CHAPTER 2 - General Understanding:

1. Describe the historical context of the Industrial Revolution and its impact on
organizational methods.

Methods of good production changed. Increased mechanization and industrialization

led to organizations of larger groups and people working in factory and assembly-line
settings.

2. Explain the concept of the machine metaphor in organizational theory and its three
key aspects.

A machine is interdependent and works according to its sum of wholes.

A machine has one sole function, parts of a machine can be replaced if they are not
working well, and it is predictable – it runs according to specific standards.

Standardization – every person in an organization has a special function which

contributes to the organization. This specialisation of tasks is sometimes called
division of labour.

Replicability- if a worker on one assembly line quits, a machinelike organization can

easily replace that worker. Personnel is interchangeable and represent the “clogs” of
the machine.

Predictability – The org runs according to specific rules and standards, if the org is
dysfunctional, it can be fixed by a rational consideration of the manner in which the
rules and standards are being applies or misapplied.

Henri Fayol’s Theory of Classical Management:

1. Discuss the five fundamental elements of management according to Fayol and their
significance.

Planning: Involves looking to the future to determine the best way to attain organizational
goals.

Organizing: The arrangement of human resources and the evaluation of those employees.

Command: The element through which managers set tasks for employees in order to meet
organizational goals.

Coordination: The separate activities of an organization must be harmonized into a single

whole

Control: The comparison between goals and activities to ensure that the organization is
functioning in the manner planned.
 2. How does communication play a role in Fayol’s theory of elements of management?

All the elements require communication between management and workers.

Principles of Management by Henri Fayol:

1. Explain the principles related to organizational structure proposed by Fayol.

Fayol’s principles of management concern how the parts of an organization should be put together.
Six principles deal specifically with organizational structure (principles of organizational structure):

Scalar chain: Proposes that an organization should be arranged in a strict vertical hierarchy and that
communication should be largely limited to this vertical flow.

o Unity of command: Proposes that an employee should receive orders regarding a particular task
from only one supervisor.

o Unity of direction: Proposes that work can best be accomplished if employees are assigned to a
limited number of specialized tasks

o Division of labor: Proposes that work can best be accomplished if employees are assigned to a
limited number of specialized tasks

o Order: Proposes that there should be an appointed place for each employee and task within the
organization.

o Span of control: Proposes that managers will be most effective if they have control of a limited
number of employees.

2. Discuss the principles of organizational power according to Fayol and their

implications.

Centralization: Proposes that organizations will be most effective when central management has
control over decision making and employee activities. Fayol believed that contingency such as firm
size and the personal characteristics of the managers and employees could influence the optimal
level of centralization

Authority and responsibility:Proposesthatmanagersshouldholdauthoritythat derives from both their

position in the organization and their personal characteristics.

Discipline: Proposes that all organizational members should be obedient to the rules of the
organization and to the managers who enforce them.
 3. Discuss the principles of organizational reward according to Fayol and their
implications.

Remuneration of personnel: Proposes that employees should be rewarded for their work
with appropriate salaries and benefits.

Equity:Proposesthatinremunerationemployeesshouldbetreatedjustly

Tenure Stability: Proposes that the organization should guarantee sufficient time on the job
for employees to achieve maximum performance. However too much tenure stability could
be counter-productive

4. Discuss the principles of organizational Attitude according to Fayol and their

implications.

Subordination of individual interest to general interest: Proposes that an organization can be

effective only when the interests of the whole take precedence over the interest of
individuals. Thus, individuals must always consider organizational goals first.

Initiative: Proposes that managers should value and direct an employee’s efforts to work in
the best interest of the organization

Esprit de corps: Proposes that there should be no dissension in the organizational ranks.

Max Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy:

1. Enumerate the six facets of bureaucracy as outlined by Max Weber.

Clearly defined hierarchy (like Fayol’s)

Division of labor (like Fayol’s)

Centralization of decision-making and power (like Fayol’s)

Closed systems: a bureaucracy will shut itself off from influences from the outside environment,
because environmental interruptions could hamper its smooth functioning.

Importance of rules: there should be a rule for all possible contingencies in the organization,
preferably in written form.

Functioning of authority: authority is based on three possible grounds:

a. Traditional authority: power based on long-standing beliefs about who should have
control and is often vested in particular position within an organizational hierarchy.

b. Charismatic authority: power based on an individual’s personality and ability to

attract and interact with followers. Highly unstable as followers may become
disenchanted with the leader’s charismatic qualities.
 2. c. Rational-legal authority: power based on the rational application of rules developed
through a reliance on information and expertise. Power rests not in the individual but in the
expertise and rationality that have created a system of rules and norms.

3. Weber states that rational-legal authority as the type of power that dominates in the
bureaucratic system. Traditional and charismatic power rely on the position or the individual
holding the position to define authority.

4. Why does Weber emphasize rational-legal authority, and how does it differ from
traditional and charismatic authority?

Rational-legal authority: power based on the rational application of rules developed through a
reliance on information and expertise. Power rests not in the individual but in the expertise and
rationality that have created a system of rules and norms. Weber states that rational-legal authority
as the type of power that dominates in the bureaucratic system. Traditional and charismatic power
rely on the position or the individual holding the position to define authority. Charismatic authority:
power based on an individual’s personality and ability to attract and interact with followers. Highly
unstable as followers may become disenchanted with the leader’s charismatic qualities.

Frederick Taylor’s Theory of Scientific Management:

1. What were the main issues that led Frederick Taylor to develop the Theory of
Scientific Management?

Most tasks were learned by newcomers watching more experienced workers at a particular
job. He believed that learning tasks in this way could lead to work of uneven quality in the
organization and more productive workers, became known as “rate busters” because
managers would often lower piecework pay as a result of their productivity.

2. Discuss the four major tenets of Taylor’s Scientific Management.

- There is one best way to do every job. – determined via time and motion studies
- Workers must be properly selected and trained for each individual job
- If noi “proper job” could be found, the employee should be fired
- There must be strict division of labor between management and laborers.

Communication in Classical Approaches:

3. How does communication content differ in classical approaches, particularly in

relation to Fayol’s theory of subordination of individual interest to general interest?

From Fayol’s theory of subordination of individual interest to general interest we can say
that communication within the organization should be focused on task-related topics.
 Classical communication also differentiates between innovation-related communication,
task-related communication, maintenance-related communication. Thus, social and
innovation communication (because of Taylor’s theory that the best way is already
determined scientifically) is discouraged in classical communication.

4. Analyze the direction of communication flow in classical organizations based on

Fayol, Weber, and Taylor's perspectives.

In the classical approach from Fayol, Weber and Taylor the most important route for
communication is the vertical flow of information along the scalar chain of the organizational
hierarchy. The vast majority flows downward in the form of orders, rules, and directives.

Classical Management in Organizations Today:

1. Provide examples of how classical structures, such as scalar chain and span of
control, are still present in contemporary organizations.

Classical structures as scalar chain, unity of command, and span of control are the basis of organizing
the military but also in many manufactures and service organizations.

2. Discuss the relevance of Taylor’s ideas on job design and rewards in today’s
organizational context.

Organizations today often follow Taylor’s ideas about fitting the job to the individual, especially in
terms of the match between the job and the psychological profile. In today’s organizations we are
often looking for the “one best way” to accomplish tasks.

Contributions of Mary Parker Follett and Chester Barnard:

1. Compare and contrast Mary Parker Follett’s views with those of other classical
theorists, emphasizing her unique contributions.

Mary Parker Follett stressed the importance of an organization establishing

common goals for its employees. However, she also began to think somewhat
differently than the other theorists of her day, discarding command‐style
hierarchical organizations where employees were treated like robots. She began
to talk about such things as ethics, power, and leadership. She encouraged
managers to allow employees to participate in decision making. She stressed the
importance of people rather than techniques — a concept very much before her
time. As a result, she was a pioneer and often not taken seriously by management
scholars of her time. But times change, and innovative ideas from the past
suddenly take on new meanings. Much of what managers do today is based on the
fundamentals that Follett established more than 80 years ago.
2. Explain Chester Barnard’s concept of the informal organization and its significance in
communication within companies.

