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Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is considered to be a digital procedure
which can be employed when the transmission medium data rate quantity is
higher than the data rate requisite of the transmitting and receiving devices. In
TDM, corresponding frames carry data to be transmitted from the different
sources. Each frame consists of a set of time slots, and portions of each source
is assigned a time slot per frame.

Types of TDM :

 Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing – In this type the

synchronous term signifies that the multiplexer is going to assign precisely
the same slot to each device at every time even if a device has anything to
send or not. If it doesn’t have something, the time slot would be empty.
TDM uses framesto group time slots which covers a complete cycle of
time slots. Synchronous TDM uses a concept, i.e., interleaving for
building a frame in which a multiplexer can take one data unit at a time
from each device, then another data unit from each device and so on. The
order of the receipt notifies the demultiplexer where to direct each time
slot, which eliminates the need of addressing. To recover from timing
inconsistencies Framing bits are used which are usually appended to the
beginning of each frame. Bit stuffing is used to force speed relationships
to equalize the speed between several devices into an integer multiple of
each other. In bit stuffing, the multiplexer appends additional bits to
device’s source stream.
 Asynchronous Time-Division Multiplexing – Synchronous TDM waste
the unused space in the link hence it does not assure the efficient use of
the full capacity of the link. This gave rise to Asynchronous TDM. Here
 Asynchronous means flexible not fixed. In Asynchronous TDM several low
rate input lines are multiplexed to a single higher speed line. In
Asynchronous TDM, the number of slots in a frame is less than the number
of data lines. On the contrary, In Synchronous TDM the number of slots
must be equal to the number of data lines. That’s why it, avoids the
wastage of the link capacity.

Definition of FDM
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique which is
implemented only when the bandwidth of the link is higher than the merged
bandwidth of the signals to be transmitted. Each sending device produces
signals which modulate at distinct carrier frequencies. To hold the modulated
signal, the carrier frequencies are isolated by adequate bandwidth.

The modulated signals are then merged into one compound signal that can be
transferred by the link. The signals travel through the bandwidth ranges
referred to as channels.

Signals overlapping can be controlled by using unutilized bandwidth strips for

segregating the channels, these are known as guard bands. Also, carrier
frequencies should not interrupt with the original data frequencies. If any
condition fails to adhere, the original signals cannot be recovered.

Key Differences Between TDM and FDM

1. The time-division multiplexing (TDM) includes sharing of the time through
utilizing time slots for the signals. On the other hand, frequency-division
 multiplexing (FDM) involves the distribution of the frequencies, where the
channel is divided into various bandwidth ranges (channels).
2. Analog signal or Digital signal any could be utilized for the TDM while FDM
works with Analog signals only.
3. Framing bits (Sync Pulses) are used in TDM at the start of a frame in
order to enable synchronization. As against, FDM uses Guardbands to
separate the signals and prevent its overlapping.
4. FDM system generates different carriers for the different channels, and
also each occupies a distinct frequency band. In addition, different
bandpass filters are required. Conversely, the TDM system requires
identical circuits. As a result, the circuitry needed in FDM is more complex
than needed in TDM.
5. The non–linear character of the various amplifier in the FDM system
produces harmonic distortion, and this introduces the interference. In
contrast, in TDM system time slots are allotted to various signals; as the
multiple signals are not inserted simultaneously in a link. Although, the
non-linear requirements of both the systems are same, but TDM is immune
to interference (crosstalk).
6. The utilization of physical link in case of TDM is more efficient than in FDM.
The reason behind this is that the FDM system divides the link in multiple
channels which does not make use of full channel capacity.
Conclusion
TDM and FDM, both are the techniques used for multiplexing. FDM uses analog
signals, and TDM uses Analog and digital both types of signals. However, the
efficiency of TDM is much greater than FDM.
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 COMPRESSION

Data compression is the process of modifying, encoding or converting the bits

structure of data in such a way that it consumes less space on disk. Data
compression is particularly useful in communications because it enables devices to
transmit or store the same amount of data in fewer bits.

Compression may be classified into two types.

1.Losssless compression 2.Lossy compression

1.Losssless compression

In the technique of Lossless compression with the compressing of data that is when
get decompressed, will be the same replica of actual data. In this case, when the
binary data like the documents, executable etc. are get compressed. This required
to be reproduced exactly when get decompressed again. A resemblance of the
actual image is sufficient for the most objective, as far as the error or problems
between the actual and compressed image is avoidable or tolerable. These types of
compression are also known as noiseless as they never add noise to signal or
image. It is also termed as the entropy coding as it uses the techniques of
decomposition/statistics to remove/reduce the redundancy. It is also used only for
the some specific applications along with the rigid needs like a medical-imaging.
Below mentioned techniques consists in the lossless compression:

Huffman encoding 2. Run length encoding 3. Arithmetic coding 4. Dictionary

Techniques a) a)LZ77 b) b)LZ78 c) c)LZW 5. Bit Plane coding
2 Lossy Compression:

In the technique of Lossy compression, it decreases the bits by recognizing the not
required information and by eliminating it.The system of decreasing the size of the
file of data is commonly termed as the data-compression, though its formal name is
the source-coding that is coding get done at source of data before it gets stored or
sent. In these methods few loss of the information is acceptable. Dropping non-
essential information from the source of data can save the storage area. As an
example, the human eye is very sensitive to slight variations in the luminance as
compare that there are so many variations in the color. The Lossy image
compression technique is used in the digital cameras, to raise the storage ability
with the minimal decline of the quality of picture. Similarly in the DVDs which
uses the lossy MPEG-2 Video codec technique for the compression of the video. In
the lossy audio compression, the techniques of psycho acoustics have been used to
eliminate the non-audible or less audible components of signal.

