Types of Volcanoes and Volcanic

Eruption
What is a volcano and a volcanic eruption?
A volcano is an opening in the Earth’s crust through
which lava, ash, and gases escape onto the surface. It usually
has a summit, slope, and base. An opening at the summit is
called a crater or a caldera. A crater is a funnel-shaped
opening at the top of a volcano while a caldera is formed when a
part of the wall collapses after an explosive eruption. Volcanoes
are described according to its cone shape and type of eruption.
A volcanic eruption is an event that happens when
magma, gases and other molten materials are discharged
from the opening. Since volcanic eruptions are caused by
magma expelled onto the earth’s surface, we must first identify
the factors that affect the viscosity of the magma.

Factors Affecting the Viscosity of the

Magma
Viscosity is the property of the material’s resistance to
flow. The more viscous and thicker the magma is, the greater
is its resistance to flow.
1.Temperature
If the temperature of magma is higher, then its viscosity
is lower. As lava flows, it travels far before it begins to harden.
On the other hand, if the temperature of magma is lower, the
higher is its viscosity so the lava does not travel far.

2.Chemical composition
Magma with high silica content is more viscous than
those with low silica content. It is too viscous so it does not
travel far, and tends to break up as it flows.
 The magma that contains less silica is relatively fluid, so
it travels far before solidifying.

3. Number of dissolved gases it contains.

When magma has high amount of gas (mainly water
vapor), lava flow is less viscous and increases its ability to
flow. Magma has high viscosity when it has low amount of gas
as it rises. The ability of the lava to flow decreases, so it piles up
at a vent resulting into a columnar or a dome.

Types of Volcanoes
After a volcanic eruption, a cone-shaped structure may
be produced. Its slope also changes. The following are the three
(3) general types of volcanoes according to the shape of their
cones:
1. Shield volcanoes are formed by the pile-up of non- viscous
lava that oozes out from the volcano. Since lava can flow freely,
a broad, slightly domed structure is formed that resembles like
a warrior’s shield. Mauna Loa Volcano in Hawaii is an example
of this type.
2. Composite volcanoes are formed due to alternating
solidification of both lava and pyroclastic deposits which make
it nearly a perfect sloped structure. Pyroclastic flows occur
when these volcanoes erupt. Mount Saint Helens in
Washington, Mt. Vesuvius in Italy and Mt. Mayon in the
Philippines are examples of this type.

3. Cinder cones are formed from alternating ejected lava

fragments and ash. They have a steep slope, wide crater on top
and are the most abundant of the three major volcano types.
Although small, they are also destructive since they release high
amounts of pyroclastic materials. Mt. Paricutin in Mexico which
has erupted in 1943, Taal Volcano in Batangas are examples of
this type.
 Types of Volcanic Eruptions
Volcanoes erupt differently and not all of them are
violent. Magma may explode from the vent, or it can flow out of
the volcano. In addition to the top vent, magma and gas may
escape through cracks and weak areas on the sides of the
volcano. Aside from lava, pyroclastic flows, ash clouds and
mudflows(lahar) can be extremely dangerous. The levels of silica
and dissolved gases in the magma determine whether a volcano
erupts explosively or not.

a. Phreatic or hydrothermal – is a steam-blast small eruption

as hot rocks heat the ground water or surface water. This
eruption tears down surrounding rocks and can produce ash
columns, but do not include new magma. Taal Volcano which
erupted last January 12, 2020, is an example of this type.

b. Phreatomagmatic - a violent and explosive eruption

resulting from the interaction of new magma or lava with water.
It results to a large column of very fine ash, high-speed and
sideway emission of pyroclastic.

c. Strombolian - the least violent type of explosive eruption

characterized by a fountain of lava fragments. Eruptions are
weak to a little more violent which has thicker lava flows and
small explosions.
d. Vulcanian - small to moderate explosive eruptions
characterized by tall columns that reach up to 20 km high with
pyroclastic flow and ashfall tephra. They have larger explosions
of rocks and ashes which rise in dark clouds lasting for seconds
to minutes. Paricutin Volcano eruption in Mexico is an example
of this type.

e. Plinian - excessively explosive type of eruption of gas and

pyroclastic like that of Mount Pinatubo eruption in 1991. The
explosive eruptions, lasting for seconds to minutes have 20 to
35 km tall gas, rock particles and ash columns.
 What Happens When Volcanoes
Erupt?
Volcanic eruption refers to the release of magma
from a volcano. The term “magma” refers to the
molten materials that are still inside the volcano.
When these molten materials are being ejected or
reached into the surface, it is then called “lava”.