Chester Barnard, who was president of New Jersey Bell Telephone

Company, introduced the idea of the informal organization —
cliques(exclusive groups of people) that naturally form within a company.
He felt that these informal organizations provided necessary and vital
communication functions for the overall organization and that they could
help the organization accomplish its goals. Barnard felt that it was
particularly important for managers to develop a sense of common purpose
where a willingness to cooperate is strongly encouraged. He is credited
with developing the acceptance theory of management, which emphasizes
the willingness of employees to accept that managers have legitimate
authority to act. Barnard felt that four factors affected the willingness of
employees to accept authority:

3. o The employees must understand the communication.

o The employees accept the communication as being consistent with the
organization's

4. purposes.
o The employees feel that their actions will be consistent with the needs
and desires of

5. the other employees.

o The employees feel that they are mentally and physically able to carry out
the order.

6. Barnard's sympathy for and understanding of employee needs positioned

him as a bridge to the behavioural school of management, the next school
of thought to emerge.

Chapter 3

Hawthorne Studies:

a. Explain the four major phases of the Hawthorne studies. What were the key
findings in each phase?

1. The illumination studies: designed to determine the influence of lighting level

on worker productivity.
- The test and control group did not show great differences EXCEPT when workers
were labouring in near darkness, productivity tended to go up in both groups under
all conditions.

2. The relay assembly test room studies: social satisfaction

- A group of women at the telephone relay system had a number of changes as rest pauses,
temperature, humidity, work hours etc. Productivity went up in a wide variation of situations.
The researchers concluded that social satisfaction arising out of human association in work
were more important determinants of work behavior in general and output in particular than
the physical or economic impacts. (importance of social group & extra attention paid by
managers to the six workers in the group)

3. The interview program: researchers conducted a series of interviews with

employees at the Hawthrone plant. The goal of the interviews was to learn
about the impact of work conditions, but most spoke about their feelings. The
major finding here is that emotion plays a bigger part than the situation
workers were placed in.

4. The Bank wiring room studies: workers had norms concerning the “proper”
level of productivity and exerted social pressure on each other. The
conclusion was deaw that the social group’s influence on worker behaviour
exceeded the leverage

b. How did the relay assembly test room studies contribute to the understanding of
human behavior in the workplace? Discuss the importance of social factors
highlighted in the findings.

- The researchers concluded that social satisfaction arising out of human association in work
were more important determinants of work behavior in general and output in particular than
the physical or economic impacts. (importance of social group & extra attention paid by
managers to the six workers in the group) – HAWTHORNE EFFECT

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:

a. Define Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and explain each level in the context of
organizational behavior.

Maslow proposes that humans are motivated by five basic needs (1,2,3, lower-level 4,5
higher level)

1. Physiological needs: The needs of the human body (sleep, food water etc.) In an
organizational context this can be seen as “living wage”→money for food, clothing etc.

2. Safety needs: Include the desire to be free from danger and environmental threats.
Organizational→procure shelter from elements and working conditions which are safe.
3. Affiliation needs (or belonging needs/love needs): refers to the necessity of giving and
receiving human affection and regard. Organizational→social relationships with co-workers
and manager

4. Esteem needs: Refers to the desire of individuals to feel a sense of achievement and
accomplishment. In an organization→internal esteem - someone who rewards your
work/work that challenges and provides employees with the opportunity to achieve and
excel. External esteem is a bonus pay.

5. Need for self-actualization: this is characterized as the desire of trying to “be all that you can
be”. An organization can facilitate the satisfaction of this need through the provision of jobs
that allow an individual to exercise responsibility and creativity in the workplace.

b. Critically evaluate Maslow's theory. What criticisms can be drawn, especially in

relation to social interaction and managerial attention?

Maslow does not take the social interaction and managerial attention into account which
is why researchers criticize him.

McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y:

a. Outline the three propositions of Theory X and discuss the assumptions about
human nature held by Theory X managers.

Theory X represents the manager influenced by the most negative aspects of classical
management theories. there are three propositions of the typical Theory X manager.
These propositions argue that:

1. management is responsible for organizing money material, and people for economic ends;

2. that people must be controlled and motivated to fit organizational needs;

3. that without intervention and direction, people would be passive or resistant to the
achievement of organizational needs.

The theory also postulates that theory X managers think that:

1. The average man is by nature indolent – he works as little as possible

2. He lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility, and prefers to be led

3. He is inherently self-centered and indifferent to organizational need

 4. He is by nature resistant to change

5. He is gullible, not very bright, and the ready dupe of the charlatan and the demagogue

McGregor says that these beliefs are held by managers but are not true.

b. Contrast McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y. How does Theory Y propose a shift in
managerial assumptions about employee motivation?

THeory X represents the manager influenced by the most negative aspects of classical management
theories. there are three propositions of the typical Theory X manager. These propositions argue
that:

4. management is responsible for organizing money material, and people for economic ends;

5. that people must be controlled and motivated to fit organizational needs;

6. that without intervention and direction, people would be passive or resistant to the
achievement of organizational needs.

The theory also postulates that theory X managers think that:

6. The average man is by nature indolent – he works as little as possible

7. He lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility, and prefers to be led

8. He is inherently self-centered and indifferent to organizational need

9. He is by nature resistant to change

10. He is gullible, not very bright, and the ready dupe of the charlatan and the demagogue

t McGregor says that these beliefs are held by managers but are not true. Instead, McGregor thinks
that managers should think the other way around and that employees are motivated by Maslow’s
higher-order needs. This comes to theory Y:

1. The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest.

2. External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing about

effort toward organizational objectives. Man will exercise self-direction and self-control in
the service of objectives to which he is committed.

3. Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement.

4. The average human being learns under proper condition not only to accept but also to seek
 responsibility

5. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in

the solution of organizational problems is widely not narrowly distributed in the population.

6. Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average

human being are only partially utilized.

The theories of Maslow and McGregor create a new metaphor. Instead of the Machine Metaphor
the theorists now create a family. A family thrives when needs are fulfilled and opportunities are
provided for self-actualization. Human relations theorists share an allegiance to principles that
highlight human needs and the satisfaction of those needs through interaction with others in the
workplace and through the choices managers make about motivating and rewarding employees.

Theory Z:
a. Summarize Ouchi's Theory Z. How does it differ from previous management
theories, and what elements contribute to its effectiveness according to Ouchi?

The secret to Japanese success, according to Ouchi, is not technology, but a special way
of managing people. "This is a managing style that focuses on a strong company
philosophy, a distinct corporate culture, long- range staff development, and consensus
decision-making" (Ouchi, 1981). Ouchi shows that the results show lower turn-over,
increased job commitment, and dramatically higher productivity.

b. Discuss the impact of Theory Z on employee turnover, job commitment, and

productivity. Can this approach be applied universally?

Ouchi shows that the results show lower turn-over, increased job commitment, and
dramatically higher productivity

Human Resources Approach:

a. Explain the impetus for the Human Resource approach, considering the
limitations of the Hawthorne studies and the human relations principles.

When looking at the Hawthorne studies people thought that this model was insufficient for
describing, explaining and managing the complexities of organizational life. The question arose
whether human relations principles really worked and whether they could be misused by
organizational practitioners.

At its most basic level, the human relations approach posits that higher-order needs can be satisfied
through job design, management style, and other organizational factors. When these higher-order
needs are satisfied employees should be happier and so more productive.

( Work Factors - Satisfaction of Higher-Order needs -Job satisfaction -ProdUCTIVITY)

 b. Discuss the differences between the Human Resources approach and the Human
Relations approach. How does the Human Resources approach optimize both
organizational productivity and individual need satisfaction?

A human relations manager would institute participation to satisfy employee needs for affiliation
and esteem and hope that this need satisfaction would lead to higher levels of productivity. On the
contrary a human resources manager would institute participation to take advantage of the
innovative ideas held by subordinates. Miles first raised the issue of misuse of employees. Wendt,
however, first came up with the paradox of participation. He argues that the team worker who
constantly participates and contributes to problem solving but who, in the final analysis, has no
control over the decision-making process becomes frustrated by a paradoxical dimension of
empowered organizing.

Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid:

a. Describe the five prototype management styles proposed by Blake and Mouton.
Which style do they recommend for optimal organizational efficiency?

