Industrial and Applied Electrochemistry

Application of electrochemistry to technological development and

practice.

The broad range of technologies covered by electrochemistry include energy conversion,

conservation, and storage, new battery systems, fuel cells, super capacitors, solar cells, power
delivery, industrial synthesis, environmental remediation, cell design, corrosion, electrochemical
reaction engineering, medical applications of electrochemistry and bio-electrochemistry, the
electrochemical treatments of effluents, hydrometallurgy, molten salt and solid state
electrochemistry, surface finishing, electroplating, electrodeposition, sensors, and application of
molecular electrochemistry.

Batteries

A battery is a device that converts chemical energy contained within its active materials directly
into electric energy by means of an electrochemical oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction. This type
of reaction involves the transfer of electrons from one material to another via an electric circuit.
The following are the common types of batteries (cells) used:

1. Primary cells or non-rechargeable batteries like alkaline battery (dry cell) etc.
2. Secondary cells or rechargeable batteries like Lead acid battery, Lithium-ion battery,
nickel-cadmium cell, Nickel-metal hybrid battery (Ni-MH), Solar-photovoltaic cell (PV
Cell) (reusable cell) etc.
3. Fuel Cells (Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell, Propane-oxygen fuel cell, Methyl alcohol-oxygen
fuel cell, Phosphoric acid fuel cell, Biochemical fuel cell etc.)

Lead acid battery (cells) (lead acid accumulator)

The Lead-acid battery is one of the oldest types of rechargeable batteries. These batteries were
invented in the year 1859 by the French physicist Gaston Plante. This battery acts both
electrolytic cell (during charging) and galvanic cell (during discharging (using)).
Construction

A lead acid cell contains a number of voltaic cells in series to form a battery. Usually, 3 to 6
voltaic cells are connected in series to form 6 to 12 volts battery. Here, spongy lead (Pb) acts
as anode and a grid of lead packed with lead oxide (PbO2) acts as cathode. An aqueous
solution of H2SO4 having specific gravity (density) 2.15 is used as an electrolyte.

Fig. Diagrammatic representation of lead-acid battery

 Charging and discharging in lead-acid battery

Fig. Charging and discharging (using) of lead-acid battery

Reaction of discharging of battery (Like voltaic cell)

During discharging (using), lead metal (Pb) is oxidized to lead ion (Pb++) and which combines
with sulphate ion (SO4--) to form lead sulphate (PbSO4).

At anode: Pb + SO4-- PbSO4 +2e-

At cathode: PbO2 + H2SO4 +2H+ +2e- PbSO4 + 2H2O

Overall cell reaction: Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4 2PbSO4 +2H2O + Energy

What changes occur during discharging?

1. The mass of Pb (at anode) and PbO2 (at cathode) get decreased.
2. PbSO4 gets precipitated on both the plates (anode and cathode) which is whitish in color.
3. The concentration of H2SO4 gets decreased.
4. The amount of products (PbSO4 and H2O) get increased.
 Conclusion: The battery delivers electricity. So, it acts as voltaic cell during discharging
(working). When, both anode and cathode are covered by PbSO4, the reaction stops and no
more electrical energy is obtained.

Reaction of charging of battery (Like electrolytic cell)

During charging, it is connected to external source of direct current. The positive pole of the
battery is connected to the positive pole of the source of current and vice versa. In this stage,
the battery gains electrons (current) and acts as an electrolytic cell.

Reaction of charging of battery (Like electrolytic cell), the above reactions are reversed.

Previous anode (now cathode): PbSO4 + 2e- Pb + SO4--

Previous cathode (now anode): PbSO4 +2H2O PbO2 + H2SO4 + 2H+ +2e-

Overall cell reaction: 2PbSO4 + 2H2O + Energy Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4

What changes occur during charging?

1. The electrodes of the cell (Pb and PbO2) are restored to their original conditions.
2. The concentration of H2SO4 increases.