LAVA
MAGMA

When volcanoes erupt it ejects different materials into

the Earth’s surface;
It releases lava, which is made of molten
materials that reach the surface of the earth.
Lava contains different elements and compounds.
One of the compounds it contains is Silica or
chemically known as silicon dioxide which greatly
influences the lava’s viscosity. The Silica content
of the lava determines the volcano’s
explosiveness.
Lava also contains useful elements like
potassium and phosphorus which has a positive
effect in farming because it promotes soil
fertility.
In any type of volcanic eruption, may it be violent
or not, volcanoes release smoke. The smoke is a
mix of different gases like water vapor, carbon
dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulphide.
These gases that are ejected during volcanic
eruptions have influences on climate. sulfur
 dioxide can cause global cooling and carbon
dioxide can cause an increase in the atmospheric
temperature contributing to global warming.
Aside from smoke, volcanoes also release volcanic
ash referred to as “tephra” which are made of tiny
fragments of rock and minerals. In some huge
volcanic eruptions, volcanic ash fall may cause
the decrease in the Earth’s average temperature
for a few years.
How do volcanic eruptions affect society? It can
have a devastating effect on people and the
environment. However, unlike earthquakes, volcanoes
can also have a positive impact on an area. These
positive impacts can help to explain why people choose
to live near volcanoes.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Volcanic

Eruption
Advantage
 Soil Fertility
It supplies nutrients to the soil. Volcanic ash usually
holds minerals that are useful to the plants. The
fertility of soil is due to the released of potassium and
phosphorus.

 Atmospheric Cooling
As volcano erupts it releases ash and sulphur
gas into the stratosphere. The presence of these
materials in the atmosphere results in cooling of the
atmosphere which is desirable for the people.
 Land Formation
When a volcano erupts it releases lava from the
earth surface. And when these materials cool off and
solidify, it forms different spectacular landforms.
 Tourism
The spectacular scenery created by volcanic
eruptions attracts tourists. This brings income to an
area.
 Raw material
Volcanic material can be made into blocks for
construction purposes. People became creative also by
making pots out of the ashfall from the volcanic
eruption
Disadvantages
 Pollution
Volcanoes produce a wide variety of hazards that
can kill and damage any life forms. This includes air
pollution, water pollution and land pollution.
Land pollution
 Death
Many lives can be lost as a result of a volcanic
eruption
 Destruction
Lava flows at different areas near the volcano,
and extremely damage properties, destroy crops and
plantations and natural landscapes are destroyed
forever.
 Water pollution
 Tsunami
During a volcanic eruption earthquake happens,
and this might trigger a tsunami especially the fault
line near the ocean floor.
 Water contamination
Air Pollution
 Respiratory Problem
Ash and smoke can lead to irritation of the respiratory
tract.
 Global Warming
During volcanic eruption a mixture of
greenhouse gases expelled into the air. These gases
influence the heating of the earth surface which
results in global warming.

 Volcanic eruption refers to the release of magma from

a volcano. The term “magma” refers to the molten
materials that are still inside the volcano. When these
molten materials are being ejected or reached into the
surface, it is then called “lava”.
 When a volcano erupts, it releases lava, which is
made of molten materials that reach the surface of
the earth.
 Lava contains different elements and compounds.
One of the compounds it contains is Silica or
chemically known as silicon dioxide which greatly
influences the lava’s viscosity. The silica content of
the lava determines the volcano’s explosiveness.
 During volcanic eruption, volcanoes release smoke.
The smoke is a mix of different gases like water vapor,
carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen
 sulphide. These gases that are ejected during volcanic
eruptions have influences on climate. sulfur dioxide
can cause global cooling and carbon dioxide can
cause an increase in the atmospheric temperature
contributing to global warming.
 Aside from smoke, volcanoes also release volcanic ash
referred to as “tephra” which are made of tiny
fragments of rock and minerals. In some huge
volcanic eruptions, volcanic ash fall may cause the
decrease in the Earth’s average temperature for a few
years.
 Volcanoes are a sight to behold. But even with their
magnificent natural beauty, they can cause severe
damage to properties and harmful effects to our
environment like the ones that happened to our
country in the past.
 Volcanic eruption is often associated with negative
effects. It can cause health problems, loss of lives and
properties. As the lava flows or pyroclastic materials
are ejected in the air, they can destroy anything on
their way.
 The gases and dust particles thrown into the
atmosphere during volcanic eruptions have influences
on climate. Most of the particles spewed from
volcanoes cool the planet by shading incoming solar
radiation. The cooling effect can last for months to
years depending on the characteristics of the
eruption. Volcanoes have also caused global warming
over millions of years during times in Earth’s history
when extreme amounts of volcanism occurred,
releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
 Despite the catastrophic effects of volcanic eruptions
and its massive damages to lives and properties, it
does have good aspects such providing fertile soils
and also offering us beautiful and breathtaking
sceneries.
 Geothermal Energy
The sun is Earth’s main source of energy. It has
a vast amount of energy. The sun is considered Earth’s
main energy source since most of our energy sources
derive their energy from it. There are two types of
energy resources on Earth – renewable and
nonrenewable. A renewable energy source or
alternative energy is one that can be replaced in a
short period of time such as solar energy and
hydropower energy while a nonrenewable energy
source takes millions of years to replace or can never
be replenished. These energy sources can be used in
many ways.
The Greek word geo refers to the Earth, and
thermal means heat, so geothermal energy is energy
from Earth’s heat. This energy is then used to power
generators in the production of electricity.
According to the Department of Energy one-
fourth or 14.4% of the electricity in the Philippines is
geothermal generated such as in Tiwi (Albay),
Kidapawan (North Cotabato), Calaca (Laguna),
Tongonan (Leyte), Bago City (Negros Occidental),
Valencia (Negros Oriental), and Bacon (Sorsogon).