Blake and Mouton created a grid as a tool for training managers in leadership styles to
enhance organizational efficiency and stimulate the satisfaction and creativity of
workers. They began with the assumption that leaders will be most effective if they
exhibit both concern for people and concern for production (combining classical
management with human relations)

1. Impoverished management: low concern for people and a low concern for production

2. Country club management: high concern for people and low concern for production

3. Authority-compliance: Low concern for people and high concern for production

4. Team management: high concern for people and high concern for production (they believe
all managers should adopt this approach)

5. Middle-of-the-road management: average concern for people and production

b. How does the Managerial Grid combine classical management with human
relations, and what role does it assign to concern for people and concern for
production?

Blake and Mouton created a grid as a tool for training managers in leadership styles to
enhance organizational efficiency and stimulate the satisfaction and creativity of
workers. They began with the assumption that leaders will be most effective if they
exhibit both concern for people and concern for production (combining classical
management with human relations)
 Likert's System IV:
a. Outline the four systems proposed by Likert. How do these systems differ in
terms of organizational effectiveness and individual goals satisfaction?

Likert’s System IV

Likert works to specify the details of the organizational form that will incorporate the ideals of the
human resources movement. He theorizes that there are a number of forms an organization can
take and that these various forms are more or less effective in satisfying organizational and
individual goals. He created 4 systems:

1. System I: Exploitive authoritative organization:

characterized by motivation through threats and fear, downward and inaccurate

communication, top-level decision making etc. All worst features of classical and scientific
management

2. System II: Benevolent authoritative organization:

Characterized by motivation through economic and ego rewards etc. more or less the same
as system 1 but does not exploit people.

3. System III: Consultative organization:

Before decisions are made employees are consulted and their views are taken into
consideration. Goals set after discussion and high level of communication moving both up
and down the hierarchy

4. System IV: Participative organization,

decision making is performed by every organizational member. Control is exercised at all levels
of the organization, and communication is extensive.

b. How does System IV, the participative organization, align with the human
resources approach? What advantages does it offer in terms of communication
and decision-making?

It aspires to maximize both organizational productivity and individual need satisfaction

In order to optimize both goals, the human resources approach emphasizes the
contributions that employee ideas can make to organizational functioning.

Communication in Human Relations and Human Resources Organizations:

a. Compare and contrast communication in Human Relations and Human Resources

organizations in terms of content, direction, channel, and style.
Content:

Human relations: (maintenance communication)

Task-related communication but accompanied by communication that attempts to maintain the

quality of human relationships within the organization

Human resources: (innovation communication)

Interaction between the different layers of the hierarchy. Because the human resources approach to
organizing emphasises input from employees, the innovation content of communication is critical

Direction of communication flow

Human relations: do have vertical communication flow but also horizontal. Important need is
communication between employees.

Human resources: goal is to encourage the flow of ideas from all locations throughout the
organization. Multidirectional communication flow takes place in team-based settings in human
resources organization.

Channel of communication

Human relations: Face-to-face communication for more immediate feedback more consideration of
nonverbal cues.
Human resources: No particular preferences for a channel because they desire to maximize the
productivity of the organization through the intelligent use of human resources. They match the
communication channel at hand.

Style of communication

Human relations: break down the status differential between managers and employees as a means
of satisfying social needs.

Human resources: Have dual goals of enhancing organizational effectiveness and fulfilling human
needs. An informal style is most likely to satisfy needs for affiliation. However, one would not
eschew the use of a formal style if it were the most appropriate.

b. How does communication contribute to the goals of each approach? Discuss

the importance of innovation communication in Human Resources
organizations.

Current Trends in Human Resources:

 a. Explain the current application of human relations theory and human resource
management in organizations today.

These days the human relations theory is widely applied. However, the human resource managers
are all over. Two of the most important developments in this area are the consideration of
organizations as learning systems and the development of systems of knowledge management.
Senge has made a distinction between learning organizations and those that could be seen as having
‘learning disabilities’.

b. Evaluate the role of learning organizations and knowledge management in the

context of human resource principles.

Learning organizations are those that emphasize mental flexibility, team learning etc. Learning
organizations can be promoted through participation and dialogue in the workplace.

Knowledge management sees the organization as embodying a cycle of knowledge creation

development and application.

Success of Human Resources Programs:

a. Discuss the principles highlighted by Pfeffer for successful human resources

programs. How do these principles contribute to creating a "knowledge-enabled
organization"?

b. The goal is generally one of creating a “knowledge-enabled organization” in which the

collective knowledge of workers facilitates high performance. Employee involvement is
often fostered through team structures. Pfeffer labels the principle of maximizing the
contribution of employees, both individually and collectively, as “putting people first”.
He highlights seven practices of successful organizations that serve as a useful summary
of “what” is done in organizations today that follow Human resources principles.

c. Provide examples of programs or initiatives that align with human resources

principles and have been successful in organizations.
The chance of failure with human resources efforts can be seen in specific programs (Like Total
Quality Management). It appears that more than a belief in human resources principles is required
for the success of these programs. The following points exhibit possible success:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

 Know when team-based management is appropriate

 Consider the attitudes of top-management

 Deal with cynicism about change

 Facilitate the translation process.

CHAPTER 4 - SYSTEMS

System Metaphor and Concepts:

a. Explain how the system metaphor views organizations and why it differs from the
machine metaphor.

The systems metaphor views organizations as complex organisms that must interact with their
environment to survive. a system is an assemblage of parts, or components.

b. Discuss the key concepts associated with systems theory, as proposed by Katz and
Kahn.

Katz and Kahn argue that organizations should be conceptualised as complex open
systems requiring interaction among component parts as well as with the environment in
order to survive.
System Components:

a. Define and elaborate on the three concepts characterizing system components:

hierarchical ordering, interdependence, and permeability.

1. Hierarchical ordering:
components are arranged in highly complex ways that involve subsystems and
supersystems, a hierarchical order. Hierarchy = relatively straightforward lines of
authority represented by the organisational chart. When we look at any system, we
can see how that subsystem is made up of smaller subsystems and is embedded
within a larger supersystem.

2. Interdependence
: functioning of one component of a system relies on other components of the
system.

3. Permeability:
characteristic of system components = they have permeable boundaries that allow
information and materials to flow in and out. It refers to both the system as a whole
(which must be open to its environment) and to components within the system.
Permeability can also be toxic to an organization.

b. How does the permeability of system components relate to the potential toxicity
within an organization?

If the wrong components enter the system, the permeability may be too high.

System Processes:

a. Describe the fundamental processes in systems theory: input-throughput-output.

Systems are organized through input-throughput-output processes. Two kinds of processes

characterize the input-throughput-output operations. The process of exchange is apparent
in both input and output. Both the input and the output require a process of exchange with
the environment outside the system.

b. Discuss the role of feedback in organizational functioning, emphasizing both negative

and positive feedback.

The second type of process – feedback – is critical to the throughput portion of

organizational functioning. Throughput involves the interdependent components of a system
 acting together. Feedback is information that helps to facilitate the interdependent
functioning of system components.

Two types:

 Negative/corrective/deviation-reducing feedback: helps to maintain steady system

functioning.

 Positive/growth/deviation-amplifying feedback: Information that serves to change system

functioning through growth and development.

The negative side of interdependence is codependence

System Properties:

a. Explain the four system properties that emerge from the interaction of components
and processes: holism, equifinality, negative entropy, and requisite variety.

From the interaction of these components and processes emerge four components:

Holism: suggests that a system is more than the sum of its parts. Systems have this property because
of the interdependent nature of their components and the information that flows through the
processes of feedback and exchange.

Equifinality: States that a system can reach the same final state from differing initial conditions and
by a variety of paths. This is a result of the interdependent operation of system components.
Because the components of the system are integrated in highly complex ways, a variety of means
exist to reach any system goal.

Negative entropy: Entropy is the tendency of closed systems to run down. Open systems are
characterized by negative entropy, or the ability to sustain themselves and grow. Negative entropy is
possible because of the flow of information and materials between the environment and the system.
The principle of negative entropy in action means that a system fights off deterioration and perhaps
thrives through active exchange with the system’s environment.