Example:JPEG Standard:

JPEG is an image compression standard that was developed by the “Joint

Photographic Experts Group”. JPEG was formally accepted as an international
standard in 1992.
• JPEG is a lossy image compression method. It employs a transform coding
method using the DCT (Discrete Cosine Transform).
An image is a function of i and j (or conventionally x and y) in the spatial domain.
The 2D DCT is used as one step in JPEG in order to yield a frequency response
which is a function F(u, v) in the spatial frequency domain, indexed by two
integers u and v.

Image compression:
When the encoder receives the original image file, the image file will be
converted into a series of binary data, which is called the bit-stream. The decoder
then receives the encoded bit-stream and decodes it to form the decoded image. If
the total data quantity of the bit-stream is less than the total data quantity of the
original image, then this is called as Compression/image compression. The
compression flow is as shown in following Figure.
 Fig. Basic flow of image compression coding

The best-known methods are as follows:

1) Predictive Coding: Predictive Coding such as DPCM (Differential Pulse Code
Modulation) is a lossless coding method, which means that the decoded image and
the original image have the same value for every corresponding element.
2)Orthogonal Transform: Karhunen-Loeve Transform (KLT) and Discrete
Cosine Transform (DCT) are the two most well-known orthogonal transforms. The
DCT-based image compression standard such as JPEG is a lossy coding method
that will result in some loss of details and
unrecoverable distortion.
3)Subband Coding: Subband Coding such as Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT)
is also a lossy coding method. The objective of subband coding is to divide the
spectrum of one image into the lowpass and the highpass components. JPEG 2000
is a 2-dimension DWT based image compression
standard.

Fig.ENCODER

The objective of quantization is to reduce the precision and to achieve higher

compression ratio. The image compression standards such as JPEG and JPEG 2000
have their own quantization methods.
The main objective of entropy coding is to achieve less average length of the
image. Entropy coding assigns codewords to the corresponding symbols according
to the probability of the symbols. In general, the entropy encoders are used to
compress the data by replacing symbols represented by equal-length codes with the
codewords whose length is inverse proportional to corresponding probability.
 Fig.DECODER

Merits of image compression :

 It enables a reliable cost of savings that is included withthe sending of less data
on the network of switched telephone in which the cost of call is normally
dependent on its duration.
 It is not only to decrease the requirements of storage but also decrease the entire
time of execution.
 It decreases the chances of the errors transmission as some bits have got
transferred.
 It enables a level of the secu+rity against monitoring the unlawful Activities
 UNIT V SATELLITE APPLICATIONS

5.1 INTELSAT Series:

INTELSATstandsforInternationalTelecommunicationsSatellite.Theorganizationwas
created in 1964 and currently has over 140 member countries and more than 40 investing
entities (see http://www.intelsat.com/ for moredetails).

InJuly2001INTELSATbecameaprivatecompanyandinMay2002thecompanybegan
providing end-to-end solutions through a network of teleports, leased fiber, and points of
presence (PoPs) around theglobe.

Starting with the Early Bird satellite in 1965, a succes- sion of satellites has
beenlaunched at intervals of a few years. Figure 1.1 illustrates the evolution of some of the
INTELSATsatellites.Asthefigureshows,thecapacity,intermsofnumberofvoicechannels,
increaseddramaticallywitheachsucceedinglaunch,aswellasthedesignlifetime.

Thesesatellitesareingeostationaryorbit, meaningthattheyappeartobestationaryin
relation to the earth. At this point it may be noted that geostationary satellites orbit in the
earth‘s equatorial plane and their position is specified by theirlongitude.

For international traffic, INTELSAT covers three main regions—the Atlantic Ocean
Region(AOR),theIndianOceanRegion(IOR),andthePacificOceanRegion(POR)andwhatis
termed Intelsat America’sRegion.

For the ocean regions the satellites are positioned in geostationary orbit above the
particular ocean, where they provide a transoceanic telecommunications route. For example,
INTELSAT satellite 905 is positioned at 335.5° east longitude.

The INTELSAT VII-VII/A series was launched over a period from

October1993toJune1996.TheconstructionissimilartothatfortheVandVA/VBseries,showninFig.
1 inthattheVIIserieshassolarsailsratherthanacylindricalbody.

TheVIIserieswasplannedforserviceinthePORandalsoforsomeofthelessdemanding
services in the AOR. The antenna beam coverage is appropriate for that of the POR. Figure 1
showstheantennabeamfootprintsfortheC-bandhemisphericcover-ageandzonecoverage,as
wellasthespotbeamcoveragepossiblewiththeKu-bandantennas(Lilly,1990;Sachdevetal., 1990).
When used in the AOR, the VII series satellite is inverted north for south (Lilly, 1990), minor
adjustments then being needed only to optimize the antenna pat- terns for this region. The
lifetime of these satellites ranges from 10 to 15 years depending on the launchvehicle.

1
RecentfiguresfromtheINTELSATWebsitegivethecapacityforthe INTELSATVIIas18,000two-
waytelephonecircuitsandthreeTVchannels;upto90,000 two-way telephone circuits can be
achieved with the use of ―digital circuit multiplication.‖

TheINTELSATVII/Ahasacapacityof22,500two-waytelephonecircuitsandthreeTV
channels; up to 112,500 two-way tele- phone circuits can be achieved with the use of digital
circuitmultipli-cation.AsofMay1999,foursatelliteswereinserviceovertheAOR,oneinthe IOR,
and two in thePOR.