Power plants are built in an area where it is

particularly hot just below the surface such as near a
group of geysers, hot springs, or volcanic activity.
 Generating Electricity from
Geothermal Energy
A geothermal power plant generates electricity
from geothermal energy (Earth’s heat source). The
main components of this power plants include:
TURBINE- composed of wheels which is driven by a
water or a gas, GENERATOR- type of machine made
up of coils of wire to produce electricity, and
TRANSFORMER- electrical device used to transfer
electrical charges.
Here are the basic steps on how this geothermal
power plant generates electricity:
1. Pumping the hot water from geothermal resource.
2. How water will travel through pipelines and
reaching a particular tank where it turns into steam
(water in a gas form).
3. The steam supplies the turbine which causes to
rotate in a continuous process.
4. A turbine is connected to a generator which
electricity is being produced.
5. From the generator, electrical energy will travel into
a transformer which is responsible to transport to the
different power lines.
6. The excess steam pass through a cooling station
where it condenses (gas to liquid).
7. The cold water is being pumped back again to the
geothermal source to start the process again.
 There are different steps involve in generating
electricity from the geothermal energy. First, the hot
water is being pumped from the geothermal reservoir
through pipelines. This water will turn into steam as it
reaches to the surface. From this process, it will travel
to a rotating device called turbine which then connects
to another device called generator. And at this point,
there is now a production of electricity. The
transformer will now supply the different power lines.
There are portions of steam that becomes cold water
because it passes through a cooling station. And it will
be pumped again to the geothermal reservoir to start a
new process.

Factors That Affect Climate

 Weather and Climate
Climate describes the typical weather conditions
in an entire region for a very long time. The following
are elements of the atmosphere that might affect
weather and climate:
1. Air temperature is the measure on how hot or
cold the air is. At high temperature, the molecules in
the air move faster and water evaporates faster.
2. Air pressure is the measure on how heavy the
air is over a unit of area. With higher air pressure, the
weight of air above us becomes heavier. This indicates
fair weather. With lower pressure, the air molecules
move toward the atmosphere, this signals a stormy
weather.
3. Amount and type of precipitation forms of
droplets of water (drizzle, shower, downpour) or
solidified water (snow, ice and hail). It is the
condensation of water vapor and its deposition on the
earth’s surface.
4. Wind speed and direction. Wind is the uneven
distribution of temperature and pressure in the
atmosphere. Air moves from an area of high pressure
to that of allow pressure. Wind that blows over bodies
of water are cooler and moist, while wind that travels
over landmasses is warmer and dry.
5. Types of cloud. With very warm air
temperature, water vapor condenses to form clouds.
The more evaporation takes place, the more saturated
the clouds will become and form rain clouds.
6. The amount of water vapor in the air is
known as humidity. Dry air has low humidity, while
moist air has high humidity.
The presence of sunshine and the visibility you
observe can tell the present condition of weather.
Being able to predict, or forecast the weather is indeed
important. If you know what kind of weather you will
likely experience, you can prepare for it. If you know
that bad weather is coming, you can keep out of
danger. Weather is the current condition for a shorter
period of time while climate is the condition for a
longer period of time. Why do we need to study
climate?

Factors affecting Climate of an

Area
LATITUDE
Latitude means how far north or south of the equator
a place is located. Based on latitude, the climates of
the world are classified into three types. They are
the polar climate or frigid zone (at the North and
South Poles),
the temperate climate or Temperate zone (found in
the areas away from the equator) and
the tropical climate or Torrid zone (at the equator
belt)
Ocean Currents/Bodies of Water
The nearness of a region to the sea also affects
its climate. The main patterns of ocean current result
from the earth's rotation and the gravitational
attraction among the earth, moon and sun.
An ocean current is part of the ocean in which
the water flows in a definite direction. Some of these
currents are caused by wind moving over the ocean
surface. Some currents are warm-water currents.
Other currents are cold-water currents because they
flow from the poles toward the equator, thus making
the bodies of water in this area cooler.

In the northern part of the earth called the

northern hemisphere, the current flows in a clockwise
direction. On the other hand, in the southern part
called the southern hemisphere, the current flows in
counter clockwise direction. These clockwise and
counter clockwise of ocean currents are caused by the
Coriolis Effect. Ocean currents that flow away from the
equator carries warm water. The air above the warm
water has higher temperature.
When ocean currents that bring cold water
move towards a coastal region, the temperature of that
area decreases as warmer air from the land flows to
the sea resulting in a cold climate. When warm ocean
currents that take along warm water go to a land
mass, the temperature of that place increases as
warmer air above the water flows inland, resulting in a
warm climate.
The amount of water vapor present in the air of
our surroundings (is known as humidity) increases as
the temperature also increases. And since water vapor
is produced through heat from the sun, we will be
expecting that water vapor is having a high
temperature. And if this vapor stays in the
surroundings, it will make us uncomfortable and
warm.
Altitude
Altitude refers to the height above sea level.
Areas that are high elevations have lower average
temperature than areas at lowlands. The land part of
the earth consists generally of mountains and
lowlands.