Requisite variety: states that the internal workings of the system must be as diverse and complicated
as the environment in which it is embedded. This matching complexity allow the organization, or
team or group within the organization to deal with information and problems in the environment.

b. Provide examples or scenarios illustrating each of the system properties.

See above
Cybernetic Systems Theory:
 a. Define cybernetic systems theory and its key components: system goal, mechanisms,
and feedback.

Cybernetics theory: deals with the process through which physical, natural and organizational
systems are steered toward reaching system goals. (Norbert Wiener)

A cybernetic system consists of several interrelated components:

1. System goal: a target for a particular aspect of system operation.

2. Mechanisms: helps to maintain the system goal.

3. Feedback: process when the system behavior does not match the system goal.

b. Compare and contrast cybernetics with other system theories, emphasizing its focus
on feedback.

Cybernetics emphasizes some aspects of systems theory and de-emphasizes others. It emphasizes
the role of feedback in maintaining system functioning. It also emphasizes the interdependence of
system parts because the mechanisms are intimately related to the goals. De-emphasizing is the
growth of systems and it does not incorporate the role of the environment in influencing system
processes.

Karl Weick's Theory of Organizing:

a. Explain Karl Weick's theory of organizing, focusing on the process of sensemaking

and the reduction of equivocality.

This model seeks to illuminate the process of organizing and he draws on a variety of theories in
developing his perspective. He defines the process of organizing as the resolving of equivocality in an
enacted environment by means of interlocked behaviors embedded in conditionally related
processes.

Cybernetics emphasizes some aspects of systems theory and de-emphasizes others. It emphasizes
the role of feedback in maintaining system functioning. It also emphasizes the interdependence of
system parts because the mechanisms are intimately related to the goals. De-emphasizing is the
growth of systems and it does not incorporate the role of the environment in influencing system
processes.

Karl Weick’s theory of organizing

This model seeks to illuminate the process of organizing and he draws on a variety of theories in
developing his perspective. He defines the process of organizing as the resolving of equivocality in an
enacted environment by means of interlocked behaviors embedded in conditionally related
processes.

His idea is that organizations live in an environment. However, this is not a physical environment but
an information environment. Individuals create the environment that confronts them through the
process of enactment. The process of enactment suggests that different organizational members will
imbue information inputs with different meanings and hence create different information
environments.

The major goal of organizing is the reduction of equivocality (unpredictability) in the information
environment. Weick proposes that organizational members use assembly rules and communication
cycles.

Assembly rules: procedures that can guide organizational members in set patterns of sense making.
(Low equivocality like a résumé)

Communication cycles: organizational members introduce and react to ideas that help to make
sense of the equivocal environment (high equivocality situations)

b. How does Weick's model address the challenges organizations face in information
environments?

When sensemaking is effective, Weick proposes a retention process in which rules and cycles are
saved for future organizational use. In this process rules and cycles can be retained in the form of
causal maps that are used to make sense of future equivocality.

New Science System Theory:

a. Summarize the key ideas of new science system theory, emphasizing the
departure from classical physics in understanding complex and adaptive
systems.

New science systems are complex and adaptive systems in which order can emerge from disorder, in
which time makes a difference, in which complex systems are often preserved in fractal form.

New science systems are not always logical and they are not always predictable and can explain the
innovativeness that can emerge when a system is at “the edge of chaos”.

b. Discuss the organizational communication implications derived from new

science system theory.
Ideas for organizational communication from the new science:

 The importance of relationships in organizations. (interconnectedness and interdependence)

 The importance of participation in organization processes

 The appreciation or organizational change and instability (small group can make change)

 The importance of being open to the information environment. In new sciences, change

occurs in the edge of chaos when we are open to the swirl of ideas around us

The new sciences emphasize not the logic of organizational systems, but rather the
interconnectedness of systems, their openness to the environment, and the
interdependence that must be acknowledged in both physical and social systems.

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Methods for Studying Organizational Systems:

a. Explain the purpose of network analysis in studying organizational systems,

highlighting properties of networks, links, and roles.

Properties of network: There are a number of ways we can characterize a network as a whole o
Network content: refers to the “stuff” that is flowing through the linkages in the

network
o Network Mode: refers to the communication medium through which network linkages are
maintained.

o Density: A network can be characterized through its density. A highly dense network is one where
there are many interconnections among network members, whereas a less dense network is more
loosely interconnected.

o Level of analysis: intraorganizational networks will look at connections among individuals within a
given organization, whereas interorganizational networks will consider links among many
organizations.

• Properties of network Links: It is also possible to characterize the connections that link members of
a network together

o Link strength: a strong link might be one in which there is a great deal of communication flowing
between two people, one that has endured over a long period of time, or one in which the exchange
is deemed important by network participants.

o Symmetry: refers to whether the two people involved in the link have the same kind of
relationship with each other.

o Multiplexity: refers to the number of different kinds of content that flow through a particular link

• Network roles: It is possible to look at the individual actors within a network. Each “node” within a
network can be described in a variety of ways. Network roles define the ways in which individuals
are connected to each other.

o Isolate: one who is not connected to someone in the network

o Group members: a group of people who are highly interconnected
o Bridge: a person who is the contact for the ones outside the network
o Liaison: a person who is connected to people with radically different connections.

b. Compare and contrast modelling techniques and case analysis as methods for
understanding complex organizational systems.

System theories incorporate complex processes of behavior. To understand how this works, scholars
have turned to statistics which are called modeling techniques. This technique allows researchers to
assess complex relationships among variables through the evaluation of causal models. For example,
computer simulations of organizational communication in a self-organizing system which cannot be
explained by network analysis. Some scholars say that complex systems are best understood
through individual cases. A case analysis approach suggests that the richest understanding of
organizational systems can be obtained by closely observing specific organizations grappling with
specific issues.

Application of System Theories:

a. Provide examples of how the principles of systems theory can be applied in real-
world organizational scenarios.

b. Evaluate the strengths and limitations of using systems theory to understand and
improve organizational functioning.

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CHAPTER 5 Introduction to Cultural Approaches:

a. Discuss the origins of the cultural approach in organizational communication

and its connection to anthropology.
 The cultural approach derives from anthropology and views organizations as
cultures.

b. Explore why the metaphor of culture resonated with both academics and
practitioners in understanding organizations.

The concept of culture took the business and academic community by storm for several reasons:

 The metaphor of culture clearly resonated with both academics and practitioners. It made
sense to see organizations as complex arenas of stories and values rather than as entirely
rational institutions

 The cultural metaphor opened up new and fruitful areas of research

 Culture quickly became a part of everyday talk. (“The culture in our company is very good”)

Deal and Kennedy's "Strong Cultures":

Summarize Deal and Kennedy's components for developing a "strong" organizational culture.

Deal and Kennedy argue that business success can be enhanced through the development of a
“strong” culture therefore four components are needed.

 Values are the beliefs and visions that members hold for an organization. (Value for
innovation, value for stability etc.)

 Heroes are the individuals who come to exemplify an organizations values (Steve
Jobs)

 Rites and Rituals are the ceremonies through which an organization celebrates its
value. (The

start of a new employee etc.)

 Cultural network is the communication system through which cultural values are
instituted

and reinforced. (newsletters, interactions of employees etc.)

a. How do values, heroes, rituals, and cultural networks contribute to the strength of an
organizational culture?
 1. Deal and Kennedy argue that business success can be enhanced through the development of
a “strong” culture therefore four components are needed.

 Values are the beliefs and visions that members hold for an organization. (Value for
innovation, value for stability etc.)

 Heroes are the individuals who come to exemplify an organizations values (Steve
Jobs)

 Rites and Rituals are the ceremonies through which an organization celebrates its
value. (The

start of a new employee etc.)

 Cultural network is the communication system through which cultural values are
instituted

and reinforced. (newsletters, interactions of employees etc.)

Peters and Waterman's "Excellent Cultures":

Outline the key themes identified by Peters and Waterman in high-performing companies.

