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Concerning the type of processing associated to the models, both DT and RF belong to the group of
symbolic models, whereas the remaining ones are subsymbolic. Cross-Correlation Features Because
EEG signals are typically acquired from different parts of the brain where channels are placed,
investigating the multivariate dynamics across brain regions can be extremely valuable. This process
regularizes the model to resist overfitting and increases its generalization ability across unseen data.
Findings from graph theory analyses consistently reported increased segregation, reduced hubness
and a randomised pattern of network in DLB compared to AD. European Journal of Investigation in
Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE). EMG: power, standard deviation, root mean square,
variance, waveform length, modified median, and mean frequency. Permutation entropy (PE) is a
measure of the non-stationarity of a signal based on calculating the repetition of occurrences of
neighboring values. Machine Learning Approaches for Detecting Parkinson’s Disease from EEG
Analysis: A Systematic Review. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 8662. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials
Processing (JMMP). Amongst the 23 studies that included participants taking psychotropic drugs, the
proportion of participants taking them were different between dementia groups (DLB, PDD, AD,
and other dementias) in 16 studies. The EEG pre-processing, or EEG cleaning, varied from one
article to another, mainly due to the lack of a standard EEG cleaning protocol. Modified multiscale
entropy (MMSE) is similar to MSE; however, the coarse-graining process is calculated using the
moving-average procedure, providing better complexity analysis. The following are the research
questions regarding the employment of ML and DL techniques in the field of epileptic seizures using
EEG: RQ1: Is the recognition task involved in detection, prediction, or classification of epileptic
seizures. The training process measures the loss in the signal reconstruction of both modules, aiming
to enhance the generalization across different patients. This may be caused by the influence of the
abundant publications available of neuroimaging studies on the resting state in neurological diseases
as PD. A graph theory approach based on weighted network and minimum spanning tree (MST)
analyses has also been implemented to assess functional network connectivity. All articles published
by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special. This
module is followed by a feature-fusion mechanism to concatenate all the features forming a new
feature representation. This work was also supported by Grant No. 111002-AC2001 from the Major
Scientific Project of Zhejiang Lab. A statistical dependency study with an analysis of variance and
the selection of characteristics with Pearson’s correlation method was carried out. Generalizability of
the data. 12 Unexpected results during the experiments Report unexpected signs of coefficients,
indicating collinearity or complex interaction between predictor variables. Ensemble classifiers, along
with MAML, were combined to predict epileptic seizures with great generalization ability and a low
false positive rate. Ten brain regions were considered with 79 different measurements. It can be
verified that this was a common practice in the reviewed articles, since seven of the eight articles that
classified PD considered a balanced dataset. The enhanced P3 in high math anxiety individuals
indicated greater reliance on the emotional and motivational factors involved in the buying process.
Figure 7 depicts all the included journals and their corresponding publishers. 4.2. Articles
Distribution among Epileptic Seizure Recognition Tasks After the analysis of all the eligible papers
using the previous screening criteria in Section 3.3, the number of articles for each of the detection,
prediction, and classification tasks is previewed in Figure 8. ML techniques require a large enough
dataset to work properly, so these results suggest that small groups of patients are not sufficient for
the model used in that study (SVM). In all but one of these studies, a higher proportion of DLB
patients had psychotropic medication compared to AD. The outputs are vertically concatenated, and
a non-linear sigmoid activation function is then applied to form the channel attention score.