Temperatures in mountainous regions are much

lower than those in lowlands. Why? When a warm and
moist air mass rise up the side of a mountain from the
lowlands, it is lifted to heights where it cools. Cooling
of warm air causes its water vapor to condense. Thus,
the air on the side of the mountain is dry and cool. The
cool air moves down the valley as a mountain breeze.
Altitude of a place and its nearness to the sea affect
climate.

Mountainous areas greatly affect the amount of

precipitation in a certain region. The area in which the
wind blows is called the windward side. Here, the
wind is blocked by the mountain, forcing it to move
upward. As it moves, the water vapor condenses and
forms clouds. This results in precipitation on the
windward side. The air moves down towards the
opposite region called the leeward side. The cold air
mass starts to absorb heat and becomes warm and
dry. As a result, the area near the leeward side
becomes dry and has less precipitation. The dry region
on the leeward side is called rain shadow. Vegetation
in this region includes desert plants and grassland.
Rain shadow is seldom found here in the
Philippines because our country is surrounded by
bodies of water. Another reason is that the Philippines
has two local wind systems such as Amihan and
Habagat. These local winds bring precipitation in every
part of the Philippines.
Different parts of the world have different
climates. The main features that affect climate are the
temperature and the amount of rainfall. They generally
determine the kinds of plant and animal species that
grow in certain places.

HOT CLIMATE. The region between the Tropic

of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn is called the tropics.
The climate within these regions just to the north and
south of the tropics is called subtropical. The warmth
and plentiful rainfall in these regions which include
the Philippines, Indonesia and other Southeast Asian
countries is beneficial to the plants that grow well in
this climate such as trees, palms, bananas, rice, corn
and other vegetation.
The savannah is the region of tropical
grassland which is found in the African forests. The
Sahara Desert is the world's largest desert. It is
covered with sand dunes. The lack of rainfall does not
allow vegetation to thrive well in this desert.
TEMPERATE CLIMATE. The cold temperate
regions of the world are occupied by large and dense
forests such as those found in North America, Europe
and parts of Asia. Most plant species are hardwoods
like oak, elm and beech, evergreen plants like fir and
conifers, and fruits like grapes, peaches and
persimmon. Animals that thrive well in temperate
climates are foxes, squirrels and bears.
COLD CLIMATE. The coldest climates are in the
Arctic close to the North Pole and in the Antarctic close
to the South Pole. These regions have a polar climate
which are very cold. During winter, the ground is
permanently covered with snow and the temperature
can go down to 50 degrees Celsius, nothing can grow
in this kind of weather. Polar bears, penguins and
seals can live in cold climates because of their thick
fur and a layer of fat under their skin.
The influence of climate on the lifestyles and
activities of people in the world is very observable.
1. Houses in cold countries use of heating system
during winter. In warm countries, the homes are
provided with a cooling system used for almost
throughout the year.
2. Differences in clothing, people in cold countries walk
the streets with thick clothes like wool, leather and
fur coats, the people in the tropics walk the streets
with thin clothes like cotton and polyester.
3. Some games can only be played in certain places. For
example, in the Philippines, it does not snow, so it
will be impossible for us to engage in winter sports
such as cross-country skiing or outdoor ice-skating.

Climate-is a condition of the atmosphere over long

period of time
Weather-is a condition of the atmosphere over a short
period of time
Generally, the climate of the Philippines is high in
temperature and humidity with abundant rainfall.
Climatology is the study of climate and how it changes
over time
Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere that
focuses on weather processes and forecasting.
Elements of weather and climate: temperature,
pressure, humidity, wind direction/speed, clouds
formation, rainfall and precipitation.
*Air temperature decreases when altitude increases.
*Bodies of water help regulate the climate of a certain
area.
*Mountain ranges affect the formation of precipitation.
*Ocean currents will either cool or warm the air above
them.
*Cold currents bring cold water while warm currents
take along warm water.
*Coriolis Effect deflects the ocean currents.
*Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the
surrounding due to high temperature. When the area
is in high temperature it is relative to high humidity.
Factors that affect climate in a place:
Latitude means how far north or south of the equator
a place is located.
An ocean current is part of the ocean in which the
water flows in a definite direction. Some of these
currents are caused by wind moving over the ocean
surface
Altitude refers to the height above sea level. Areas that
are high elevations have lower average temperature
than areas at lowlands. The land part of the earth
consists generally of mountains and lowlands
Wind patterns over the earth are caused by the
unequal heating of the earth's surface, plus the
rotation of the earth.
This shift in global wind direction due to the earth's
rotation is called Coriolis Effect.
Amount of Rainfall is used to describe the climate in
the region.
People living near the ocean experience cooler climates
than those living in inland areas, thus people need to
know that adjusting or adapting to climatic factors is
essential.
Importance of knowing the Philippine climate will help
us wear proper clothing. For farmers help choose
plant/s the correct crop that will grow in the climate
condition.
 Climate Change, El Niño, La Niña and
Global Warming

Actions that help lessen the effect of Climate

Change
1.Reduce carbon -practice walking
emission in short distances
-use sustainable
transportation
such as bicycle or
use public
transportation
2. Conservation -cut down
of energy unimportant use
of energy at home,
unplug appliances
when not in use.
3.Implementatio -Reduce,
n of 3R's recycle and
(Reduce, recycle reuse
and reuse)
-recycle recyclable
materials, not all
trash at home will
 be sent into
incineration
plant or dump into
dumping sites