Like Deal and Kennedy, Peters and Waterman were attempting to identify aspects of organizational
culture that were prevalent in high-performing companies. They identified themes that
characterized the cultures of organizations. These themes emphasize the importance of people and
downplay bureaucratic structure and values SEE TABLE 5.1

Both books underline the intangibles, such as values and heroes, and signal a move away
from strictly rational models. However, they were not embraced because they prescribed
organizational management instead of descriptions or explanations for organizational life.
This is called value engineering because it espouses the belief that effective cultural leaders
could create strong cultures built around their values. Others have emphasized that this
integration approach to culture is only one lens through which a culture might be viewed.
Prescriptive approaches to culture also fall short in two important respects:

1. It is naïve to assume that there is a single cultural formula for achieving

organizational success. The prescriptions for the correct culture oversimplify the
complexities of organizational life

2. Prescriptive approaches treat culture as something that an organization has.

However, when we objectify culture, we de-emphasize the complex processes
through which organization is created and sustained.
 a. Compare and contrast Deal and Kennedy's and Peters and Waterman's approaches to
understanding organizational culture.
See above

Prescriptive Approaches vs. Alternative Approaches:

a. Analyze the shortcomings of prescriptive approaches to organizational culture.

Prescriptive approaches to culture also fall short in two important respects:

a. It is naïve to assume that there is a single cultural formula for achieving

organizational success. The prescriptions for the correct culture oversimplify the
complexities of organizational life

b. Prescriptive approaches treat culture as something that an organization has.

However, when we objectify culture, we de-emphasize the complex processes
through which organization is created and sustained.

b. Explain the interpretative approach to culture and why scholars today view culture as
emerging and fragmented values, practices, narratives, and artifacts.

Putnam introduced this interpretative approach which states that we must consider the way
individuals make sense of their world through their own communicative behaviors.

Four issues highlight the distinction between prescriptive approaches to culture and the approaches
taken by most cultural scholars today:

1 Organizational cultures are complicated

The complexity of organizational culture is demonstrated by the wide variety of markers that
scholars use to investigate it:

 Trice argues that an organization’s culture is revealed through its rites

 Dandridge look at organizational ceremonies as indicators of culture

 Quinn and McGrath focus on the role of values and belief system for organizational culture

 Smith and Eisenberg consider metaphors of employees and management

 Boje and Meyer consider stories that organizational members tell

 Communication rules, hallway talk

They all are just a few windows through which researchers gain a glimpse of an
organization’s culture.

2 Organizational cultures are emergent

 Cultures are socially created through the interaction of organizational members. Therefore,
culture is not merely created through communication but communication is constitutive of
culture. Some scholars say that to study organizational communication one must focus on
the communication process through which culture is created. They see this process as
performances which are:

 Interactional: they require the participation of multiple organizational members

 Contextual: they are embedded in organizational situations and history

 Episodic: they are nameable as distinct events

 Improvisational: there are no scripts that guide organizational members.

3 Organizational cultures are not unitary

Scholars agree that it is impossible to characterize an organization as having a single culture.

The multitude of subcultures co-exist in harmony, conflict, or indifference to each other.
Martin highlights this as differentiation in which inconsistencies among cultural views are
expected and often seen as desirable.

Louis describes where these subcultures can be found and how they work. He first argues
that there is a vertical slice (divisions) and a horizontal slice (hierarchical level or a specific
work group where these subcultures can arise). Martin points out that they might emerge
around networks of personal contacts or demographic similarity.

An additional consideration of nonunitary nature of organizational culture is that various

subcultures within an organization may represent important differences in power and in
interests (difference between e.g. students, staff and management)

4 Organizational cultures are often ambiguous

Scholars claim that there is not always a clear picture of the organization’s culture or
subcultures. Martin describes this as the fragmentation perspective and argues that
fragmentation studies will see an ambiguous culture as a normal, salient, and inescapable
part of organizational functioning in the contemporary world.

Four Issues Highlighting Distinctions:

a. Discuss the complexity of organizational culture, highlighting different markers used

by scholars.

The complexity of organizational culture is demonstrated by the wide variety of markers that
scholars use to investigate it:

 Trice argues that an organization’s culture is revealed through its rites

 Dandridge look at organizational ceremonies as indicators of culture

  Quinn and McGrath focus on the role of values and belief system for organizational culture

 Smith and Eisenberg consider metaphors of employees and management

 Boje and Meyer consider stories that organizational members tell

 Communication rules, hallway talk

b. Explore the idea that organizational cultures are emergent, considering the role of
communication in constituting culture.

Cultures are socially created through the interaction of organizational members. Therefore,
culture is not merely created through communication but communication is constitutive of
culture. Some scholars say that to study organizational communication one must focus on
the communication process through which culture is created. They see this process as
performances which are:

a. Interactional: they require the participation of multiple organizational members

b. Contextual: they are embedded in organizational situations and history

c. Episodic: they are nameable as distinct events

d. Improvisational: there are no scripts that guide organizational members.

Nonunitary Nature and Ambiguity of Organizational Cultures:

a. Explain why it is impossible to characterize an organization as having a single culture.

Scholars agree that it is impossible to characterize an organization as having a single culture.

The multitude of subcultures co-exist in harmony, conflict, or indifference to each other.

b. Discuss the significance of organizational cultures being often ambiguous, particularly

in the context of rapid organizational changes.

Scholars claim that there is not always a clear picture of the organization’s culture or subcultures.
Martin describes this as the fragmentation perspective and argues that fragmentation studies will
see an ambiguous culture as a normal, salient, and inescapable part of organizational functioning in
the contemporary world. The notion of ambiguity is most important when taking into account that
organizations are rapidly changing. Ambiguities are particularly challenging for individuals as they try
to forge their own identification within these reconfigured organizational cultures.

Schein's Model of Organizational Culture:

a. Define Schein's concept of culture and how he views it as a group phenomenon.

Schein’s model of organizational culture
Schein is a management scholar and consultant interested in the role of leaders in the development
and maintenance of organizational culture.

Schein defines the culture of a social group in the following way: A pattern of shared basic
assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal
integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid, and, therefore, to be taught to new
members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems.

1. Schein defines culture as a group phenomenon. An individual cannot have a culture because

cultural formation depends on communication. However cultural groups can exist on many
different levels, from countries to workgroups. Schein acknowledges that groups are often
fragmented, still he believes that it is important to highlight the human need for stability,
consistency and meaning.

1. Schein defines culture as a pattern of basic assumptions, suggesting that the beliefs that
make up culture are relatively enduring and difficult to change. However, rules and physical
artifacts, values and behavior also define culture, still he believes that the core of culture is
its basic assumptions and that the other things are merely a reflection of the culture.

2. Schein sees culture as an emergent and developmental process. Cultures are learned or
invented as a group meets internal and external challenges. What must be added is that
culture is shaped by the circumstances of the organization and its environment.

3. Schein’s definition highlights the socializing aspect of culture. Though it is enough to point
out that when individuals enter an organization, a major part of learning the ropes consists
of developing an understanding of the assumptions and values that make up that
organization’s culture. Schein believes that in many cases the new members’ interactions
with old members will be a more creative process of building a culture.

b. Explore the three levels in Schein's model of organizational culture: artifacts,

espoused values, and basic assumptions.

c. LEVEL 1 ARTIFACTS:

The physical and social environment that organizational members have created is the most
visible level. On this observable level the most obvious of those cultural indicators are
artifacts or things displayed by organizational members and the overt behavior of
organizational members.

Schein's Model Continued:

a. Discuss the significance of artifacts as the most visible level of organizational culture.

b. LEVEL 1 ARTIFACTS:
 c. The physical and social environment that organizational members have created is the most
visible level. On this observable level the most obvious of those cultural indicators are
artifacts or things displayed by organizational members and the overt behavior of
organizational members.

1. LEVEL 2 ESPOUSED VALUES

Values represent preferences or what “ought” to happen. This level of culture represents a
mosaic of beliefs about how things ought to be done in an organization. Organizations do
not have values but individuals do. There can be various values which create the subcultures
mentioned before. The value of the CEO plays a critical role in shaping the organizational
culture. Founder values have an even higher weight than CEO’s values.

Schein emphasizes that stated values and behavior of an employee do not always match
(therefore Espoused Values. E.g. Manager values the input of the employees but makes all
decisions without consulting his employees).

It short, it is important to look at the correspondence between the behaviors and artifacts of Level 1
and the Values of level 2

d. Explore the importance of espoused values and the potential contradictions between
stated values and actual behavior.

