, Piratinga, Bagropsis, and Sciades, have a snout
of ordinary length. The barbels of some are of extraordinary length,
and not rarely dilated and band-like.
Pimelodus.—Adipose fin well developed; dorsal fin short, with a
more or less pungent spine and six rays; anal fin short. Barbels six,
cylindrical or slightly compressed, none of them belonging to either of
the nostrils, which are remote from each other. Palate edentulous.
Ventrals six-rayed, inserted behind the dorsal.
Of all South American genera this is represented by the greatest
number of species, more than forty being well characterised; they
differ chiefly with regard to the length of the adipose fin and barbels,
and the strength of the dorsal spine. Singularly, two species (P.
platychir and P. balayi), are found in West Africa. The majority are of
but moderate size and plain coloration.—Allied South American
genera (also without teeth on the palate), are Pirinampus,
Conorhynchus, Notoglanis, Callophysus, Lophiosilurus.
Auchenoglanis.—Adipose fin rather long, dorsal short, with a
pungent spine and seven rays; anal short. Snout produced, pointed,
with narrow mouth. Barbels six, none of which belongs to either of the
nostrils, which are remote from each other. The teeth of each jaw form
a pair of small elliptic patches which are longer than broad; palate
edentulous. Eyes of moderate size. Ventrals six-rayed.
One species, Au. biscutatus, from the Nile, Senegal, and other
West African rivers.
d. Ariina.
Arius.—Adipose fin of moderate length or short; a short dorsal fin
with a pungent spine and seven soft rays; anal fin rather short. Head
osseous above; barbels six, four at the mandible, none at either of the
nostrils which are close together. Eyes with a free orbital margin.
Caudal fin forked; ventrals six-rayed, behind the dorsal.
Of all Siluroid genera this has the greatest number of species
(about seventy), and the widest distribution, being represented in
almost all tropical countries which are drained by large rivers; some
of the species prefer brackish to fresh water, and a few enter the
sea, but keep near to the coast. Some of the species are of small
size, whilst others exceed a length of five feet. The extent of the
armature of the neck and the dentition vary much in the different
species, and affords two of the principal characters by which the
species are separated.—The following genera are allied to Arius,
Galeichthys from South Africa; Genidens and Paradiplomystax from
Brazil; Diplomystax from Chile; Aelurichthys from Central and South
America; Hemipimelodus, Ketengus, Osteogeniosus, and
Batrachocephalus from the East Indies; and Atopochilus from West
Africa.
Fig. 261.—Arius australis,
from Queensland.
e. Bagariina.
Bagarius.—Adipose fin rather short; a short dorsal with one spine
and six rays; anal fin of moderate length. Barbels eight, of which one
pair stands between the anterior and posterior nostrils which are close
together. Head naked above. Caudal fin deeply forked; ventrals rays
six. Thorax without longitudinal plaits of the skin.
A large Siluroid (B. bagarius) from rivers of India and Java;
exceeding a length of six feet.
Fig. 262.—Euglyptosternum
coum, thoracic adhesive
apparatus.
Euglyptosternum.—Adipose fin of moderate length; a short
dorsal with a pungent spine and six rays; anal fin short. Barbels eight,
of which one pair is placed between the anterior and posterior nostrils
which are close together. Teeth on the palate villiform, in two separate
patches. Eyes small, below the skin. Caudal forked; ventral rays six.
Pectorals horizontal, with a thoracic adhesive apparatus between,
which is formed by longitudinal plaits of the skin.
This fish (Eu. coum) inhabits the river Coic in Syria, and is about
twelve inches long. The plaited structure on the thorax probably
increases the capability of the fish of maintaining its position in the
rapid current of the stream, a function which appears to be chiefly
performed by the horizontally expanded pectoral fins. A similar
structure is found in Glyptosternum, a genus represented by eight
species in mountain streams of the East Indies, and differing from
the Syrian species in lacking the teeth on the palate.
V. Siluridæ Stenobranchiæ.—The rayed dorsal fin is short, if
present, belonging to the abdominal portion of the vertebral column,
the ventrals being inserted behind it (except in Rhinoglanis). The gill-
membranes are confluent with the skin of the isthmus.
a. Doradina.
Some of the genera have no bony shields along the lateral line,
and a small adipose fin or none whatever; all of these are South
American—Ageniosus, Tetranematichthys, Euanemus,
Auchenipterus, Glanidium, Centromochlus, Trachelyopterus,
Cetopsis, and Astrophysus.
Others have a series of bony scutes along the middle of the side;
they form the genus Doras with two closely allied forms, Oxydoras
and Rhinodoras. Some twenty-five species are known, all from rivers
of tropical America, flowing into the Atlantic. These fishes have
excited attention by their habit of travelling, during the dry season,
from a piece of water about to dry up, in quest of a pond of greater
capacity. These journeys are occasionally of such a length that the
fish spends whole nights on the way, and the bands of scaly
travellers are sometimes so large that the Indians who happen to
meet them, fill many baskets of the prey thus placed in their hands.
The Indians supposed that the fish carry a supply of water with them,
but they have no special organs, and can only do so by closing the
gill-openings, or by retaining a little water between the plates of their
bodies, as Hancock supposes. The same naturalist adds that they
make regular nests, in which they cover up their eggs with care and
defend them, male and female uniting in this parental duty until the
eggs are hatched. The nest is constructed at the beginning of the
rainy season, of leaves, and is sometimes placed in a hole scooped
out in the beach.
Finally, in the last genus, the lateral scutes are likewise absent,
viz. in
Synodontis.—The adipose fin is of moderate length or rather
long; the dorsal fin has a very strong spine and seven soft rays. The
teeth in the lower jaw are movable, long, very thin at the base, and
with a slightly-dilated brown apex. Mouth small. Barbels six, more or
less fringed with a membrane or with filaments. Neck with broad
dermal bones.
Synodontis is characteristic of the fauna of tropical Africa, where