INTELSAT Series
TheINTELSATVIII-VII/AseriesofsatelliteswaslaunchedovertheperiodFebruary
1997toJune1998.SatellitesinthisserieshavesimilarcapacityastheVII/Aseries,andthe lifetime
is 14 to 17years.

It is standard practice to have a spare satellite in orbit on highreliability routes (which

can carry preemptible traffic) and to have a ground spare in case of launch failure.

Thus the cost for large international schemes can be high; for example, series IX,
described later, represents a total investment of approximately $1 billion.

2
 5.2INSAT:

INSAT or the Indian National Satellite System is a series of multipurpose geo-

stationary satellites launched by ISRO to satisfy the telecommunications,
broadcasting,meteorology, and search and rescue operations.

Commissionedin1983,INSATisthelargestdomesticcommunicationsystemintheAsia
Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of the Department of Space, Department of
Telecommunications, India Meteorological Department, All India Radio and Doordarshan. The
overall coordination and management of INSAT system rests with the Secretary-level INSAT
CoordinationCommittee.

INSAT satellites provide transponders in various bands (C, S, Extended C and Ku) to
servethetelevisionandcommunicationneedsofIndia.SomeofthesatellitesalsohavetheVery
HighResolutionRadiometer(VHRR),CCDcamerasformetrologicalimaging.
The satellites also incorporate transponder(s) for receiving distress alert signals for
searchandrescuemissionsintheSouthAsianandIndianOceanRegion,asISROisamember of the
Cospas-Sarsatprogramme.
INSATSystem:
The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) System Was Commissioned With The Launch Of
INSAT-1B In August 1983 (INSAT-1A, The First Satellite Was Launched In April 1982 But
Could Not Fulfil The Mission).
INSATSystemUsheredInARevolutionInIndia‘sTelevisionAndRadioBroadcasting,
TelecommunicationsAndMeteorologicalSectors.ItEnabledTheRapidExpansionOfTVAnd
ModernTelecommunicationFacilitiesToEvenTheRemoteAreasAndOff-ShoreIslands.

Satellites In Service:
Of The 24 Satellites Launched In The Course Of The INSAT Program, 10 Are Still In
Operation.INSAT-2 E
It Is The Last Of The Five Satellites In INSAT-2 Series{Prateek }. It Carries Seventeen
C-BandAndLowerExtendedC-BandTranspondersProvidingZonalAndGlobalCoverageWith An
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) Of 36Dbw.
It Also Carries A Very High Resolution Radiometer ( VHRR) With Imaging Capacity In
The Visible (0.55-0.75 µm), Thermal Infrared (10.5-12.5 µm) And Water Vapour (5.7-7.1 µm)
Channels And Provides 2x2 Km, 8x8 Km And 8x8 Km Ground Resolution Respectively.
INSAT-3 A
The Multipurpose Satellite, INSAT-3A, Was Launched By Ariane In April 2003. It Is
Located At 93.5 Degree East Longitude. The Payloads On INSAT-3 A Are As Follows:
12NormalC-BandTransponders(9ChannelsProvideExpandedCoverageFromMiddle East
To South East Asia With An EIRP Of 38 Dbw, 3 Channels Provide India Coverage With An
EIRP Of 36 Dbw And 6 Extended C-Band Transponders Provide India Coverage With An
EIRP Of 36Dbw).
ACCDCameraProvides1x1KmGroundResolution,InTheVisible(0.630.69µm),Near
Infrared (0.77-0.86 µm) And Shortwave Infrared (1.55-1.70 µm)Bands.

3
INSAT-3 D
Launched In July 2013, INSAT-3D Is Positioned At 82 Degree East Longitude. INSAT-
3D Payloads Include Imager, Sounder, Data Relay Transponder And Search & Rescue
Transponder. All The Transponders Provide Coverage Over Large Part Of The Indian Ocean
Region CoveringIndia,Bangladesh, Bhutan,Maldives, Nepal, Seychelles, Sri Lanka And
Tanzania For Rendering Distress AlertServices.
INSAT-3E
LaunchedInSeptember2003,INSAT-3EIsPositionedAt55DegreeEastLongitudeAnd
Carries24NormalC-BandTranspondersProvideAnEdgeOfCoverageEIRPOf37DbwOver India
And 12 Extended C-Band Transponders Provide An Edge Of Coverage EIRP Of 38 Dbw
OverIndia.
KALPANA-1
KALPANA-1IsAnExclusiveMeteorologicalSatelliteLaunchedByPSLVInSeptember
2002.ItCarriesVeryHighResolutionRadiometerAndDRTPayloadsToProvideMeteorological
Services. It Is Located At 74 Degree East Longitude. Its First Name Was METSAT. It Was
Later Renamed As KALPANA1 To Commemorate KalpanaChawla.
Edusat
Configured For Audio-Visual Medium Employing Digital
InteractiveClassroomLessonsAndMultimediaContent,EDUSATWasLaunchedByGSLVInSeptem
ber 2004.ItsTranspondersAndTheirGroundCoverageAreSpeciallyConfiguredToCaterToThe
educationalRequirements.
GSAT-2
LaunchedByTheSecondFlightOfGSLVInMay2003,GSAT-2IsLocatedAt48Degree
EastLongitudeAndCarriesFourNormalC-BandTranspondersToProvide36DbwEIRPWith India
Coverage, Two Ku Band Transponders With 42 Dbw EIRP Over India And An MSS Payload
Similar To Those On INSAT-3B And INSAT-3C.