4. Adopt a plant- -increase your food

based diet and vegetable
consumption -
livestock is one of
the biggest
contaminators
of the atmosphere
so by not eating
meat
products/ reducin
g meat
consumption, it
can lessen carbon
emission
5. Use of -renewable energy
renewable often referred to as
energy at home clean energy,
comes from
natural sources or
processes such as
installing solar
panels in your roof
to generate
electricity
6.Preservation of -avoid illegal
Forest logging instead
plant more trees,
remember that
forest is
considered as the
home of some
organisms,
 throughout its life
a single tree can
absorb up to a ton
of CO2
7.Educate -All efforts done in
People lessening the effect
of climate change
will be useless if
people don’t have
knowledge on how
to take care of our
environment, the
best way is to
educate them
about the dangers
of climate change
and how to act
against it.
8.Energy -having an energy
efficient homes efficient home is
beneficial since it
offers a lot
opportunities like
it can save money,
energy and reduce
greenhouse
emission
9. Stop -Since carbon
Overpopulation emission is being
measured per
capita so
overpopulation
must be
stopped/controlled
because bigger
population will
also mean greater
 emission of carbon

Climatic Phenomena-El Niño, La Niña and

Global Warming
Aside from the impact of climate change, we still have
two cyclic events, The El Niño and the La Niña.
Basic information about El Niño:
 Abnormal and lengthy warming in the eastern part of
Pacific Ocean.
 Occurs at irregular intervals of two to seven years and
lasts for nine months or two years at most.
 Starts at the end of the year during the Christmas
season.

Events during the occurrence of El Niño:

 Trade winds move from west to east as they collect
warm air
 When trade winds are weakened, they cause the
piling-up of warm surface water and make the part of
the Pacific Ocean warmer leading to the El Niño
phenomenon.
 Happens when the upwelling of colder water is
blocked by the large quantities of warm surface
water.
La Niña is the opposite climatic disturbance to El
Niño.
 This natural phenomenon may, but does not always,
follow El Niño events.
 It may last for nine to twelve months but in some
cases, it lasts for two years.
 This event is triggered by the cooling of the eastern
part of the Pacific Ocean.
 Trade winds that move from east to west are
strengthened.
These Phenomena El Niño and La Niña can’t be
prevented from occurring but we can predict when
they occur. Scientists can predict the onset of the El
Niño and the La Niña several months to a year
in advance, by using the Modern Climate Model which
constantly monitors changing conditions in the ocean
and the atmosphere
The following ways should be adapted during these
two cyclic events:
1. During El Niñ0, there should be an advance
forecast, with high level of awareness, that enables
governments, commercial sectors, and humanitarian
agencies to create contingency plans to better prepare
for the impacts:
• In places receiving below normal amount of rainfall,
they can prepare to avoid risk of
wildfires enhanced drought and to anticipate low food
supply.
 In water management options in anticipation of
reduced amount of rainfall.
 In agriculture sector, advice can be given to the
farmers to adjust planting time and crop varieties.
 Giving more information into disease and
management plans, to help people cope with health
problems during floods, such as risk of contracting
diarrhea and mosquito-borne diseases.
2. During La Niña, here are 5 Post Typhoon
Safety Precautions:
1. Wait to enter damaged building
- Stay out of all damaged structure until local
emergency officials
have expressed that it’s safe to enter.

2.Wear proper shoes and clothing

-Wear long sleeves and pants – as well as gloves and
work boots or sturdy shoes to avoid injuries from stray
nails and other hazardous debris.

3. Shut off gas and electrical power

-If you suspect that there is damage in your home,
shut off electrical power, natural gas and propane tank
to prevent fire, electrocution and explosion. Use
battery powered flashlight to see in the dark. Don’t use
candles.