it is represented by fifteen species. Several occur in the Nile, and are
known by the vernacular name “Schal.” Some attain a length of two
feet. The species figured is from West Africa, and characterised by
its long upper jaw.
Fig. 263.—Synodontis xiphias.
b. Rhinoglanina.
Rhinoglanis.—Two dorsal fins, both composed of rays, the first
with a strong spine; anal rather short. Barbels six; anterior and
posterior nostrils close together, the posterior very large, open. Neck
with broad dermal bones. Ventrals with seven rays, inserted below the
posterior rays of the first dorsal fin.
This Siluroid is known from a single example only one and a half
inches long, obtained at Gondokoro on the Upper Nile. Callomystax
represents this type in the Ganges and Indus.
c. Malapterurina.
Malapterurus.—One dorsal fin only, which is adipose and
situated before the caudal; anal of moderate length or short; caudal
rounded; ventrals six-rayed, inserted somewhat behind the middle of
the body; pectorals without pungent spine. Barbels six: one to each
maxillary and two on each side of the mandible. The anterior and
posterior nostrils are remote from each other. No teeth on the palate.
The entire head and body covered with soft skin. Eyes small. Gill-
opening very narrow, reduced to a slit before the pectoral.
The “Electric Cat- or Sheath-fishes” are not uncommon in the
fresh waters of tropical Africa; three species have been described, of
which M. electricus occurs in the Nile; they grow to a length of about
four feet. Although the first dorsal fin is absent, its position (if it had
been developed) is indicated by a rudimentary interneural spine,
which rests in the cleft of the neural process of the first vertebra. The
electric organ extends over the whole body, but is thickest on the
abdomen; it lies between two aponeurotic membranes, below the
skin, and consists of rhomboidal cells which contain a rather firm
gelatinous substance. The electric nerve takes its origin from the
spinal chord, does not enter into connection with ganglia, and
consists of a single enormously-strong primitive fibre, which
distributes its branches in the electric organ.
Fig. 264.—Malapterurus electricus.