INSAT-4 Series :

4
 INSAT-4A is positioned at 83 degree East longitude along with INSAT-2 E and INSAT-
3B.Itcarries12Kuband36MHzbandwidthtranspondersemploying140WTWTAstoprovide an
EIRP of 52 dBW at the edge of coverage polygon with footprint covering Indian main land and
12 C-band 36 MHz bandwidth transponders provide an EIRP of 39 dBW at the edge of
coverage with expanded radiation patterns encompassing Indian geographical boundary, area
beyondIndiainsoutheastandnorthwestregions.[8]TataSky,ajointventurebetweentheTATA Group
and STAR uses INSAT-4A for distributing their DTHservice.
• INSAT-4A
• INSAT-4B
• Glitch In INSAT4B
• China-StuxnetConnection
• INSAT-4 CR
• GSAT-8 / INSAT-4G
• GSAT-12/GSAT-10
5.3 VSAT:
VSATstandsforverysmallapertureterminalsystem.Thisisthedistinguishingfeature of a
VSAT system, the earth-station antennas being typically less than 2.4 m in diameter (Rana et
al., 1990). The trend is toward even smaller dishes, not more than 1.5 m in diameter (Hughes et
al.,1993).
In this sense, the small TVRO terminals for direct broadcast satellites could be labeled
as VSATs, but the appellation is usually reserved for private networks, mostly providing two-
way communications facilities.
Typicalusergroupsincludebankingandfinancialinstitutions,airlineandhotelbooking
agencies, and large retail stores with geographically dispersedoutlets.
VSAT Block Diagram

5
 VSAT network:
The basic structure of a VSAT network consists of a hub station which provides a
broadcast facility to all the VSATs in the network and the VSATs themselves which access the
satellite in some form of multiple access mode.
The hub station is operated by the service provider, and it may be shared among a number
of users, but of course, each user organization has exclusive access to its own VSAT network.
Time division mul- tiplex is the normal downlink mode of transmission from hub to the VSATs,
and the transmission can be broadcast for reception by all the VSATs in a network, or address
coding can be used to direct messages to selected VSATs.
Aformofdemandassignedmultipleaccess(DAMA)isemployedinsomesystemsinwhich channel
capacity is assigned in response to the fluctuating demands of theVSATsinthenetwork.
Most VSAT systems operate in the Ku band, although there are some Cband systems in existence
(Rana et al., 1990).

Applications:
 Supermarket shops (tills, ATM machines, stock sale updates and stockordering).
 Chemistshops– ShoppersDrug Mart -Pharmaprix.
 Broadbanddirecttothehome.E.g.DownloadingMP3audiotoaudioplayers.
 Broadband direct small business, office etc, sharing local use with manyPCs.
 Internet access from on board ship Cruise ships with internet cafes, commercial
shippingcommunications.

Mobile satelliteservices
5.4 GSM:

Services and Architecture:

Ifyourworkinvolves(orislikelytoinvolve)someformofwirelesspubliccommunications, you
are likely to encounter the GSM standards. Initially developed to support a standardized
approach to digital cellular communications in Europe, the "Global System for Mobile
Communications"(GSM)protocolsarerapidlybeingadoptedtothenextgenerationofwireless
telecommunicationssystems.
In the US, its main competition appears to be the cellular TDMA systems based on the IS-
54 standards. Since the GSM systems consist of a wide range of components, standards,and
protocols.
The GSM and its companion standard DCS1800 (for the UK, where the 900 MHz
frequenciesarenotavailableforGSM)havebeendevelopedoverthelastdecadetoallowcellular
communicationssystemstomovebeyondthelimitationsposedbytheolderanalogsystems.
Analog system capacities are being stressed with more users that can be effectively supported by
the available frequency allocations. Compatibility between types of systems had been limited, if
non-existent.
By using digital encoding techniques, more users can share the same frequencies than had
been available in the analog systems. As compared to the digital cellular systems in the US
(CDMA[IS-95]andTDMA[IS-54]),theGSMmarkethashadimpressivesuccess.Estimatesof the
numbers of telephones run from 7.5 million GSM phones to .5 million IS54 phones to .3 million
forIS95.

6
 GSM has gained in acceptance from its initial beginnings in Europe to other parts of the
world including Australia, New Zealand, countries in the Middle East and the far east. Beyond
itsuseincellularfrequencies(900MHzforGSM,1800MHzforDCS1800),portionsoftheGSM
signaling protocols are finding their way into the newly developing PCS and LEO Satellite
communicationssystems.
While the frequencies and link characteristics of these systems differ from the standard
GSM air interface, all of these systems must deal with users roaming from one cell (or satellite
beam) to another, and bridge services to public communication networks including the Public
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), and public data networks (PDN).
The GSM architecture includes several subsystems:
TheMobileStation(MS)--Thesedigitaltelephonesincludevehicle,portableandhand- held
terminals. A device called the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) that is basically a smart- card
provides custom information about users such as the services they've subscribed to and their
identification in thenetwork
The Base Station Sub-System (BSS) -- The BSS is the collection of devices that support
the switching networks radio interface. Major components of the BSS include the Base
Transceiver Station (BTS) that consists of the radio modems and antenna equipment.
In OSI terms, the BTS provides the physical interface to the MS where the BSC is
responsible for the link layer services to the MS. Logically the transcoding equipment is in the
BTS, however, an additional component.
TheNetworkandSwitchingSub-System(NSS)--TheNSSprovidestheswitching between
the GSM subsystem and external networks along with the databases used for additional
subscriber and mobilitymanagement.
MajorcomponentsintheNSSincludetheMobileServicesSwitchingCenter(MSC),Home and
Visiting Location Registers (HLR, VLR). The HLR and VLR databases are interconnected
through the telecomm standard Signaling System 7 (SS7) controlnetwork.
The Operation Sub-System (OSS) -- The OSS provides the support functions responsible
for the management of network maintenance and services. Components of the OSS
areresponsible for network operation and maintenance, mobile equipment management, and
subscription management andcharging.