LEVEL 2 ESPOUSED VALUES

Values represent preferences or what “ought” to happen. This level of culture represents a mosaic of
beliefs about how things ought to be done in an organization. Several interesting points should be
raised about this second level of culture:

1. Organizations do not have values but individuals do. There can be various values which
create the subcultures mentioned before. The value of the CEO plays a critical role in
shaping the organizational culture. Founder values have an even higher weight than CEO’s
values.

2. Schein emphasizes that stated values and behavior of an employee do not always match
(therefore Espoused Values. E.g. Manager values the input of the employees but makes all
decisions without consulting his employees).

It short, it is important to look at the correspondence between the behaviors and artifacts of Level 1
and the Values of level 2. If there is a strong match it is likely that the behavior and the values are
indicators of cultural assumptions. However, if values do not match artifacts and behavior it is most
likely that the values are rationalizations or aspirations for the future.

Because of the contradictions is it important to look to the third level.

LEVEL 3 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS

The third level of culture is the core assumptions that individuals in a group hold about the world
and how it works. These assumptions have been taken for granted because the group deals with
internal and external problems. They are hard to point out because it has become part of the way
we are or “the way we do things around here”.
Schein defines six areas around which these basic assumptions typically revolve.
These areas are assumptions about the nature of:

 Reality and truth

 Time

 Space

 Human nature

 Human activity

 Human Relationships
These assumptions deal with how people view the world and humanity’s relationship to it.
Schein believes that an examination of the basic assumptions might reveal a coherent
paradigm that guides a strong and united culture. When those assumptions contradict level
1/2, problems of adapting to external and internal organizational problems may arise.

Schein's Model: Basic Assumptions and Areas:

Explain Schein's concept of basic assumptions and the six areas around which these
assumptions typically revolve. LEVEL 3 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
The third level of culture is the core assumptions that individuals in a group hold about the world
and how it works. These assumptions have been taken for granted because the group deals with
internal and external problems. They are hard to point out because it has become part of the way
we are or “the way we do things around here”.
Schein defines six areas around which these basic assumptions typically revolve.
These areas are assumptions about the nature of:

 Reality and truth

 Time

 Space

 Human nature

 Human activity

 Human Relationships
These assumptions deal with how people view the world and humanity’s relationship to it.
Schein believes that an examination of the basic assumptions might reveal a coherent
paradigm that guides a strong and united culture. When those assumptions contradict level
1/2, problems of adapting to external and internal organizational problems may arise.
 a. Analyze how the examination of basic assumptions can reveal a coherent paradigm
guiding organizational culture.

Methods for Studying Organizational Culture:

a. Discuss the qualitative methods used in studying organizational culture, emphasizing

the anthropological and ethnographic approaches.

scholars believe that a qualitative method is most appropriate since the metaphor of culture was
borrowed from anthropology and a lot of scholars have turned to anthropological methods or
ethnographies for the study of culture.

Ethnography refers to the writing of culture and ethnographic methods vary from traditional social
science techniques. An ethnographer approaches an organizational culture as text to be read. In
order to decipher this text, he/she needs to be immersed in organizational life.

b. Explore the different types of cultural tales in ethnographic research and their
significance in understanding organizational culture.

The goal of this is to minimize the distance between the researcher and the culture being
investigated. Through the observation of organizational behaviors and artifacts and discussion about
organizational values, the researcher develops ideas about the assumptions that drive organizational
members.
Once a cultural researcher has developed a grounded (mini-) theory about an organization’s culture,
the ethnography of the culture can be written. This does not look like a traditional social science
article, rather the ethnographer is trying to tell a ‘cultural tale’ to help the reader understand the
organization in all of its rich and varied detail. This can be done in three ways:

1. Realist tale: like a documentary where the ethnographer tries to provide a complete and
relative objective account of what is observed in the organization.

2. Confessional tale: the researcher talks personally about how he or she experienced the
culture under investigation

3. Impressionist tale: a narrative in which information about the culture is slipped into a story
that could stand on its own dramatic merits.

4. Critical tale: a narrative with the express goal of uncovering the deep power structures
implicit in organizational functioning

Chapter 6: Critical Approaches

Theoretical Foundations:
Discuss the theoretical foundations of critical approaches in organizational communication,
emphasizing its roots in the work of Karl Marx.

Critical approaches

Roots of this approach can be found in the work of Karl Marx who examined the relationship
between owners and workers in a capitalist society and theorized that there was an inherent
imbalance in this relationship which can lead to revolts.

How do critical theorists view power within organizational structures, and what distinguishes
their perspective from traditional and symbological approaches?

Critical theorists (mainly from the school of Frankfurt) try to do the following things:

1. They believe that certain societal structures and processes lead to fundamental imbalances

of power

2. These imbalances of power lead to alienation and oppression for certain social classes and

groups.

3. The role of the critical theorist is to explore and uncover these imbalances and bring them to

the attention of the oppressed group.

Pervasiveness of Power:
Explain the three different conceptualizations of power according to the traditional,
symbological, and radical-critical approaches. How do these perspectives shape our
understanding of power in organizations?

Power is very important to the critical theorist. Power can be conceptualized in three different ways:

1. Traditional approach: Power is a relatively stable entity that people or groups possess.

Scholars often equate power with control over resources or with hierarchical status in the

organization. (classical and human relation theories)

2. Symbological approach: views power as a product of the communicative interactions and

relationships. Researchers taking this approach are interested in how communication

constitutes understanding of power through socially constructed organizational relationships
(cultural approach)
 3. Radical-critical approach: The theorist is concerned with the ‘deep structures’ that produce
and reproduce relationships in organizational life. They also state that there is an inherent
contradiction between the ‘surface structure’ and ‘deep structure’ of power that must be
explored.

Ideology and Hegemony:

Define and elaborate on the concept of ideology in the context of critical approaches. How
does ideology influence perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors within organizations?

 Control of modes and means of production (classical Marxist approach, traditional approach)
Examines the ways in which capitalist owners have control over the modes and means of
production in the workplace. The modes and means of production constitute the
substructure of society.

The term modes of production refers to the economic conditions that underlie the
production process. The surpluses that managers make over their personnel are hidden and
this hidden imbalance will create conflict between worker and owner. This continuing

(thesis) would lead to the revolt of the working class (antithesis) and a
(synthesis).

The term means of production refers to actual work processes. Through the industrialization
and new technology workers get more unskilled and alienated from the product.
In short,

 Control of organizational discourse (Cultural approach)

Critical scholars argue that power relationships are produced and reproduced through
organizational discourse. Organizational reality is structured by communicative interaction.
Critical researchers go further than the cultural researchers. They state the reality created
through discourse is the site of domination. There are a number of ways in which
organizational discourse can be seen as creating and recreating power structures in the
workplace.

o The use of particular phrases to describe work (‘when are you getting a real job?) o Stories people
tell make sense of the organization in a way that often supports the

dominant organizational coalition. See page 105 bottom for example

o Decision premises serve as a source of unobtrusive control in organizational life. o Entire industries
can be influenced by the discursive constructions found in

regulatory material. Organization can rephrase for example illness so that they are not related to the
workplace and so creates safety for the management.

Explore the concept of hegemony and its role in maintaining dominant power structures.
Provide examples of how hegemony operates in organizational settings.
ritical theorists argue that these processes of control will lead to a shaping of ideology and to
hegemony.
Ideology refers to ‘the-taken-for-granted assumptions about reality that influence perceptions of
situations and events’ This knows several important facets:

1. Ideology refers to more than a set of attitudes or beliefs. It structures our thoughts and
makes us understand reality.

2. Ideology involves assumptions that are rarely questioned or scrutinized. (Hierarchy within an
organization is never questioned)

3. Ideology can influence our behaviors. The power of ideologies is related to the way in which
they are used to justify and legitimize actions.

For critical theorist ideology is not a neutral concept but is intimately tied to systems of power and
domination which leads to hegemony.
Hegemony refers to a process in which a dominant group leads another group to accept
subordination as the norm. Hegemonic control is typically accomplished by shaping ideology in such
a way that the controlled group accepts and actively participates in the control process.