VI. Siluridæ Proteropodes.—The rayed dorsal fin is always
present and rather short; the ventrals are inserted below (very rarely
in front of) the dorsal. The gill-membranes are confluent with the skin
of the isthmus, the gill-opening being reduced to a short slit.
Pectorals and ventrals horizontal. Vent before, or not much behind,
the middle of the length of the body.
a. Hypostomatina.
Stygogenes.—Adipose fin short; dorsal and anal short; the outer
fin-rays somewhat thickened and rough; palate toothless; cleft of the
mouth of moderate width, with a maxillary barbel on each side; a short
broad flap on each side between the nostrils, which are close
together. Lower lip very broad, pendent. Eyes small, covered with
transparent skin. Head covered with soft skin. Ventrals six-rayed.
These small Siluroids, which are called “Preñadillas” by the
natives, together with the allied Arges, Brontes, and Astroplebus,
have received some notoriety through Humboldt’s accounts, who
adopted the popular belief that they live in subterranean waters
within the bowels of the active volcanoes of the Andes, and are
ejected with streams of mud and water during eruptions. Humboldt
himself considers it very singular that they are not cooked and
destroyed whilst they are vomited forth from craters or other
openings. The explanation of their appearance during volcanic
eruptions is, that they abound in the numerous lakes and torrents of
the Andes, that they are killed by the sulphuretted gases escaping
during an eruption, and swept down by the torrents of water issuing
from the volcano.
Callichthys.—Adipose fin short, supported anteriorly by a short
movable spine; dorsal with a feeble spine and seven or eight rays;
anal short. Teeth minute or entirely absent; cleft of the mouth rather
narrow, with a pair of maxillary barbels on each side, which are united
at the base. Eyes small. Head covered with osseous plates; body
wholly protected by two series of large imbricate shields on each side.
Ventrals six-rayed.
Twelve species of this genus are known; they are small, and
similarly distributed as Doras, with which they have much in common
as regards their mode of life. They likewise are able to travel over
land, and construct nests for their ova.
Fig. 265.—Callichthys armatus, from the Upper Amazon. Natural size.
Chætostomus.—A short adipose fin, supported anteriorly by a
short, compressed, curved spine; dorsal fin of moderate length, with
from eight to ten rays, the first of which is simple; anal fin short;
ventral six-rayed; pectoral with a strong spine. Head and body
completely cuirassed, the lower parts being sometimes naked; body
rather short, with four or five longitudinal series of large imbricate
scutes on each side; tail not depressed. Snout produced, obtuse in
front; mouth inferior, transverse, with a single series of generally very
fine bent teeth in both jaws. Interoperculum very movable and armed
with erectile spines.
This genus, with the allied Plecostomus, Liposarcus,