7
 GSM Block Diagram
Several channels are used in theair interface:

FCCH - the frequency correction channel - provides frequency synchronization information in

aburst
SCH - Synchronization Channel - shortly following the FCCH burst (8 bits later), provides a
reference to all slots on a givenfrequency
PAGCH - Paging and Access Grant Channel used for the transmission of paging information
requesting the setup of a call to aMS.
RACH - Random Access Channel - an inbound channel used by the MS to request connections
from the ground network. Since this is used for the first access attempt by
usersofthenetwork,arandomaccessschemeisusedtoaidinavoidingcollisions.
CBCH - Cell Broadcast Channel - used for infrequent transmission of broadcasts by the
groundnetwork.
BCCH - Broadcast Control Channel - provides access status information to the MS. The
information provided on this channel is used by the MS to determine whether or not to request a
transition to a newcell
FACCH - Fast Associated Control Channel for the control ofhandovers
TCH/F-TrafficChannel,FullRateforspeechat13kbpsordataat12,6,or3.6kbps
TCH/H - Traffic Channel, Half Rate for speech at 7 kbps, or data at 6or
3.6kbps

8
Mobility Management:

One of the major features used in all classes of GSM networks (cellular, PCS and
Satellite)istheabilitytosupportroamingusers.Throughthecontrolsignalingnetwork,the
MSCsinteracttolocateandconnecttousersthroughoutthenetwork.
"Location Registers" are included in the MSC databases to assist in the role of
determining how, and whether connections are to be made to roaming users. Each user of a
GSMMSisassignedaHomeLocationRegister(HLR)thatisusedtocontaintheuser'slocation and
subscribedservices.

Difficulties facing the operators can include;

 Remote/Rural Areas. To service remote areas, it is often economically unfeasible

toprovidebackhaulfacilities(BTStoBSC)viaterrestriallines(fiber/microwave).
 Time to deploy. Terrestrial build-outs can take years to plan andimplement.
 Areasof‗minor‘interest.Thesecanincludesmallisolatedcenterssuchastouristresorts, islands,
mines, oil exploration sites, hydro-electricfacilities.
 Temporary Coverage. Special events, even in urban areas, can overload the existing
infrastructure.

GSM servicesecurity:

GSM was designed with a moderate level of service security. GSM uses several
cryptographicalgorithmsforsecurity.The A5/1,A5/2,andA5/3streamciphersareusedfor ensuring
over-the-air voiceprivacy.

GSMusesGeneralPacketRadioService(GPRS)fordatatransmissionslikebrowsing the web. The

most commonly deployed GPRS ciphers were publicly broken in2011The
researchersrevealedflawsinthecommonlyusedGEA/1.

5.5 Global Positioning System (GPS):

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite based navigation system that can be used to
locate positions anywhere on earth. Designed and operated by the U.S. Department of
Defense,itconsistsofsatellites,controlandmonitorstations,andreceivers.GPSreceiverstake
informationtransmittedfromthesatellitesandusestriangulationtocalculateauser‘sexact location.
GPS is used on incidents in a variety of ways, suchas:
 To determine position locations; for example, you need to radio a helicopter pilot the
coordinatesofyourpositionlocationsothepilotcanpickyouup.
 Tonavigatefromonelocationtoanother;forexample,youneedtotravelfromalookout to the
fireperimeter.
 Tocreatedigitizedmaps;forexample,youare assignedtoplotthefireperimeterandhot spots.
 To determine distance between two points or how far you are from anotherlocation.

9
 F
i
g
u
r
e

5
.
6

GPS Block Diagram

Three Segments of GPS:

i)Space Segment — Satellites orbiting the earth

The space segment consists of 29 satellites circling the earth every 12 hours at 12,000 miles in
altitude. This high altitude allows the signals to cover a greater area. The satellites are arranged
in their orbits so a GPS receiver on earth can receive a signal from at least four satellites at any
given time. Each satellite contains several atomic clocks.

ii)Control Segment — The control and monitoring stations

The control segment tracks the satellites and then provides them with corrected orbital and time
information. The control segment consists of five unmanned monitor stations and one Master
Control Station. The five unmanned stations monitor GPS satellite signals and then send that
information to the Master Control Station where anomalies are corrected and sent back to the
GPS satellites through groundantennas.

iii)User Segment — The GPS receivers owned by civilians and military

The user segment consists of the users and their GPS receivers. The number of simultaneous
users is limitless.

10
How GPS Determines a Position:

The GPS receiver uses the following information to determine a position.

Precise location ofsatellites:

When a GPS receiver is first turned on, it downloads orbit information from all the
satellites called an almanac. This process, the first time, can take as long as 12 minutes;
butoncethisinformationisdownloaded,itisstoredinthereceiver‘smemoryforfuture use.
Distance from eachsatellite
The GPS receiver calculates the distance from each satellite to the receiver by using the
distance formula: distance = velocity x time. The receiver already knows the velocity, which is
the speed of a radio wave or 186,000 miles per second (the speed of light).