4.Delay use of tap water

-Avoid drinking tap water or using tap water to
prepare food until you are sure that it has not been
contaminated
 5. Stay away from downed power lines, and report
them to the police
and your utility company as possible.
A global warming occurs when:
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) and other air pollutants,
greenhouse gases collect in the atmosphere, absorb
sunlight and solar radiation that have bounced-off
the earth’s surface.
 Normally, this radiation would escape into space, but
these pollutants, which can last for years to centuries
in the atmosphere, trap the heat and cause the planet
to get hotter. That what’s known as the greenhouse
effect.
Greenhouse effect:
 is the warming of the earth’s surface and lower
atmosphere that tends to intensify with an increase in
atmospheric carbon dioxide,
 the atmosphere allows a large percentage of the rays
of visible light from the sun to reach the earth’s
surface and heat it.
 A part of this energy is radiated by the earth’s surface
in the form of long-wave infrared radiation, much of
which is absorbed by molecules of carbon dioxide and
water vapor in the atmosphere and which is reflected
back to the surface as heat.
 The Greenhouse Gases:
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the major pollutants in
the atmosphere. Major sources of CO2 are fossil fuels
burning and deforestation.
 Sulfur and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Sulfur dioxide is reduced by combustion of sulfur-
containing fuels, such as coal
and fuels oils. Also, in the process of producing
sulfuric acid and in metallurgical
process involving ores that contain sulfur.
 N20 – nitrous oxide
Comes from nitrogen-based fertilizers, deforestation,
and biomass burning
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Chlorofluorocarbon, also known as Freon which is a
substance used in refrigeration and air-conditioning, is
a greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming.
 Methane (CH4)
 Methane emission results from livestock and other
agricultural practices and by the decay of organic
waste in solid waste landfill.
Ozone is a natural gas composed of three atoms
of oxygen. Its chemical symbol is O3. It is blue in color
and has a strong odor. Environmental scientists have
classified O3 into two: Good Ozone (filter ultra violet
rays) and Bad Ozone (as pollutants).
 Climate change is the change in the usual
temperature or the rise in average surface
temperature on Earth due to some factors such as
human activities.
 Human population is one of the contributors of
carbon emission.
 The bigger the population size, the larger the
emission.
 Climate change does not only affect people but as well
as the lower forms of organisms such as plants and
animals.
 Aside from environmental effects, climate change also
affects people’s health.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are considered one of
the main causes of Earth’s climate change.
 Human activities have the greatest contribution to
greenhouse gases.
 Different actions are being identified to help lessen
the outcome of climate change such as the following:
reduction of carbon emission, conservation of energy,
implementation of the 3 R's, adoption of a plant-
based diet or a low-carbon diet, supply power to
homes with renewable energy, preservation of forest,
education of people to make homes energy efficient.
 El Niño happens when the temperature in eastern
Pacific rises above normal.
 La Niña happens when the temperature in eastern
Pacific decreases below normal.
 Drought, smaller catch fish, more rainfall inland and
massive storms are global effects of El Niño
 Global warming is a potential increase in the average
global atmospheric temperatures resulting from the
greenhouse effect.
 Greenhouse effect is the warming of the earth’s
surface and lower atmosphere that tends to intensify
with an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide.
 Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane,
ozone gas, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCS) also known as Freon, trap heat from the
atmosphere.

Constellations
Different Stars Pattern Through the
Years
Beside billions of stars, all cosmic systems
contain tremendous billows of gas and residue called
nebulae. As indicated by researchers, it is in a cloud
where a star is conceived.
A superstar is a large glowing ball of hot gas.
There are billions of stars contained in the galaxies of
the universe. The Milky Way is the galaxy where our
photovoltaic system belongs. All the stars you see in
the night sky are members of our galaxy.
Are the stars identical in size? Are the stars
identical in color? Are the stars equally bright? When
we look at the night sky, we see lots of stars. In reality,
there are approximately four hundred billion stars in
our galaxy, and there are about one hundred seventy
billion galaxies. A star can see about 3,000 stars on
the average.
These stars fluctuate in many ways. We see
stars of extraordinary sizes, brightness, and color.
TYPES OF STARS
There are many star classification frameworks
being used today, notwithstanding, the Morgan-Keenan
framework is the least demanding to comprehend. Stars
are classified in this framework utilizing letters O, B, A,
F, G, K, and M. They are arranged dependent on their
temperature the hottest is O and the coolest is M. The
temperature of each unearthly class is then partitioned
by the expansion of a number, 0 represents the most
smoking while 9 for the coolest.
A. Main Sequence Stars – powered by the
fusion of hydrogen into helium in their cores.
Type Spectral Temperature Luminosity Mass Life
Span

Blue Stars O/ 30,000 K 100 – 1 2.5 – 40

G million 90 million
years

Yellow G 5,200 – 0.6 – 0.8 – 4 – 17

Dwarf 7500 K 5.0 1.4 billion
years

Orange K 3,700 – 0.08 – 0.45 15 –

Dwarf 5,200 K 0.6 – 0.8 30
billion
years

Red K 4,000 K 0.0001 0.08 - Several

 Dwarfs – 0.8 0.45 trillion
years

B. Giants and Super Giants - runs out of

hydrogen, begins to burn its helium, its core collapses
and it gets hotter resulting in the outer layer to expand
outwards.
Type Spectral Temperature Luminosity Mass Life Span
Blue O, B, A 10,000 – 10,000 2 - 10 – 100
Giants 33,000 K 150 million years
Blue O/B 10,000 – 10,000 20 – 10 million
Super 50,000 K –1M 1,000 years
Giants
Red M/K 3,300 – 100 – 1, 000 0.3 – 10 0.1 – 2
Giants 5,300 K billion
years
Red K/M 3,500 – 1,000 – 10 – 3 – 100
Super 4,500 K 8, 000 40 million years
giants

C. Dead Stars – no longer have fusion processes

taking place in their cores.
Type Spectral Temperature Luminosity Mass Life
Span
White D 8,000 – 0.0001 - 100 0.1 100,000
Dwarfs 40, 000 K – –10
1.4 billion
years
Neutron D 600,00 1000 1.4 100,000
Stars 0K – – 10
3.2 billion
years
 Black
Dwarfs
Black
Holes

D. Failed Stars - celestial objects that do not

have sufficient mass to ignite and fuse hydrogen gas.
Therefore, they do not shine.
Typ Spectral Temperature Luminosity Mass Life
e Span
Brown M, L, 300 – 2800 Very 0.01 – Trillions
Dwarfs T, Y K low 0.08 of years