Pterygoplichthys, Rhinelepis, Acanthicus, and Xenomystus, is well
represented in the fresh waters of South America, whence about
sixty species are known. The majority do not exceed a length of
twelve inches, but some attain to more than double that size. In
some of the species the male is provided with long bristles round the
margin of the snout and interoperculum.
Fig. 266.—Upper and Lower
side of the head of Chætostomus
heteracanthus, Upper Amazons.
Hypoptopoma.—Differing from Chætostomus in the peculiar
formation of the head, which is depressed, spatulate, the eyes being
on the lateral edge of the head. The movable gill-covers are reduced
to two bones, neither of which is armed, viz.—the operculum small
and placed as in Chætostomus, and a second, larger one, separated
from the eye by the narrow sub-orbital ring, and placed at the lower
side of the head.
Fig. 267.—Hypoptopoma thoracatum, Upper Amazons. Natural size.
Loricaria.—One short dorsal fin; anal short; the outer ray of each
fin thickened, but flexible. Head depressed, with the snout more or
less produced and spatulate. Mouth situated at the lower side of the
snout, remote from its extremity, transverse, surrounded by broad
labial folds which are sometimes fringed; a short barbel at each corner
of the mouth. Teeth in the jaws small, bent, with a dilated, notched
apex, in a single series, sometimes absent. Head and body cuirassed;
tail depressed, long; eye rather small or of moderate size.
Fig. 268.—Loricaria lanceolate, Upper Amazons. Natural size.
Small fishes from rivers of tropical America; about twenty-six
species are known. The male of some species has a bearded or
bristly snout.
Acestra differs from Loricaria in having the snout much
prolonged.
Sisor.—Head depressed, spatulate; trunk depressed; tail long and
thin. One short dorsal fin; anal short; ventrals seven-rayed. Head
partially osseous, rough; a series of bony plates along the median line
of the back; lateral line rough. Eyes very small. Mouth inferior, small,
transverse, with barbels; teeth none.
A single species, S. rhabdophorus, from rivers of northern
Bengal. Allied to this genus is Erethistes from Assam.
Pseudecheneis.—Adipose fin of moderate length; a short dorsal
with one spine and six rays; anal fin rather short. Barbels eight. Mouth
small, inferior. Head depressed, covered with soft skin above; eyes
small, superior. Caudal fin forked; pectorals horizontal, with a thoracic
adhesive apparatus between, formed by transverse plaits of the skin.
Ventrals six-rayed.
A very small species, inhabiting the mountain-streams of
Khassya; by means of the adhesive apparatus it is enabled to hold
on to stones, thus preventing the current from sweeping it away.
Exostoma is a similar small Siluroid from Indian mountain-streams,
but without the thoracic apparatus; probably its mouth performs the
same function.
b. Aspredinina.
Aspredo.—Adipose fin none; dorsal short, without pungent spine;
anal very long, but not united with the caudal. Head broad, much
depressed; tail very long and slender. Barbels not less than six, one of
which is attached to each intermaxillary; none at the nostrils. Eyes
very small. Head covered with soft skin; the anterior and posterior
nostrils are remote from each other. Ventrals six-rayed.
Six species are known from Guyana; the largest grows to a
length of about eighteen inches. The remarkable mode of taking care
of their ova has been noticed above (p. 161, Fig. 72). Bunocephalus,
Bunocephalichthys, and Harttia, from tropical America, are other
genera of this sub-family which remain to be mentioned.
VII. Siluridæ Opisthopteræ.—The rayed dorsal fin is always
present, short, and placed above or behind the middle of the length
of the body, above or behind the ventrals which, however, are
sometimes absent; anal short. Nostrils remote from each other; if a
nasal barbel is present, it belongs to the anterior nostril. Lower lip not
reverted. The gill-membranes are not confluent with the skin of the
isthmus: Nematogenyina and Trichomycterina.
The genera Heptapterus, Nematogenys, Trichomycterus,
Eremophilus, and Pariodon, belong to this sub-family. They are small
South American Siluroids, the majority of which inhabit waters at
high altitudes, up to 14,000 feet above the level of the sea. In the
Andes they replace the Loaches of the Northern Hemisphere, which
they resemble in appearance and habits, and even in coloration,
offering a striking example of the fact that similar forms of animals
are produced under similar external physical conditions.
VIII. Siluridæ Branchicolæ.—The rayed dorsal fin is present,