Splitting signals into segments is quite a common practice in preparing EEG data. These results
depend on the authors’ techniques and parameters, which are not always reported, affecting the
reproducibility of the results. Linear discernment analysis (LDA) was used for dimensionality
reduction, and SVM was used for classification. Journal of Theoretical and Applied Electronic
Commerce Research (JTAER). Law ZK, Todd C, Mehraram R, Schumacher J, Baker MR, LeBeau
FEN, Yarnall A, Onofrj M, Bonanni L, Thomas A. The highest accuracy reported across four
different classifiers is chosen. Although both MCI-LB and MCI-AD group had similar MMSE at
baseline (mean 25.7 and 25.9 respectively) and a similar decline on follow-up (20.6 in DLB and 20.5
in AD), follow-up EEG of patients with MCI-DLB showed progression where all patients with CSA
1 plus progressed to CSA 2 or 3. Comparison with other models in the literature should be based on
confidence intervals. International Journal of Translational Medicine (IJTM). Describe the time span
of data and the sample or cohort size. Section 5 discusses the challenges, solutions, and employed
methods. There are a wide variety of techniques in the field of neurology that are used individually
or in combination to support the clinical diagnosis. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease
(TropicalMed). Customer Service My Account Track My Order Refund Policy Shipping Policy Legal
Disclaimer Privacy Policy Publish With Us Contact Us Recent Reviews. Previous Article in Journal
About 3D Printability of Thermoplastic Collagen for Biomedical Applications. I2: Published
between 2017 and the date of the execution procedure. However, the selected articles exhibited good
results in the classification problem, with values higher than 90% in various studies. ML has made
substantial progress in tackling research problems during the 1990s, coinciding with the rise of
computers. Previous studies show that the self-similarity of brain waves varies depending on the
brain state. Electroencephalography (EEG) is currently a supportive biomarker in the diagnosis of
DLB. However, the empirical development of EEG was hampered from its beginning due to a
negligence of theory to guide its interpretation. The proposed method showed superior performance
in seven evaluation metrics. As a main goal, Ulrich provides an introduction on the interpretation of
resting state EEG data with special emphasis on the dynamics of occurring EEG-patterns during the
transition from wakefulness to sleep, reflecting different stages of brain function. Because of the
current availability of lower-cost processing power and memory, the concept of applying ML in
several domains to solve problems faster than humans has attracted many researchers. Thirdly, none
of the studies had prespecified cut-offs for EEG features. On the other hand, regarding the global
distribution of the selected articles, it can be appreciated that, according to the first affiliation
country of the first author, although Asia stands out as the continent with the highest number of
publications, the distribution is relatively homogeneous between the continents of Asia, Europe and
North America, reflecting a global interest in encompassing the objectives of this review. Therefore,
the articles have been divided into two categories based on the EEG tests performed. Journal of
Theoretical and Applied Electronic Commerce Research (JTAER). Since no method works for all
types of EEG data, combining different approaches, as reviewed, can greatly aid in mitigating the
shortcomings of some methods, resulting in higher recognition performance. The process is repeated
until the desired number of segments is obtained (oversampling).
We recommend that future studies should focus on two issues to develop a more accurate affective
definition and conduct better forecasting: (1) they should aim for a deeper understanding of
consumer ambivalence, characterized by the co-occurrence of positive and negative emotions (
Kreibig and Gross, 2017; Hu et al., 2019 ); and (2) consider emotion dyads, namely, a mix of
primary emotions, raised by Plutchik (1980). This could indicate that both the parameters that define
the model and the characteristics introduced are decisive for obtaining a better performance in the
classification problem. However, the performance drastically dropped in the case of domain variation
and insufficient training data. During the screening process, if the article matched any of the
inclusion criteria (I1 to I7), it was included for full-text retrieval. 2043 articles did not meet all the
inclusion criteria; thus, they were excluded. Tanaka et al. introduced the concept of neuronal activity
topography (NAT), a measure of brain topography based on spectral power which indicates the level
of activity and synchrony. Additionally, the process of developing a model for each patient is not
scalable as the number of patients grows. Dropout of 0.5. A 10-fold cross-validation with 9 parts for
training and 1 for testing; 20% of the training data were also used for validation. Concerning the
type of processing associated to the models, both DT and RF belong to the group of symbolic
models, whereas the remaining ones are subsymbolic. Studies that reported results of resting state
EEG and event-related potentials (ERPs) were included but studies of local field potentials were
excluded given that the latter recordings can only be made with invasive depth electrodes and are,
therefore, unlikely to become a routine clinical biomarker. The model was able to generalize as it
learned features from different convolutional scales. The feature engineering step in the ML
approach is divided into two stages: feature extraction and feature selection. Since seizure samples
represent the minority class, highly imbalanced data poses a challenge because most ML or DL
models will demonstrate a bias towards the majority class, and in severe circumstances may entirely
overlook the minority class. The postictal phase is considered the recovery period after a seizure
ceases before returning to the baseline. I4: The work is conducted using EEG on human brain signals.