CHARACTERISTICS OF STARS
1. Brightness
1. Luminosity – amount of light that a star radiates
2. Apparent Magnitude – perceived brightness,
factoring in size and distance
3. Absolute Magnitude – true brightness irrespective
of its distance from Earth
2. Color - It depends on its surface
temperature. Cooler stars tend to be redder in color,
while hotter stars have a bluer appearance. Stars in the
mid ranges are white or yellow, such as our sun. Stars
can also blend colors, such as red-orange stars or blue-
white stars.
 3. Surface Temperature – Astronomers
measure a star's temperature on the Kelvin scale. Zero
degrees on the Kelvin scale is theoretically absolute and
is equal to -273.15 degrees Celsius. The coolest, reddest
stars are approximately 2,500 K, while the hottest stars
can reach 50,000 K. Our sun is about 5,500 K.
4. Size - Astronomers measure the size of a
given star in terms of our own sun's radius. Thus, a star
that measure 1 solar radii would be the same size as our
sun. The star Rigel, which is much larger than our sun,
measures 78 solar radii. A star's size, along with its
surface temperature, will determine its luminosity.
5. Mass – is also measured in terms of our own
sun, with 1 equal to the size of our sun. For instance,
Rigel, which is much larger than our sun, has a mass of
3.5 solar masses. Two stars of a similar size may not
necessarily have the same mass, as stars can vary
greatly in density.
 Scientists believe that all stars came from huge clouds
of gas and dust called nebulae.
 The color of the star indicates its surface temperature.
Blue is the color of the hottest star.
 The brightness of a star as observed from the Earth
relies upon two variables distance and the actual
brightness (absolute brightness) of the star.
 In general, the more massive a star is, the hotter its
surface. Stars have temperatures between about 2,600
degrees Kelvin and 50,000 degrees Kelvin. Our sun has
a surface temperature of 5,780 degrees Kelvin.
 Constellations
Observers in ancient times imagined a group of
stars that formed pictures of animals, objects and
people. These imaginary groups of stars are called
constellations.
The patterns of stars seen in the sky are usually
called constellations. The Big Dipper or the Great Bear is
not really a constellation, but an asterism. An asterism
is a more recognizable part of a larger constellation. The
Big Dipper is a part of Ursa major.
Many of these constellations have names that
can be traced back to early Babylonians and Greek
civilizations, but nearly all cultures have different
names for the constellations. For example, the Greeks
called the large constellation Orion, which means
hunter and is prominent in the night sky all over the
world during winter. Early Filipinos visualized the
same group of stars as Balatik, a trap used in hunting
wild pigs. Christian Filipinos named the three stars
(Orion’s belt) Tatlong Maria or Tres Marias.
As the season and time changed, our ancestors
somehow practiced following the star movements as a
sign of good harvest, fishing, hunting, and other
activities in the tribe.
Here are some of the stars and constellation used by
the Matigsalug Manobo of Bukidnon:
Baha -In the western equivalent, it is known as the
constellation of Taurus - It is the time to clear the
forest.
Pandarawa - It is known as Pleiades a star cluster
made up of seven stars of constellation.
Taurus - It is the start of planning what kind of crops
to be planted and how wide the area to be planted.
Balatik - It is seen as both the sword and belt of
Orion. Start of planting and setting of traps to
protect the crops from animals. Malihe- planting of
rice and veggies
Gibbang - In the western equivalent, it is known as
the constellation of Gemini. It signifies the end of
planting season and time to clean rich harvest.
Malara - It is known as the two-hunting dog of Orion.
End of planting.
Lepu - In the western equivalent, it is known as the
constellation of Aquila. It signifies the time to clean or
clear the fields while waiting for the harvest time.
Buwaya - signifies that start of the rainy season,
which is expected to commence every June, in the
Philippines. If the constellation of Gemini is seen in the
Philippines, especially during April and May, farmers
knew that planting season has ended and the start of
harvest follows.
 Matigsalug Manobo is the tribe that flourished
from the boundary of Davao and Bukidnon along
the Salug river.
 The Matigsalug are known for their skills in
hunting, gathering and farming.
 They used constellations as markers for seasons.
When certain constellations appear in the sky,
they would know when to begin planting and
reaping.
 Constellations used by the Matigsalug Manobo of
Bukidnon: Baha, Pandarawa, Balatik, Malihe,
Gibbang, Malara, Lepu and Buwaya.
 Buwaya signifies the start of the rainy season,
which is expected to commence every June, in
the Philippines.
 The constellation of Gemini signifies the end of
planting season and time to clean.
 Balatik is seen as both the sword and belt of
Orion.