short, and placed behind the ventrals; anal short. Vent far behind the
middle of the length of the body. Gill-membranes confluent with the
skin of the isthmus.
Stegophilus and Vandellia, two genera from South America,
comprising the smallest and least developed Siluroids. Their body is
narrow, cylindrical, and elongate; a small barbel at each maxillary;
the operculum and interoperculum are armed with short stiff spines.
The natives of Brazil accuse these fishes of entering and ascending
the urethra of persons while bathing, causing inflammation and
sometimes death. This requires confirmation, but there is no doubt
that they live parasitically in the gill-cavity of larger fishes
(Platystoma), but probably they enter these cavities only for places
of safety, without drawing any nourishment from their host.
Second Family—Scopelidæ.
Body naked or scaly. Margin of the upper jaw formed by the
intermaxillary only; opercular apparatus sometimes incompletely
developed. Barbels none. Gill-opening very wide; pseudobranchiæ
well developed. Air-bladder none. Adipose fin present. The eggs are
enclosed in the sacs of the ovary, and excluded by oviducts. Pyloric
appendages few in number or absent. Intestinal tract very short.
Exclusively marine, the majority being either pelagic or deep-sea
forms. Of fossil remains the following have been referred to this
family:—Osmeroides, from Mount Lebanon, which others believe to
be a marine salmonoid; Hemisaurida, from Comen, allied to Saurus;
Parascopelus and Anapterus, from the miocene of Licata, the latter
genus allied to Paralepis.
Saurus (inclus. Saurida).—Body sub-cylindrical, rather elongate,
covered with scales of moderate size; head oblong; cleft of the mouth
very wide; intermaxillary very long, styliform, tapering; maxillary thin,
long, closely adherent to the intermaxillary. Teeth card-like, some
being elongate, slender; all can be laid downwards and inwards. Teeth
on the tongue, and palatine bones. Eye of moderate size. Pectorals
short; ventrals eight- or nine-rayed, inserted in advance of the dorsal,
not far behind the pectorals. Dorsal fin nearly in the middle of the
length of the body, with thirteen or less rays; adipose fin small; anal
short or of moderate length; caudal forked.
Fifteen species of small size, from the shores of the tropical and
sub-tropical zones. The species figured on p. 42, Fig. 5, occurs on
the north-west coast of Australia and in Japan.
Bathysaurus.—Shape of the body similar to that of Saurus, sub-
cylindrical, elongate, covered with small scales. Head depressed, with
the snout produced, flat above. Cleft of the mouth very wide, with the
lower jaw projecting; intermaxillary very long, styliform, tapering, not
movable. Teeth in the jaws, in broad bands, not covered by lips,
curved, unequal in size and barbed at the end. A series of similar
teeth runs along the whole length of each side of the palate. Eye of
moderate size, lateral. Pectoral of moderate length. Ventral eight-
rayed, inserted immediately behind the pectoral. Dorsal fin in the
middle of the length of the body, with about eighteen rays. Adipose fin
absent or present. Anal of moderate length. Caudal emarginate.
Deep-sea fishes, obtained in the Pacific at depths varying from
1100 to 2400 fathoms. The largest example is twenty inches long.
Two species.
Bathypterois.—Shape of the body like that of an Aulopus. Head
of moderate size, depressed in front, with the snout projecting, the
large mandible very prominent beyond the upper jaw. Cleft of the
mouth wide; maxillary developed, very movable, much dilated behind.
Teeth in narrow villiform bands in the jaws. On each side of the broad
vomer a small patch of similar teeth; none on the palatines or on the
tongue. Eye very small. Scales cycloid, adherent, of moderate size.
Rays of the pectoral fin much elongated, some of the upper being
separate from the rest, and forming a distinct division. Ventrals
abdominal, with the outer rays prolonged, eight-rayed. Dorsal fin
inserted in the middle of the body, above or immediately behind the
root of the ventral, of moderate length. Adipose fin present or absent.
Anal short. Caudal forked.
This very singular form is one of the discoveries of the
“Challenger;” it is widely distributed over the seas of the Southern
Hemisphere, in depths varying from 520 to 2600 fathoms. The
elongate pectoral rays are most probably organs of touch. Four
species were discovered, the largest specimen being thirteen inches
long.
Harpodon.—Body elongate, covered with very thin, diaphanous,
deciduous scales. Head thick, with very short snout; its bones are very
soft, and the superficial ones are modified into wide muciferous