Triangulation to determineposition:
Thereceiverdeterminespositionbyusingtriangulation.Whenitreceivessignalsfromat least
three satellites the receiver should be able to calculate its approximate position (a 2D
position). The receiver needs at least four or more satellites to calculate a more accurate 3D
position.

Using a GPS Receiver :

There are several different models and types of GPS receivers. Refer to the owner‘s manual for
your GPS receiver and practice using it to become proficient.

When working on an incident with a GPS receiver it is importantto:

Always have a compass and amap.

Have a GPS downloadcable.

Have extrabatteries.

KnowmemorycapacityoftheGPSreceivertopreventlossofdata,decreaseinaccuracy of data,or
otherproblems.

Use an external antennae whenever possible, especially under tree canopy, in canyons, or while
flying ordriving.

Set up GPS receiver according to incident or agency standard regulation; coordinate system.

Takenotesthatdescribewhatyouaresavinginthereceiver.

11
5.6 INMARSAT:
Inmarsat-Indian Maritime SATellite is still the sole IMO-mandated provider of satellite
communications for the GMDSS.
Availability for GMDSS is a minimum of99.9%
Inmarsat has constantly and consistently exceeded this figure & Independently audited by
IMSO and reported on to
IMO.NowInmarsatcommercialservicesusethesamesatellitesandnetwork&Inmarsat A closes at
midnight on 31 December 2007 Agreed by IMO – MSC/Circ.1076. Successful closure
programme almost concluded Overseen throughout by IMSO.

INMARSAT Satellite Service

GMDSS services continue to be provided by:

Inmarsat B, Inmarsat C/mini-C and InmarsatFleetF77 Potential for GMDSS on

FleetBroadband beingassessed

The IMO Criteria for the Provision of Mobile Satellite Communications Systems in the Global
Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS)

Amendments were proposed; potentially to make it simpler for other satellite systems to be
approved

The original requirements remain and were approved by MSC 83

No dilution ofstandards

Minoramendmentsonly;replacementResolutionexpectedtobeapprovedbytheIMO25th Assembly

Inmarsat remains the sole, approved satcom provider for the GMDSS

12
5.7 LEO,MEO and GEO
LEO: Low Earth Orbit satellites have a small area of coverage. They are positioned in an orbit
approximately 3000km from the surface of theearth
They complete one orbit every 90minutes
Thelargemajorityofsatellitesareinlowearthorbit
The Iridium system utilizes LEO satellites (780kmhigh)
ThesatelliteinLEOorbitisvisibletoapointontheearthforaveryshorttime

Figure 5.8 LEO, MEO & GEO range

MEO:
MediumEarthOrbitsatelliteshaveorbitalaltitudesbetween3,000and30,000km.
They are commonly used used in navigation systems such asGPS

GEO:
Geosynchronous(Geostationary)EarthOrbitsatellitesarepositionedovertheequator. The orbital altitude
is around 30,000-40 ,000km
There is only one geostationary orbit possible around the earth
Lying on the earth‘s equatorialplane.
Thesatelliteorbitingatthesamespeedastherotationalspeedoftheearthonits axis.
They complete one orbit every 24 hours. This causes the satellite to appear stationary with
respect to a point on the earth, allowing one satellite to provide continual coverage to a given
area on the earth'ssurface
OneGEOsatellitecancoverapproximately1/3oftheworld‘ssurface.
They are commonly used in communication systems

Advantages:
Simple ground stationtracking,Nearly constantrange, Very small frequencyshift.
Disadvantages:
Transmission delay ofthe order of 250 m s e c ,Large free spaceloss ,No polarcoverage

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Satellite orbits in terms of the orbitalheight:
According to distance fromearth:
Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO),
Medium Earth Orbit(MEO),
Low Earth Orbit(LEO)

LEO, MEO & GEO Orbits

Difference between LEO,MEO&GEOOrbits

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GEO:35,786kmabovetheearth, MEO:8,000-20,000kmabovetheearth&LEO:5002,000kmabove the earth.

5.8 Benefits of Satellite Navigational System:

Enhanced Safety
Increased Capacity
Reduced Delays

Advantage:
Increased Flight Efficiencies
Increased Schedule Predictability
Environmentally Beneficial Procedures

5.9 Direct Broadcast satellites(DBS):

Satellites provide broadcast transmissions in the fullest sense of the word, because antenna
footprints can be made to cover large areas of the earth.
Theideaofusingsatellitestoprovidedirecttransmissionsintothehomehasbeenaround for many years,
and the services pro- vided are known generally as direct broadcast satellite (DBS)services.
Broadcast services include audio, television, and Internet services.
Power Rating and Number ofTransponders:
It will be seen that satellites primarily intended for DBS have a higher [EIRP] than for the
other categories, being in the range 51 to 60 dBW. At a Regional
AdministrativeRadioCouncil(RARC)meetingin1983,thevalueestablishedforDBSwas57 dBW
(Mead,2000). Transponders are rated by the power output of their high-poweramplifiers.

Typically, a satellite may carry 32 transponders. If all 32 are in use, each will operate at the lower
power rating of 120 W.

Theavailablebandwidth(uplinkanddownlink)isseentobe500MHz.Atotalnumberof 32 transponder
channels, each of bandwidth 24 MHz, can beaccommodated.