Uses of lead-acid battery

The lead-acid battery represents the oldest rechargeable battery technology. Lead acid batteries
can be found in a wide variety of applications including small scale power storage such as UPS
systems, starting lighting and ignition power sources for automobiles, in telephone exchanges,
railway trains, laboratories, hospitals, broadcasting stations, along with large, grid-scale power
systems and distribution works.
Advantages
1. Inexpensive and simple to manufacture.
2. Mature, reliable and well-understood technology - when used correctly, lead-acid is
durable and provides dependable service.
3. The self-discharge is among the lowest of rechargeable battery systems.
4. Capable of high discharge rates.
Disadvantages
1. Lead-acid batteries have a relatively low energy density ie. they have a limited amount of
energy stored per unit weight.
2. Lead also causes long-term harm in adults, including increased risk of high blood pressure,
cardiovascular problems and kidney damage. Exposure of pregnant women to high levels of
lead can cause miscarriage, stillbirth, premature birth and low birth weight (Lead poisoning).

Lithium-ion battery

A lithium-ion or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery that uses the

reversible intercalation of Li+ ions into electronically conducting solids to store energy. It
makes use of charged particles of lithium to convert chemical energy into electrical energy. M.
Stanley Whittingham, a British-American chemist is known as the founding father of lithium-
ion batteries. He developed the concept of rechargeable batteries during the late 1970s. In 2019,
M. Stanley Whittingham, John Goodenough, and Akira Yoshino were awarded the Nobel prize
in chemistry for their work. On the basis of the ability of recharging, lithium-ion batteries can
be classified into two broad categories, namely, primary and secondary. Primary lithium-ion
batteries are non-rechargeable, while secondary lithium-ion batteries are rechargeable. In
comparison with other rechargeable batteries, Li-ion batteries are characterized by
higher specific energy, higher energy density, higher energy efficiency, a longer cycle life, and
a longer calendar life. Also noteworthy is a dramatic improvement in lithium-ion battery
properties after their market introduction in 1991: within the next 30 years, their volumetric
energy density increased threefold while their cost dropped tenfold.

Construction

A battery is made up of an anode, cathode, separator, electrolyte, and two current collectors
(positive and negative). The anode and cathode store the lithium. The electrolyte carries
positively charged lithium ions from the anode to the cathode and vice versa through the
separator.

Working principle of Lithium-ion battery

Lithium-ion batteries work on the rocking chair principle. Here, the conversion of chemical
energy into electrical energy takes place with the help of redox reactions. Typically, a lithium-
ion battery consists of two or more electrically connected electrochemical cells. When the
battery is charged, the ions tend to move towards the negative electrode or the anode. When
the battery gets completely discharged, the lithium ions return back to the positive electrode,
i.e., the cathode. This means that during the charging and discharging process, the lithium ions
move back and forth between the two electrodes of the battery, which is why the working
principle of a lithium-ion battery is called the rocking chair principle.

Inside a lithium-ion battery, oxidation-reduction (Redox) reactions take place.

Reduction takes place at the cathode. Here, cobalt oxide combines with lithium ions to
form lithium-cobalt oxide (LiCoO 2). The half-reaction is:

CoO2 + Li+ + e- → LiCoO2

Oxidation takes place at the anode. Here, the graphite intercalation compound lithium
carbide (LiC6) forms graphite (C6 ) and lithium ions. The half-reaction is:
 LiC6 → C6 + Li+ + e-

Here is the full reaction (left to right = discharging, right to left = charging)

LiC6 + CoO2 ⇄ C6 + LiCoO2

Uses of Lithium-ion battery

1. Cellular devices
Almost all cellular devices such as mobile phones, laptops, cordless phones, etc., make use
of lithium-ion batteries. This is because lithium-ion batteries are compact, lightweight and
reusable. Hence, they are perfectly fit for handheld devices. Also, such types of batteries
provide a quick charging rate, thereby allowing the user to access the devices frequently
without disturbance.

2. Power banks

A power bank is a portable gadget that helps the user to conveniently charge electronic devices
such as mobile phones, smartwatches, etc., anywhere and anytime. For this purpose, a power
bank typically makes use of lithium-ion and lithium-polymer batteries.
3. Electric Vehicles

A number of electric vehicles such as electric cars, electric bikes, electric scooters, electric
cycles, etc., employ lithium-ion batteries for their operation. This is because lithium-ion
batteries have a high power-to-weight ratio, greater tolerance to temperature and pressure
variation, and a higher energy density than lead-acid batteries. Also, they are light in weight,
portable, efficient, and safer than traditional batteries.