As this review shows, most of the previous studies are based on dimensional emotion theory,
typically concerning the dimensions of arousal, valence, liking, and dominance. Number of
publications before and after applying the exclusion criteria. Other time domain features are energy,
coefficient of variation, and peak-to-peak amplitude. This review offers an introduction to EEG
technology and an overview of EEG-based AC; provides a snapshot of the current state of the
literature. The segmentation process can be done with or without overlapping partitions of each
subsequent segment in order to create more segments. Because of the way machine learning
approaches function, providing EEG signals directly impacts the ability to properly abstract
meaningful descriptions from the signal; consequently, reliable handcrafted features must be
extracted from the signal. Periods of drowsiness were removed, and the semi-automatic rejection of
artifacts was performed to eliminate muscle activity. Adrian Smith, gte198f Daniel Shinn, gte539f
Ken Grove, gte262f ECE 4006 - Group N1 February 14, 2002. Editors select a small number of
articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly. The flow diagram of
articles searching and selection according to PRISMA. The 10-20 international system is commonly
used for electrode placement due to its universality, though the Modified Maudsley System provides
better coverage of lower brain areas. The final layer is typically used as a classifier, with the
activated unit representing the decision to be made. During each of these conditions, different
networks are expected to be activated and spontaneous connectivity is expected in resting state. The
key advantage of WST is that clinicians can interpret the extracted features. Previous Article in
Journal A Systematic Review of the Diagnostic Methods of Small Fiber Neuropathies in
Rehabilitation.
Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease (JCDD). In the articles of this review, two types
of data pre-processing were evaluated, which are the cleaning of the EEG and the extraction of EEG
characteristics. Dropout was used. For training, datasets were balanced by random replication
preserving the distribution of the subjects. Some of the patients with RBD were eventually
diagnosed with PD and dementia. On the other hand, associated with the dataset pre-processing for
the input of the model, it should be remarked that the features extracted from EEG signals were very
different in between the articles. Law, Zhe Kang, Carein Todd, Ramtin Mehraram, Julia Schumacher,
Mark R. Full text articles of potentially eligible studies were then screened for possible inclusion.
Since FSWT has more adaptable time-frequency aggregation, the time-consuming procedure of
creating custom filter banks can be avoided. This work was also supported by Grant No. 111002-
AC2001 from the Major Scientific Project of Zhejiang Lab. International Journal of Translational
Medicine (IJTM). It should be remarked that these articles were related to the same study, carried out
by the same research group. When studying EEG-affect relationships, EEG-based AC studies assume
that EEG signals can sufficiently depict and predict human affective states. Number of publications
before and after applying the exclusion criteria. The most significant findings from the review are
summarized, and several important concepts involving ML and DL for seizure detection, prediction,
and classification are discussed in further depth. The model was able to generalize well in cases when
the training data was sufficient. In contrast to subject-specific approaches, subject-independent
approaches involve designing and training the models to capture the seizure patterns irrespective of
the data distribution. Figure 4 shows the meta-analysis with the results of the accuracy of both
models, for the choice of standard mean difference (SMD) for the effect measure, inverse variance
Hedges’ adjusted g for the algorithm, and fixed models for the effect models considered. Splitting
signals into segments is quite a common practice in preparing EEG data. As a result of this phase, 9
articles were excluded for not using ML techniques, 24 articles did not focus their study on PD, 27
articles did not use EEG recordings, 3 articles considered animal studies, 1 article had
pharmacological interventions, 24 articles were reviews with a different purpose, 3 articles
performed studies on sleep EEG recordings, 6 articles were based on EEG changes evoked by
exogenous stimuli and 2 articles had incomplete descriptions of the methodology used. For ML to
work effectively, it relies on manually created, handcrafted, features to be extracted from the data,
which necessitates experts in the domain of the problem. Determine the form of the prediction
model: classification, regression, or survival prediction. We use cookies on our website to ensure you
get the best experience. This review provides new directions regarding neuromarketing data analyses
and fosters cooperation among scholars from miscellaneous disciplines, such as information science,
neuroscience, marketing, and psychology. Finally, on the side of the ML models, the information
incorporated in the articles is more abundant and homogeneous. Identify the independent variables
that may suffer from the perfect separation problem. Hence, a Fourier-Bessel series expansion EWT
(FBSE-EWT) was proposed to overcome the drawback of standalone EWT. The characteristics were
added one by one to each classifier until maximum precision is achieved. However, this finding is
non-specific and may be accounted for by other diseases, drugs or the level of wakefulness. The
predominant protocol within this group consisted of recording the EEG in the eyes closed resting
state, which was used in four articles. Further, he points out the advantages of such a hypothesis
driven model for interpretation of EEG-data in comparison to the descriptive, sometimes even
“neophrenological” approaches of quantitative EEG (qEEG) research that until now have failed to
bring up clinical relevant tools for diagnosis or treatment prediction in psychiatric conditions.