According to the critical theorist social structures and processes allow the dominant class to shape
organizational ideology. The result of this ideological monopoly is a hegemonic relationship in which
one group is controlled by another by coercion, acceptance or participation. Critical theorists say
that through emancipation and activities of resistance these social imbalances will be broken down.

Emancipation and Resistance:

What is emancipation in the context of critical approaches, and how does it relate to the
liberation of individuals from restrictive traditions and power relations?

Emancipation

Emancipation is described as the liberation of people from unnecessarily restrictive traditions,

ideologies, assumptions, power relations etc. that inhibit or distort opportunities for autonomy,
clarification of genuine needs and wants, and thus greater and lasting satisfaction.

Discuss the significance of resistance within the critical perspective. How do individuals
resist power structures in organizational communication, both collectively and individually?
Resistance

Critical scholars have been moving from how control and domination was created in the
organizational process towards the point where the workers can exert counterpressure on this
exercise of power and control.
Everyone knows the resistance of strikes etc. but organizational communication scholars are more
interested in the individual. From joking with the rules and decorations in office cubicle with funny
texts.

Chapter 7: Assimilation Processes

Organizational Socialization:
Define and discuss the concept of organizational socialization. How does it differ across the
anticipatory, encounter, and metamorphosis phases?

1. Anticipatory socialization: refers to socialization processes that occur before an individual

actually enters an organization. The meaning of work is often something that we grow up
with.

1. Children: nature of work by doing chores and participating in the household

2. 8-year old needs to get his homework done which is part of understanding work

Etc. etc.

2. However, this early stage of knowing what work is also has a downside because work is
phrased as we know it in our capitalist society.
Anticipatory socialization also involves ideas about the nature of specific careers and
occupations. From childhood on when someone asks you what you want to be later we get
socialized into an occupational role.
The third portion of anticipatory socialization involves learning about a particular
organization. Before one goes on a job-interview one knows a lot about the company
already and so is socialized in this company.

3. Encounter: The first step into the company. This is described as the experience as one of
change, contrast and surprise, and the newcomer must work to make sense of the new
organizational culture. The encounter phase encompasses learning about a new organization
and role, and letting go of old values, expectations, and behaviors. (information seeking,
stress and a potential reality shock)

4. Metamorphosis: Occurs when the new employee has made the transition from outsider to
insider. The relationship between the individual and the organization is, however, still static
because there is always some measure of flux and uncertainty in employees’ understandings
of organizational roles and culture.

This flux is demonstrated by Kramer who states that a job transfer within an organization
can be a lot more difficult. Because one is not particularly new the job requirements and
people are new to him therefore communication with supervisor and co-workers can ease
the transition process and can decrease the flux.
Explore the role of socialization in shaping individuals' perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors
as they join and become integrated into organizations.

Employment Interview:
Explain the multifaceted role of the employment interview in organizational socialization.

The employment interview serves three basic functions:

1. The interviewer is using the interview to recruit potential employees and make decisions

about the quality of those recruits

2. The applicant is using the interview as a way to find out more about the organization

3. The interview serves as a socialization tool i.e. as a way to facilitate the adaptation of the
application should he or she be hired

How does it serve as a recruiting tool, information-gathering tool, and a means for
socialization?

The interview as an information-gathering tool

Satisfaction with the interview by potential employees is a good predictor of the acceptance of a
second interview. Most applicants see the interview as a very passive way of gathering information
because it is not regular that the applicant asks questions, however the interviewer forms
impressions during the interview.

The interview as a tool for socialization

The employment interview can serve to ease a newcomer’s adaptation to the organization should
he/she be offered a job. Wanous develops this position in his support of realistic job preview (RJP)

1. .

Discuss the potential challenges and benefits of using realistic job previews during the
interview process.

Newcomer Information-Seeking Tactics:

Outline the seven information-seeking tactics identified by Miller and Jablin for newcomers.

How do these tactics help individuals reduce uncertainty during the socialization process?
Discuss the role of social costs in determining which information-seeking tactics newcomers
are likely to employ.

Role Development Processes:

Explain the LMX theory of role development. How do leaders and subordinates engage in
role-taking, role-making, and role-routinization phases?

Discuss the significance of workgroup communication in role development, especially in high

reliability organizations.

Organizational Exit:
Analyze the organizational exit process, considering the demographic, economic, and social
factors influencing it.

Explore the role of communication in the exit process, including pre-exit anticipation,
announcement, and post-exit adjustments for both those leaving and those remaining in the
organization.
Chapter 8:

Rational Models of Decision Making:

Explain the classical theories of decision making and the rational model.

Outline the five stages of Nutt's normative method for decision making.

Discuss alternatives to rational models, as proposed by March, Simon, and others.

Small Group Decision Making:

Describe Fischer's four-phase model of small group decision making.

Compare and contrast stage models and Poole's multiple sequence model for group decision
making.

Discuss the concept of groupthink and its pitfalls in decision-making groups.

Explain functional theory and its role in effective small-group decision making.

Participation in Decision Making (PDM):

Summarize Coch and French's research on the effects of participation in decision making.

Outline the attitudinal, cognitive, and behavioral impacts proposed for PDM.

Explain Miller and Monge's affective and cognitive models of participation and their
implications.
Participative Applications in Organizations and Workplace Democracy:
Discuss the five types of participation programs considered by Seibold and Shea.

Define workplace democracy and its ideals.

Explore the paradoxes associated with instituting democratic and participative systems.

Beyond Decisions: Knowledge Management Systems:

Define knowledge management and its objectives.

Explain the role of tacit and explicit knowledge in organizational decision making.

Compare information-based and interaction-based knowledge management processes.

Discuss the importance of linking information-based and interaction-based knowledge

management for effective organizational decisions.

Chapter 9:

Conceptualizing the Conflict Process:

Define conflict according to Putnam and Poole's definition.

Identify and explain the three general characteristics of conflict.

Discuss the levels at which organizational conflict can occur.

Phases of Organizational Conflict:

Describe the five phases of organizational conflict as proposed by Pondy.

Explain the significance of latent conflict, perceived conflict, felt conflict, manifest conflict,
and conflict aftermath.

Managing Organizational Conflict:

Distinguish between conflict management and conflict resolution.

Discuss the critique of conflict styles, considering factors identified by Knap, Putnam, and
Davis.

Explore new directions in research on interpersonal conflict, including the consideration of

message style and perceptions.

Conflict Styles:
Explain Thomas's reconceptualization of the Managerial Grid dimensions as 'concern for self'
and 'concern for others.'

Describe the five conflict styles: avoidance, accommodating, competition, compromise, and
collaborate.
Critically assess the conflict styles framework and its limitations.

Bargaining and Negotiation:

Define bargaining according to Putnam and Poole.

Differentiate between distributive bargaining and integrative bargaining.

Discuss the characteristics and communication strategies associated with distributive and
integrative bargaining.

Third-Party Conflict Resolution:

Explain the roles a manager can take in resolving conflicts between co-workers.
Compare and contrast mediation and arbitration in the context of third-party conflict
resolution.

Discuss the factors influencing the effectiveness of managerial conflict resolution strategies.

Factors Influencing the Conflict Management Process:

Explore personal factors influencing conflict resolution, such as personality and gender.

Discuss the impact of relational factors, including power dynamics and the balance between
autonomy and connection.

Examine the influence of cultural factors on conflict enactment and management.

Alternative View of Conflict:

Describe the feminist view of conflict proposed by Putnam and Kolb.

Contrast the traditional exchange model of conflict with the alternative feminist model.

Discuss situations where the feminist model of conflict might be particularly appropriate.

Chapter 10:

Organizational Change Models:

Explain the concept of organizational life cycles and how organizations naturally evolve and
adapt to environmental needs.

Discuss the phases of planned change and the complexities involved in the implementation
of planned change.

Reactions to Organizational Change:

Define and discuss the three key responses to the change process: management support,
resistance, and uncertainty.
Explain the importance of communication in addressing ownership, resistance, and
uncertainty during organizational change.

Communication in Change Processes:

Describe the top-down communication strategies proposed by Clampitt, DeKoch, and
Cashman.

Discuss the significance of involving employees in the change process and the role of
communication in managing change.

Unplanned Change: Organizational Crisis:

Define organizational crisis and discuss the stages of organizational crisis as described by
Seeger, Sellnow, and Ulmer.