4. Medical devices

Medical devices such as hearing aids, surgical tools, diagnostic machines, pacemakers,
defibrillators, medical assistant robots, infusion pumps, heart and pulse rate monitors, etc.,
employ lithium-ion batteries for various diagnostic and treatment purposes. The advantages of
using lithium-ion batteries in medical gadgets include high responsiveness, quick charging
rate, lightweight, and non-hazardous nature, etc.
5. Cameras

Lithium-ion batteries are highly used in digital SLR cameras because they are able to provide
high power for a comparatively longer duration than traditional batteries. Also, lithium-ion
batteries are preferred because they are light in weight, hence do not make the gadget bulky.
Some of the cameras also make use of rechargeable lithium-ion batteries that enables the user
to reuse them and improve reliability.

6. UPS

A UPS (uninterrupted power supply system) is a device that provides a power backup for a
certain time period in case of a power cut or failure. Such devices typically make use of a
combination of lithium-ion batteries. This is because the use of lithium-ion batteries in UPS
devices reduces the floor space by 50-80%. Also, a lithium-ion battery-based UPS system
weighs 60-80% less than a generic lead-acid-based UPS device.
 7. Robots

Lithium-ion batteries are highly preferred in the robotics and automation field of science.
They are used to power humanoid robots as well as industrial robots.

Advantages of Lithium-ion battery

1. Lithium-ion batteries have a significantly low self-discharge rate as compared to the other type
of batteries.

2. They have a high energy density.

3. There exists no memory effect (lazy battery effect) in lithium-ion batteries.

4. The average life span of lithium-ion batteries is ten times more than the traditional lead-acid
batteries.

5. The charging rate of lithium-ion batteries is high.

6. Lithium-ion batteries work efficiently under extreme conditions such as high pressure and
temperature fluctuations.
7. Lithium-ion batteries are lightweight and compact in size. Typically, the weight of lithium-ion
batteries is roughly 50-60% less than the standard lead-acid batteries.

8. Installation of lithium-ion batteries is comparatively easy.

9. These types of batteries are flexible, less bulky, and safe to use.

10. Lithium-ion batteries are available in a variety of shapes and sizes.

11. The voltage level of a lithium-ion battery does not drop and is maintained constantly
throughout the use.

12. The capacity of a lithium-ion battery is approximately 25-50% more than the lead-acid
battery.

13. They require low maintenance.

14. Lithium-ion batteries are non-hazardous as they do not emit any toxic gas.

Disadvantages of Lithium-ion battery

1. The charging capacity of a lithium-ion battery gets reduced over time because of the loss of
lithium ions in the solid electrolyte interphase and cathode-electrolyte interphase.

2. If the separator of the lithium-ion batteries gets damaged, they are susceptible to fire hazards.

3. They are relatively expensive.

4. If the battery runs out of lithium ions, it cannot be replaced. Thus, the battery cannot be used
after the tentative life span.

Photovoltaic cell or Solar cell ( SPV Cell)

A solar cell (also known as a photovoltaic cell or PV cell) is defined as an electrical device that
converts light energy into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. A solar cell is basically
a p-n junction diode. Solar cells are a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose
electrical characteristics – such as current, voltage, or resistance – vary when exposed to light.

Individual solar cells can be combined to form modules commonly known as solar panels. The
common single junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum open circuit voltage of
approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts. By itself this isn’t much – but remember these solar cells are tiny.
When combined into a large solar panel, considerable amounts of renewable energy can be
generated.

Construction of Solar Cell

A solar cell is basically a junction diode, although its construction it is little bit different from
conventional p-n junction diodes. A very thin layer of p-type semiconductor is grown on a
relatively thicker n-type semiconductor. We then apply a few finer electrodes on the top of the p-
type semiconductor layer.

These electrodes do not obstruct light to reach the thin p-type layer. Just below the p type layer
there is a p-n junction. We also provide a current collecting electrode at the bottom of the n-type
layer. We encapsulate the entire assembly by thin glass to protect the solar cell from any
mechanical shock.

Fig. P-N junction of solar cell with resistive load

Working Principle of Solar Cell

When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can easily enter in the junction, through very
thin p-type layer. The light energy, in the form of photons, supplies sufficient energy to the junction
to create a number of electron-hole pairs. The incident light breaks the thermal equilibrium
condition of the junction. The free electrons in the depletion region can quickly come to the n-type
side of the junction.