cavities; the lateral canal of the body is also very wide, and a pair of
pores corresponds to each scale of the lateral line, one being above,
the other below the scale. Cleft of the mouth very wide; intermaxillary
very long, styliform, tapering; maxillary absent. Teeth card-like,
recurved, unequal in size; the largest are in the lower jaw, and
provided with a single barb at the posterior margin of the point. Eye
small. Ventral fins long, nine-rayed, inserted below the anterior dorsal
rays; dorsal fin in the middle of the length of the body; adipose fin
small; anal of moderate length; caudal fin three-lobed, the lateral line
being continued along the central lobe. Centre of the vertebræ open in
the middle.
Two species only are known of this singular genus; both are
evidently inhabitants of considerable depths, and periodically come
nearer to the surface. One (H. nehereus) is well known in the East
Indies, being of excellent flavour. When newly taken its body is
brilliantly phosphorescent. When salted and dry it is known under the
names of “Bombay-ducks” or “Bummaloh,” and exported in large
quantities from Bombay and the coast of Malabar. The second
species (H. microchir) exceeds the other in length, and has been
found in the sea off Japan.
Fig. 269.—Scopelus boops.
Scopelus.—Body oblong, more or less compressed, covered with
large scales. Series of phosphorescent spots run along the lower side
of the body, and a similar glandular substance sometimes occupies
the front of the snout and the back of the tail. Cleft of the mouth very
wide. Intermaxillary very long, styliform, tapering; maxillary well
developed. Teeth villiform. Eye large. Ventrals eight-rayed, inserted
immediately in front of or below the anterior dorsal rays. Dorsal fin
nearly in the middle of the length of the body; adipose fin small; anal
generally long; caudal forked. Branchiostegals from eight to ten.
The fishes of this genus are small, of truly pelagic habits, and
distributed over all the temperate and tropical seas; they are so
numerous that the surface-net, when used during a night of
moderate weather, scarcely ever fails to enclose some specimens.
They come to the surface at night only; during the day and in very
rough weather they descend to depths where they are safe from
sunlight or the agitation of the water. Some species never rise to the
surface; indeed, Scopeli have been brought up in the dredge from
almost any depth to 2500 fathoms. Thirty species are known.
Gymnoscopelus differs from Scopelus in lacking scales.
Ipnops.—Body elongate, sub-cylindrical, covered with large, thin,
deciduous scales, and without phosphorescent organs. Head
depressed, with broad, long, spatulate snout, the whole upper surface
of which is occupied by a most peculiar organ of vision (or luminosity),
longitudinally divided in two symmetrical halves. Bones of the head
well ossified. Mouth wide, with the lower jaw projecting; maxillary
dilated behind. Both jaws with narrow bands of villiform teeth; palate
toothless. Pectoral and ventral fins well developed, and, owing to the
shortness of the trunk, close together. Dorsal fin at a short distance

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Chapter 5 Part 1—Price Elasticity of Demand and Supply

4. An increase in total revenue results occurs from which of the following?

11. The price elasticity of demand for gasoline measures the:

12. When demand is price inelastic:

14. Price elasticity of demand refers to the ratio of the:

15. Price elasticity of demand is defined as the ratio of the:

16. Price elasticity of demand refers to the:

17. If demand is price elastic, a decrease in price causes:

19. A perfectly elastic demand curve has an elasticity coefficient of:

33. Demand price elasticity measures:

Exhibit 5-1 Demand curve

40. If the demand curve is unit elastic, this implies that:

42. Demand price elasticity is measured by the:

45. If a 10 percent cut in price causes a 15 percent increase in sales, then:

49. If the price elasticity of demand for a product measures .45,

50. If a straight-line demand curve slopes down, price elasticity will:

68. Elasticity has which special meaning for economists?

71. Which of the following statements is true?

This sub-family is well represented by various other genera in the

Four species from tropical America. The second genus of this

Synodontis is characteristic of the fauna of tropical Africa, where

Fig. 263.—Synodontis xiphias.

Fig. 264.—Malapterurus electricus.

This genus, with the allied Plecostomus, Liposarcus,

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