Explain how communication processes play a key role in coping with organizational crises.

Organizational Leadership Models:

Discuss early leadership theories, such as trait theories, and their perspective on leadership.

Explore the limitations of trait and style approaches to leadership and the emergence of
contingency theory.

Transformational Leadership:
Define transactional and transformational leaders and explain the difference between them.

Provide examples of transformational leaders and their impact on followers and

organizations.

Communication and Leadership:

Examine the role of communication in the leadership process, including the importance of
content and delivery styles.

Discuss Gail Fairhurst and Robert Sarr's perspective on leadership as a language game and
the concept of framing in effective leadership communication.

Language and Framing in Leadership:

Define framing and explain its role in managing meaning in leadership communication.

Discuss the tools and strategies leaders can use to frame language effectively, as outlined in
Table 10.3.

Chapter 11:
Evolution of Scholarly Focus:
Explain the shift in scholarly focus from the rationality of organizations to the relationship
between rationality and emotions in the workplace.

Why is it essential to research emotions in organizations, and how does this perspective
differ from the Human Relationists' earlier focus on satisfaction?

Emotion in the Workplace Models:

Contrast the traditional view of the workplace as governed by logic and rationality with the
acknowledgment of emotions in organizational life.

How does the concept of bounded emotionality contribute to a better understanding of the
workplace?

Emotional Labor:
Define emotional labor and provide examples of surface acting and deep acting.
Discuss the generalizations that can be made about emotional labor, including the focus on
service workers and controlled emotions.

Emotional Work and Compassionate Communication:

Differentiate between emotional labor and emotional work.

Explain the three points of compassionate communication and how they apply to workers in
industries like health care, education, or human services.

Emotions in Workplace Relationships:

Discuss the concept of "emotion at work" and its focus on emotions emerging from
workplace relationships.

Analyze the aspects of work relationships that create potential for intense emotions in
organizations, as mentioned by Waldron.

Emotion Rules and Emotional Intelligence:

Explore the perceived rules that govern emotional life in organizations, as surveyed by
Kramer and Hess.

Define emotional intelligence and discuss its role in understanding and managing emotional
content in workplace relationships.

Stress, Burnout, and Strain:

Conceptualize the stress process and its components, including stressors, burnout, and
negative psychological outcomes.

Describe burnout according to Maslach's three dimensions: emotional exhaustion, lack of

personal accomplishment, and depersonalization.
Stressors Leading to Burnout:
Identify and explain three frequently identified workplace stressors: workload, role conflict,
and role ambiguity.

Discuss the role of day-to-day hassles and the emotional strain of balancing work and home
life in contributing to burnout.

Communication as a Cause of Burnout:

Explain how communication influences workload, role conflict, and role ambiguity in the
workplace.

Discuss emotional labor as a contributor to burnout, with a focus on emotional dissonance.

Empathy, Communication, and Burnout:

Define emotional contagion and empathic concern, and discuss their impact on
communication and burnout.
Analyze Miller, Stiff, and Ellis's model of communication, empathy, and burnout for human
service workers.
Coping with Burnout:
Explore individual and organizational coping strategies for dealing with burnout.
Discuss the role of communication in coping with burnout, including participation in
decision-making and social support.

Chapter 12:

Diversity in the Workplace:

Explain why writing about organizational diversity can be challenging, considering the
varying meanings of terms depending on the context.

Discuss the representation of women and minorities in today's workforce and the challenges
they face, including the concept of the glass ceiling.

Stereotyping and Discrimination:

Define and differentiate between prejudice and discrimination.

Explore how biases and stereotypes about women and people of color may lead to
differential treatment within organizations.

Relational Barriers in Organizational Systems:

Identify and discuss four aspects that lead to differential experiences for women and
minorities in organizations.
Explain the importance of informal communication networks and mentor-protégé
relationships in the experiences of women and ethnic minorities.

The Multicultural Organization:

Describe the three phases of workplace development in the area of cultural and gender
diversity, as outlined by Morrison and Von Glinow.

Provide an overview of Cox's dimensions of a multicultural organization, including the

concept of acculturation.

Diverse Organization: Opportunities:

Discuss the competitive advantages gained through managing cultural diversity, as proposed
by Cox and Blake.

Analyze the cognitive consequences of diversity, specifically focusing on increased creativity

and enhanced problem-solving within organizations.

Diverse Organization: Challenges:

Examine the challenges organizations face in managing diversity programs, particularly
avoiding negative impacts.

Discuss the communicative strategies for dealing with sexual harassment in the workplace,
as explored by Bingham.

Balancing Work and Home:

Explore the challenges faced by individuals and organizations in balancing the needs of work
and home.

Discuss the strategies organizations can implement to create a culture that values various
aspects of employees' lives.

Managing (and Celebrating) Cultural Diversity:

Critically evaluate the concept of "managing diversity" and why it is suggested to think of it
as the celebration of diversity.

Examine the spheres of activity identified by Cox and Blake for managing cultural diversity
and highlight their significance.

Chapter 13:

General Understanding:
What are the key caveats mentioned before delving into the chapter on technological
processes in the workplace?

How does the rapid evolution of technology impact the relevance of information presented
in this chapter?

Organizational Communication Technologies:

According to Table 13.1, what are some examples of organizational communication
technologies, and why does the chapter focus specifically on email and the internet?

How do email and the World Wide Web serve different purposes in organizational
communication?

Features of New Technologies:

Discuss the distinguishing features of new communication technologies outlined in the
chapter.

How do these features impact the personalization and anonymity of communication within
organizations?

Theories of Communication Media Usage:

Explain the Media Richness Model and how it relates to the choices organizational members
make regarding communication media.

Compare and contrast the Social Information Processing Model and the Dual-Capacity
Model in explaining the adoption of organizational communication technologies.

Effects of Organizational Communication Technology:

How do communication technologies impact the content of messages, especially in terms of
social and emotional expression?

Discuss the concept of "flaming" and its relevance to electronic communication.

Communication Patterns and Organizational Structure:

Explain how new technologies affect communication patterns within organizations.

Discuss the variations of work distribution mentioned by Grantham and their implications
for organizational structure.

Challenges of Telework and Virtual Organizations:

Analyze the paradoxes presented by Pearlson and Saunders regarding telework, focusing on
increased flexibility, greater individuality, and more responsibility.

How do the challenges of telework relate to the broader concept of virtual organizations?
Chapter 14:

Globalization and Its Drivers:

How has laissez-faire capitalism contributed to the rise of globalization, and what role have
technological factors played in this process?

Discuss the shift in organizational landscapes from being associated with a single country to
the current mix of domestic, multicultural, multinational, international, and global
organizations.

Utopian and Dystopian Views of Globalization:

Explain the utopian and dystopian views of globalization as presented by Zahre.

How does globalization influence communication patterns, perceptions, and the

disembedded nature of organizations and people, according to Mong?

Convergence and Divergence in Global Organizations:

Define convergence and divergence in the context of global organizations.

How do forces of convergence and divergence affect communication within global

organizations, especially in terms of cultural appreciation and workplace efficiency?

Organizational Identity in a Global Economy:

Why is it crucial for organizations in the global economy to establish a distinctive identity?

Discuss the reasons why organizational identity has become increasingly important,
considering factors like mergers, acquisitions, and the shifting landscape of ownership.

Organizational Image Management:

Explain how organizations try to shape their environment through the creation and
maintenance of an organizational image.

Discuss the role of communication style in creating and maintaining organizational images,
emphasizing the importance of distinctiveness.

Communication Challenges in a Service Economy:

How has the economy transitioned from being product-centric to service-centric, and what
challenges does this shift pose for organizations?

Discuss the impact of customer expectations, emotional labor, and stress on the quality of
service in the service-producing sector.

The Disposable Worker in the Global Economy:

Describe the factors contributing to the age of the disposable worker in the global economy.

Analyze the characteristics of the disposable workforce, including contingent workers, and
discuss the financial, organizational, and personal implications of these changes.

Alternative Work Arrangements:

Explore the reasons why some workers intentionally opt for alternative work arrangements,
such as temporary work or self-employment.

Discuss the implications of a contingent workforce on organizational identification and

decision-making.