Similarly, the holes in the depletion can quickly come to the p-type side of the junction. Once, the
newly created free electrons come to the n-type side, cannot further cross the junction because of
barrier potential of the junction.

Similarly, the newly created holes once come to the p-type side cannot further cross the junction
became of same barrier potential of the junction. As the concentration of electrons becomes higher
in one side, i.e. n-type side of the junction and concentration of holes becomes more in another
side, i.e. the p-type side of the junction, the p-n junction will behave like a small battery cell. A
voltage is set up which is known as photo voltage. If we connect a small load across the junction,
there will be a tiny current flowing through it.

Materials Used in Solar Cell

The materials which are used for this purpose must have band gap close to 1.5ev. Commonly used
semiconductor materials are:

1. Si (Silicon) 2. GaAs (Gallium arsenide) 3. CdTe (Cadmium telluride) 4. CuInSe2

(Copper indium selenide)

Criteria for Materials to be Used in Solar Cell

1. Must have band gap from 1ev to 1.8 ev.

2. It must have high optical absorption.

3. It must have high electrical conductivity.

4. The raw material must be available in abundance and the cost of the material must be low.

Advantages of Solar Cell

1. No pollution associated with it.

2. It must last for a long time.

3. No or if/ low maintenance cost.

Disadvantages of Solar Cell

1. It has high cost of installation.

2. It has low efficiency.

3. During cloudy day, the energy cannot be produced and also at night we will not get solar energy.

Uses of Solar Generation Systems

1. It may be used to charge batteries.

2. Used in light meters.

3. It is used to power calculators and wrist watches.

4. It can be used in spacecraft to provide electrical energy.

5. It is used in hotels/houses for heating water and provide electrical energy.

Conclusion:

Though solar cell has some disadvantage associated it, but the disadvantages are expected to
overcome as the technology advances, since the technology is advancing, the cost of solar plates,
as well as the installation cost, will decrease down so that everybody can effort to install the
system. Furthermore, the government is laying much emphasis on the solar energy so after some
years we may expect that every household and also every electrical system is powered by solar or
the renewable energy source

Fuel Cell (Sir William Grove in 1838)

A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel (often hydrogen)
and an oxidizing agent (often oxygen) into electricity through a pair of redox reactions. Fuel cells
are different from most batteries in requiring a continuous source of fuel and oxygen (usually from
air) to sustain the chemical reaction, whereas in a battery the chemical energy usually comes from
substances that are already present in the battery. Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously
for as long as fuel and oxygen are supplied.

Types of Fuel Cells

Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell, Propane-oxygen fuel cell, Methyl alcohol-oxygen fuel cell,
Phosphoric acid fuel cell, Biochemical fuel cell etc.

Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell

Here, hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell is described. It is simplest form of fuel cell. It consists of two
porous electrodes. The electrodes are made up of graphite saturated with finely divided platinum
or alloy of palladium and silver. Nickel electrode can also be used. The following requirements
should be fulfilled by the electrodes.

1. Electrodes should be good electron sources.

 2. Electrode should not be affected by electrode reactions.
3. Electrodes should behave like a catalyst for the electrode reactions which take place on the
surface of the electrodes.

Construction and working

The electrolytes to be used is KOH or H2SO4 or ion exchange resins with water. Pure H2 and O2
gases are bubbled through anode and cathode sides respectively under pressure of 50 atm at
2500C.The gases and electrolyte diffuse through the electrode pores and chemical reaction takes
place. Electric current is obtained from anode to cathode.

The electrode reactions take place as follows:

Anodic half reaction: 2H2 (g) + 4 (OH-) 4H2O(l) + 4e-
Cathodic half reaction: O2(g) +2H2O +4e- 2H2O (l)

2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (l)

Standard emf of the cell (E0) = E0 Cathode - E0 Anode (Both reduction potentials)

= 0.40 – (-0.83) = 1.23 Volts

But in practice, the emf obtained is 0.80 to 1.0 Volt

 Application of fuel cells
1. Fuel cells are used for primary and backup power for commercial, industrial and
residential buildings and in remote or inaccessible areas.
2. It is auxiliary source of energy in spacecraft, submarine, rockets, trains, boats, lifts
(elevators) or in military vehicles.
3. In H2-O2 fuel cell the products are only electricity and water which can be used for
drinking purpose and therefore it is environment friendly.