The bandwidth is sometimes specified as 27 MHz, but this includes a 3MHz guardband
allowance. Therefore, when calculating bit-rate capacity, the 24 MHz value is used.

The total of 32 transponders requires the use of both right- hand circular polarization (RHCP) and left-hand
circular polarization (LHCP) in order to permit frequency reuse, and guard bands are inserted between channels
of a given polarization.

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 DBS Service

Bit Rates for DigitalTelevision:

The bit rate for digital television depends very much on the picture format. One way of
estimating the uncompressed bit rate is to multiply the number of pixels in a frame by the
numberofframespersecond,andmultiplythisbythenumberofbitsusedtoencodeeachpixel.

MPEG CompressionStandards:

MPEGisagroupwithintheInternationalStandardsOrganizationandtheInternational Electrochemical
Commission (ISO/IEC) that undertook the job of defining standards for the transmission and
storage of moving pictures andsound.
The MPEG standards currently available are MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-4 , and MPEG-
7.

5.10 Direct to home Broadcast (DTH):

DTH stands for Direct-To-Home television. DTH is defined as the reception of satellite
programmes with a personal dish in an individual home.

DTHBroadcastingtohomeTVreceiverstakeplaceinthekuband(12GHz).Thisservice is known as
Direct To Homeservice.
DTH services were first proposed in India in1996.Finally in 2000, DTH wasallowed.
ThenewpolicyrequiresalloperatorstosetupearthstationsinIndia
within 12 months of getting a license. DTH licenses in India will cost $2.14 million and will be
valid for 10 years.
Working principal of DTH is the satellite communication. Broadcaster modulates the received
signal and transmits it to the satellite in KU Band and from satellite one can receive signal by
dish and set top box.

DTH BlockDiagram:

A DTH network consists of a broadcasting centre, satellites, encoders, multiplexers, modulators

and DTHreceivers. The encoder converts the audio, video and data signals into the digital
format andthe multiplexer mixes thesesignals.
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It is used to provide the DTH service in high populated area A Multi Switch is basically a box
that contains signal splitters and A/B switches. An output of group of DTH LNBs is connected to
the A and B inputs of the Multi Switch.

DTH Service

Advantage:

DTHalsooffersdigitalqualitysignalswhichdonotdegradethepictureorsoundquality.
It also offers interactive channels and program guides with customers having the choice to block
out programming which they considerundesirable
One of the great advantages of the cable industry has been the ability to provide local
channels,butthishandicaphasbeenovercomebymanyDTHprovidersusingotherlocal channels or
localfeeds.
The other advantage of DTH is the availability of satellite broadcast in rural and semi- urban
areas where cable is difficult toinstall.

5.11. Digital audio broadcast (DAB):

DAB Project is an industry-led consortium of over 300 companies

The DAB Project was launched on 10th September,1993

In1995itwasbasicallyfinishedandbecameoperational

There are several sub-standards of the DAB standard oDAB-S (Satellite) using QPSK40 Mb/s
o DAB-T (Terrestrial) ,using QAM – 50 Mb/s o DAB-C (Cable),using OFDM – 24Mb/s

These three sub-standards basically differ only in the specifications to the physical
representation,modulation,transmissionandreceptionofthesignal.

The DAB stream consists of a series of fixed length packets which make up a Transport
Stream(TS).Thepacketssupport‗streams‘or‗datasections‘.

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Streams carry higher layer packets derived from an MPEG stream & Data sections are blocks of
data carrying signaling and controldata.

DAB is actually a support mechanism for MPEG.& One MPEG stream needing higher
instantaneousdatacan‗steal‘capacityfromanotherwithsparecapacity.

Worldspace services

WorldSpace (Nasdaq: WRSP) is the world's only global media and entertainment company
positioned to offer a satellite radio experience to consumers in more than 130 countries with five
billion people, driving 300 million cars. WorldSpace delivers the latest tunes, trends and
information from around the world and around the corner.

WorldSpace subscribers benefit from a unique combination of local programming, original

WorldSpace content and content from leading brands around the globe, including
theBBC,CNN,VirginRadio,NDTVandRFI.WorldSpace'ssatellitescovertwo-thirdsofthe globe with
sixbeams.

Each beam is capable of delivering up to 80 channels of high quality digital audio and
multimedia programming directly to WorldSpace Satellite Radios anytime and virtually
anywhere in its coverage area. WorldSpace is a pioneer of satellite-based digital radio services
(DARS) and was instrumental in the development of the technology infrastructure used today by
XM Satellite Radio. For more information, visit http://www.worldspace.com.

5.12 Business Television (BTV) - Adaptations forEducation:

Business television (BTV) is the production and distribution, via satellite, of video programs for
closed user group audiences. It often has two-way audio interaction component made through a
simple telephone line. It is being used by many industries including brokerage firms, pizza
houses, car dealers and delivery services.

BTV is an increasingly popular method of information delivery for corporations and

institutions.Privatenetworks,accountforabout70percentofallBTVnetworks.Itisestimated
thatbythemid-
1990sBTVhasthepotentialtogrowtoa$1.6billionmarketinNorthAmericawithmoreandmoreFortune
1,000companiesgettinginvolved.TheincreaseinuseofBTVhas beendramatic.

Institutionupdates,news,training,meetingsandothereventscanbebroadcastliveto
multiplelocations.Theexpertiseofthebestinstructorscanbedeliveredtothousandsofpeople
withoutrequiringtrainerstogotothesite.Informationcanbedisseminatedtoallemployeesat once,
not just a few at a time. Delivery to the workplace at low cost provides the access to
trainingthathasbeendeniedlowerlevelemployees.Itmaybethekeytore-trainingAmerica's
workforce.