Although employing kurtosis resulted in higher performance than using SD and MI, the difference is
statistically insignificant. The frequency band definitions used in the studies were largely not
standardized with various definitions used ( Supplemental Table S3 ). 3.3. Potential Confounders
Thirty studies reported exclusion of EEG epochs with artefacts while this was not reported in seven;
in six studies this was not relevant as they were qualitative studies ( Supplemental Table S4 ).
Finally, several employed epileptic seizure datasets are reviewed. The following data fields are
extracted during the process: D1: The challenge that the paper aims to solve. Each channel is
separated into 2 s epochs with 50% overlap. Since the difference between both models is greater in
the first article, the confidence interval (CI) is far away from zero, whereas in the case of the second
article, as the values of the means are close to each other, the CI is close to zero. Fourteen studies
recorded EEG for ?20 min, 13 studies recorded between 2 to 10 min and the duration of recording
was not specified in 16 studies. Alternatively, PCC has also been used to compute the correlation
between different EEG channels, creating a matrix to assemble a brain network graph. This study
aims to present a detailed overview of the main challenges in the field of seizure detection,
prediction, and classification utilizing EEG data, and the approaches taken to solve them using ML
and DL methods. The state of the art usually relies on the affective polarity of its components (e.g.,
positive or negative) and proposes approaches that mostly focus on binary affective classification.
Within ML techniques, artificial neural networks (ANN) are those whose architecture is based in
multiple-layer hierarchical models that can learn representations of data with multiple levels of
abstraction. The classification task statistics involve both seizure and seizure phase classifications.
Summary of the results, features introduced to the models and signal filtering shown in Table 2 and
Table 3 for the selected articles. However, this significantly affects the process of seizure localization
since the physical electrodes corresponding to these channels are no longer existent. In the second
screening stage, 219 articles remained for assessment; however, 5 articles could not be retrieved and
were thus omitted, leaving 214 articles eligible for full-text assessment. Initially, the search process in
the databases provided us with 230 results (49 from Web of Science, 29 from PUBMED, 84 from
Scopus, 25 from MEDLINE, 3 from CINAHL and 40 from Science Direct), 65 of which were
duplicates, and thus, were eliminated as a first step within the screening process, getting 165 results.
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) diagram of the
bibliographic review conducted. In all but one of these studies, a higher proportion of DLB patients
had psychotropic medication compared to AD. In the second part of the book, the reader is
introduced to novel QEEG procedures, especially related to EEG dynamics. The intracranial scheme
was set up using strip, grid, and depth electrodes. RNN: with LSTM and GRU, with 3 cells which
32 units each. Maitin, Ana Maria, Alvaro Jose Garcia-Tejedor, and Juan Pablo Romero Munoz.
These features shall be meaningful for the ML model; thus, it is important that they are discriminative
and non-redundant so the data can be thoroughly exploited. ML has made substantial progress in
tackling research problems during the 1990s, coinciding with the rise of computers. The data were
centered and normalized to unit variance. Therefore, automatic recognition of seizures is vital in
order to aid neurologists and allied healthcare providers expedite the process of patient diagnosis,
and prescribe the required treatments, if applicable. Define the observational units on which the
response variable and predictor variables are defined. This could lead us to think that EEG processing
may be unnecessary when using ML techniques. The Siamese network was able to separate patients
well, discerning their differences when being trained as a preictal phase classifier, which improved
seizure prediction. Periods of drowsiness were removed, and the semi-automatic rejection of
artifacts was performed to eliminate muscle activity.