Batteries VS Fuel Cells

As the world looks toward innovative technology to help reduce the carbon footprint, scarcity of
resources has become a significant challenge.

With no single technology being enough to accommodate the green transition, we’re seeing
massive investments in both fuel cell- and battery-related technologies. Some large-scale
investments include new battery technologies for electric vehicles (EVs), wind turbines, trains,
airplanes, commercial transport vehicles, and public infrastructure. Currently, lithium-ion batteries
make up about 70% of EV batteries and 90% of grid storage batteries. The marketplace is growing
at a compound annual growth rate of 13.1%, projected to grow and reach $135 billion by 2031.
The fuel cell market is growing rapidly, too, estimated to grow by 36% annually and reach $29
billion by 2028.

A different way to generate and store electricity

In simple terms, batteries produce electricity using stored energy while fuel cells generate power
with hydrogen-rich fuel.

Lithium-ion batteries contain anodes and cathodes and an electrolyte separator that fills the
remaining spaces. Both anodes and cathodes can store lithium ions. Energy is produced and stored
as the lithium ions travel between the electrodes through the electrolyte.

Unlike batteries, fuel cells do not store chemical energy in their components. Instead, they generate
energy by converting the potential energy stored in hydrogen or other hydrogen-rich fuels such as
methanol, ammonia, and ethanol.

Much like batteries, when fuel cells are connected to an electrical circuit, hydrogen ions move
from the cathode to the anode, converting chemical energy into electrical energy.
Materials for batteries are scarce (insufficient) materials for fuel cells are not

Lithium-ion batteries are built using materials that are in short supply such as lithium, nickel, and
cobalt. Although production of these materials is increasing by more than 25% per year, there
simply aren’t enough minerals available on the planet to meet the demand. As a result, several
countries (and companies) are trying to gain control of the resources required to build batteries.
Inevitably, others are left without the possibility to build them.

Fuel cells are less complicated in terms of resources. They use common materials like aluminum
and stainless steel in their construction. Their fuel, hydrogen, is also the most abundant chemical
element in the universe.

At the same time, shortages result in higher prices. Countries that have to import these scarce
metals cannot control production or pricing. That’s a major reason why India is trying to move
away from lithium-ion battery technology and toward fuel cells.

Batteries are more energy than fuel cells

No energy source is 100% efficient. Some energy is lost when it is transformed into other forms
of energy. Energy can be lost in multiple forms such as heat, light, sound, or magnetic loss. The
goal is to reduce the amount of lost energy to improve efficiency.

EV powertrains using batteries or fuel cells are significantly more energy efficient than gas-
powered engines, which can lose as much as 80% of their energy through engine heat, evaporation,
oil extraction, refinement, and transport. However, batteries and fuel cells are not immune. Energy
loss can occur during storage, charging, and discharging.

Batteries suffer significantly lower energy losses than fuel cells. Batteries can reuse between 80–
90% of the chemical energy stored. Some of the energy lost to heat can be reused for other
purposes, such as to provide heat in an EV’s cabin or even to warm up passenger meals in airplanes.

Reusing the energy lost as heat is called cogeneration. EV manufacturers efficiently use this
method to reduce battery drain. By heating the cabin with energy lost from heat, they can avoid
draining down the battery power.

Fuel cells, by comparison, generally transform 40% to 60% of their energy to produce electrical
power. Using cogeneration from waste heat can theoretically improve fuel cell energy efficiency
to as high as 85%.
In cold weather, fuel cells can be almost as efficient as batteries. This is because EV batteries use
up to 40% of the electrical energy for heating.

Shorter charging times for fuel cells

One frustration for EV owners is the time it takes to charge their vehicles. Charging an electric
battery takes time. For regular EV batteries, a full charge can take between 45 minutes and 2 hours.
In the best-case scenarios, fast charging takes between 20-25 minutes.

To achieve fast charging times, batteries must be maintained within very specific temperature
tolerances. They may need to be cooled down, as the current going into the battery produces excess
heat. They may also need to be heated up in colder locations, as batteries cannot be charged below
0
C.