Television has been used to deliver training and information within businesses for more than 40
years. Its recent growth began with the introduction of the video cassette in the early 1970s. Even
though most programming is produced for video cassette distribution, business is using BTV to
provide efficient delivery of specialized programs via satellite.
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The advent of smaller receiving stations - called very small aperture terminals (VSATs) has
made private communication networks much more economical to operate. BTV has a number of
tangible benefits, such as reducing travel, immediate delivery of time-critical messages, and
eliminating cassette duplication and distribution hassles.

TheprogrammingonBTVnetworksisextremelycost-effectivecomparedtoseminarfees and
downtime for travel. It is an excellent way to get solid and current information very fast. Some
people prefer to attend seminars and conferences where they can read, see, hear and ask
questions in person. BTV provides yet another piece of the education menu and is another way to
provide professionaldevelopment.

A key advantage is that its format allows viewers to interact with presenters by telephone,
enabling viewers to become a part of the program. The satellite effectively places people in the
same room, so that sales personnel in the field can learn about new products at the sametime.

Speed of transmission may well be the competitive edge which some firms need as they
introduce new products and services. BTV enables employees in many locations to focus on
common problems or issues that might develop into crises without quick communication and
resolution.
BTV networks transmit information every business day on a broad range of topics, and provide
instructional courses on various products, market trends, selling and motivation. Networks give
subscribers the tools to apply the information they have to real world situations.

5.13 GRAMSAT:

ISRO has come up with the concept of dedicated GRAMSAT satellites, keeping in mind the
urgent need to eradicate illiteracy in the rural belt which is necessary for the all round
development of the nation.

This Gramsat satellite is carrying six to eight high powered C-band transponders, which together
with video compression techniques can disseminate regional and cultural specific audio-visual
programmes of relevance in each of the regional languages through rebroadcast mode on an
ordinary TV set.

The high power in C-band has enabled even remote area viewers outside the reach ofthe
TVtransmitterstoreceiveprogrammersoftheirchoiceinadirectreceptionmodewithasimple
.dish antenna.

The salient features of GRAMSAT projects are:

Its communications networks are at the state level connecting the state capital to districts, blocks
and enabling a reach tovillages.
It is also providing computer connectivity data broadcasting,TV-
broadcasting facilities having applications like e- governance, development information,
teleconferencing, helping disaster management.

Providing rural-educationbroadcasting.
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However, the Gramsat projects have an appropriate combination of following activities.

Interactive training at district and block levels employing suitable configuration

Broadcasting services for ruraldevelopment

Computer interconnectivity and data exchangeservices

Tele-health and tele-medicineservices.

Specialized services

5.14.Satellite-email services:

The addition of Internet Access enables Astrium to act as an Internet Service Provider(ISP)
capable of offering Inmarsat users a tailor-made Internet connection.

WithInternetservicesaddedtoourrangeofterrestrialnetworks,youwillnolongerneed to subscribe to a
third party for Internet access (available for Inmarsat A, B, M, mini-M, Fleet, GAN, Regional
BGAN & SWIFTnetworks).

We treat Internet in the same way as the other terrestrial networks we provide, and thus offer
unrestricted access to this service. There is no timeconsuming log-on procedure, as users are not
required to submit a user-ID or password.

Description of E-mail Service:

Astrium's E-Mail service allows Inmarsat users to send and receive e-mail directly through
the Internet without accessing a public telephone network.

Features and Benefits

Noneedtoconfigureane-mailclienttoaccessaAstriume-mailaccount

ServiceoptimizedforusewithlowbandwidthInmarsatterminals

Filter e-mail by previewing the Inbox and deleting any unwanted e-mails prior to downloading

No surcharge or monthly subscriptionfees

Service billed according to standard airtime prices for Inmarsat serviceused

5.15. Video Conferencing (medium resolution):

Videoconferencingtechnologycanbeusedtoprovidethesamefull,twowayinteractivity of
satellite broadcast at much lower cost. For Multi-Site meetings, video conferencing uses
bridgingsystemstoconnecteachsitetotheothers.

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Itispossibletoconfigureavideoconferencebridgetoshowallsitesatthesametimeon
aprojectionscreenormonitor.Or,asismoretypical,abridgecanshowjustthesitefromwhich a
person is speaking or making apresentation.

Thetechnologythatmakesinteractivevideoconferencingpossible,compressesvideoand
audiosignals,thuscreatinganimagequalitylowerthanthatofsatellitebroadcasts.

5.16. Satellite Internet access:

Satellite Internet access is Internet access provided through communications

satellites.ModernsatelliteInternetserviceistypicallyprovidedtousersthroughgeostationary
satellites that can offer high data speeds, with newer satellites using Ka band to achieve
downstream data speeds up to 50Mbps.

Satellite Internet generally relies on three primary components: a satellite in

geostationaryorbit(sometimesreferredtoasageosynchronousEarthorbit,orGEO),anumber of ground
stations known as gateways that relay Internet data to and from the satellite via radio
waves(microwave),andaVSAT(very-smallapertureterminal)dishantennawithatransceiver, located
at the subscriber'spremises.

OthercomponentsofasatelliteInternetsystemincludeamodemattheuserendwhich links the user's

network with the transceiver, and a centralized network operations center ( NOC) for
monitoring the entiresystem.

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