While larger batteries can be charged at a higher power (i.e., more kW) than smaller batteries, their
charging time is typically much longer. For commercial vehicles like delivery trucks, buses, trains,
and airplanes, charging times become a lot longer because charging stations have not yet been
adapted for larger batteries.

For example, many EV buses require four to five hours to charge, a time that is impractical in
many situations. The time required to charge commercial vehicles could be drastically reduced,
but we need to develop specialized stations capable of charging at a much higher power (i.e., in
terms of megawatts). Tesla, for example, recently announced a charging station capable of
charging at more than 1 MW.

Filling up a fuel-cell vehicle is much faster than charging up an electric vehicle. Fuel cell tanks are
filled up with hydrogen-rich fuels, much like gas-powered cars are filled up with gasoline. It can
be done in just a few minutes. This makes fuel cells very attractive for commercial vehicle
applications, as it reduces charging times to practical levels.

Different environmental impact

Fuel cells and batteries are part of the solution for a greener future, but it doesn’t mean they have
no environmental impact. They simply replace technologies that are way more polluting.

Fuel cells need hydrogen-rich fuel, and how that fuel is produced matters. A color classification
system was developed to understand the origin and environmental impact of hydrogen. For
example:

• Green hydrogen is produced from renewable energy sources like wind power.
• Blue hydrogen is produced from natural gas and heated water.
• Black hydrogen is produced using coal.
If the hydrogen that we produce comes from polluting energy sources, our efforts are
counterproductive.

Similarly, the electrical power used to charge batteries can also come from different sources like
wind power, hydropower, and coal and can also impact the environment.

Extracting the rare metals used in batteries also has an impact. Lithium mines need impressive
quantities of water and occupy large areas. As an example, lithium mines in Chile using
evaporation ponds require 21 million liters of water per day. These installations require about 2.2
million liters of water to produce a ton of lithium.

Nickel dust can also contaminate the air we breathe if industries are not subjected to strict
environmental regulations. In Canada, the government eased air quality regulations for nickel
production hoping to make it more attractive to battery manufacturers, but it stirred up debates on
the battery manufacturing industry and its impact on public health.

LiFePO4 batteries, better known as LFP (lithium-iron phosphate), are a type of lithium-ion battery
that use iron instead of cobalt and nickel. Consequently, they have a lower environmental impact
than other types of lithium-ion batteries.

In the end, all technologies can have a negative environmental impact. The electrification of our
industries alone is not enough. The entire battery and fuel cell supply chain need to be monitored
and regulated if our goal is to mitigate the environmental impact.

More serious safety issues for fuel cells

As the world continues to create and adopt innovative technologies, we also need to understand
the new issues that may result and continue to update how we manage safety.

Lithium-ion batteries and fuel cells are not without danger. Fuel cells use hydrogen and hydrogen-
rich fuels, which are highly flammable and explosive. Hydrogen is stored as a gas or a cryogenic
liquid in pressurized tanks. If a crash happens with a hydrogen-powered car, there can be a massive
explosion.
The Toyota Mirai stores hydrogen gas in two separate tanks, compressed at a pressure of 10,000
pounds per square inch (psi). While the tanks are carbon fiber reinforced to withstand extremely
violent impacts, the potential for explosion is still there, which is why some say driving around
with hydrogen-filled tanks may not be the safest idea.

With lithium-ion batteries, fires can be very difficult to extinguish due to what is called a thermal
runaway. Still, there is no explosion, allowing passengers time to get out of the vehicle. This is
because batteries are designed to slow down failures, making them happen progressively. They
often simply begin with a smell or fumes. After several seconds, minutes or even hours, failures
turn into a chain reaction that goes from cell to cell.

In Short

Fuel cells and batteries both have significant potential for the future. Innovation can improve safety
and reduce environmental impacts even further.

Batteries are the more mature solution, having been around for more than two hundred years.
However, we may have already reached what’s close to peak energy density with batteries. Fuel
cells are a less mature technology but may offer a storage solution for applications that require a
higher range.

Today, different sectors of the automotive industry are taking different directions for their
electrification. Lithium-ion batteries have become the solution of choice for most automotive
applications, while fuel cells are preferred for commercial vehicles like buses, trains, trucks, and
airplanes. Countries that have little control over battery production also seem to be moving toward
fuel cells.