PARABULA
Ang Israel ay itinuturing na banal na lungsod.
JEWISH ang tawag sa mga naninirahan sa Israel.
Ang Israel ay natatanging bansa sa buong daigdig
na kinikilala ang iisang diyos.
 Tanging bansa na gumagamit ng iisang wika.
Naniniwala ang mga Israelitas na nagmula ang lahi
nila kay Abraham.
Ang Dome of the Rock ay pinaniniwalaang ginawa
Caliph Abd el-Malik sa ilalim ng nasirang templo ng
mga Heswita.
Ang pangalang Israel ay namula sa pangalang
Jacob na mababasa sa (Genesis 32:29). Ang
kanyang labing dalawang anak na lalake ang
pinagmulan ng labindalawang lahi na siyang
pinagmulang ng mga tribo ng mga Jewish.
Ang parabula ay nagmula sa salitang Griyego na
parabole na nagsasaad ng dalawang bagay (na maaaring
tao, hayop, lugar o pangyayari). Ang mga mensahe ng
parabola ay hindi lamang lumilinang ng mabuting asal
na dapat nating taglayin kundi binubuo rin nito ang
ating moral at espiritwal na pagkatao. Tinatawag ding
talinghaga ang isang parabula. Naglalayon itong
magturo ng aral sa babasa at kalimitang hango sa
bibliya. Sinasabing kinakailangang magkaroon ng
kaakit-akit na pamagat ang isang salaysay upang
makapukaw ng atensyon sa mambabasa.
Isang paraan ng pagpapahayag na nagkukwento
ang pagsasalaysay. Ang isang salaysay ay nagpapahayag
ng magkakasunod at magkakaugnay na mga
pangyayaring nagpapagalaw patungo sa tiyak na
katapusan. May hulwarang balangkas ang salaysay. Ito
ay ang magkakasunodsunod at magkakaugnay na mga
pangyayari Mayroon itong simula, may gitna, may
wakas.

Mga hakbang sa pagsulat ng salaysay:

1. Pagpili ng paksa
2. Pagsusuri ng paksa
 3. Pagbubuo ng paksa
Mga iba’t-ibang uri ng salaysay:
1. Pangkasaysayan (historical Narrative)
2. Pantalambuhay (biographical Narrative)
3. Pakikipagsapalaran (narrative of adventure)
4. Paglalakbay (travel narrative)
5. Anyong pampanitikan
a. Parabula d. Maikling Kwento
b. Pabula e. Nobela
c. Anecdota
Apat na paraan ng pagsasalaysay:
1. Panauhan
2. Pag-gamit ng usapan
3. Gawing mapalapit sa mga mambabasa ang mga
pangyayari
4. Paggamit ng kongkretong detalye
Elehiya ay isang uri ng tulang Liriko na
pumapaksa sa damdamain katulad ng kalungkutan,
kasawiaan o kaligayahan.
Elemento ng Elehiya
1. Tema- ito ay mga pangkabuuang kaisipan ng
elehiya.Ito ay kadalasang kongkretong kaisipan at
pwedeng pagbasehan ang karanasan.
2. Tauhan - taong kasangkot sat ula.
3. Tagpuan - Lugar o Panahon na pinangyarihan ng
tula.

4. Kaugalian o Tradisyon
5. Wikang Ginamit
a. Pormal - salitang standard
b. Impormal – madalas gamitin sa pangaraw-araw na
pakikipag-usap.
6. Simbolismo- paggamit ng simbolo para magpahiwatig
ng isang ideya o kaisipan.
7. Damdamin - emosyon na namamayani sa tula.
Mga Uri ng Tulang Liriko
1. Awit (dalitsuyo) - ang karaniwang paksa ay nauukol
sa matimyas nampagmamahal, pagmamalasakit,
paghihiganti ng isang mangingibig. Ang himig ay
malungkot at mapanglaw.
2. Elehiya (dalitlumbay) - tula ng panangis sa alaala ng
yumao at himig na matimpi.
3. Pastoral (dalitbukid) -pangunahing naglalarawan sa
buhay sa bukid.
4. Oda (dalitpuri) -tulang liriko na higit na dakila at
marangal.
5. Dalit (dalitsamba) – isang awit na pumupuri sa diyos.
6. Soneto (dalitwari) – binubuo ng labing-apat na
taludtud.

A. Uri ng Tulang Liriko (Elehiya)

Ang tulang liriko o damdamin ay nagpapahayag ng
saloobin at damdamin ng isang makata. Hindi ito
nagpapahayag ng isang kuwento na naglalarawan sa
karakter at aksyon sapagkat direktang sinasabi ng
makata sa mambabasa ang kanyang sariling damdamin,
iniisip, at persepsyon. May mga iba’t ibang uri ng liriko o
damdamin. Ito ay ang mga sumusunod:

1. Awit
 Ito ay tulang pasalaysay na binubuo ng tig-aapat
na taludtod ang bawat saknong, na ang bawat taludtod
ay may lalabindalawahing pantig, at ang tradisyonal na
dulong tugma ay isahan.
 Karaniwang awiting ating naririnig araw-araw.
 Karaniwan may malungkot na paksa kagaya ng
sad love songs.
2. Soneto
 Ito ay karaniwang may 14 linya.
 Hinggil sa damdamin at kaisipan, may malinaw na
kabatiran sa likas na pagkatao.
3. Oda
 Karaniwang isang liriko o tula na nakasulat bilang
papuri sa isang tao o isang bagay na kinukuha ng
interes ng makata o nagsisilbing isang inspirasyon para
dito.
4. Dalit
 Karaniwang pang relihiyon, partikular na
nakasulat para sa layunin ng papuri, pagsamba o
panalangin, at karaniwan ay ipadala sa isang Diyos o sa
isang kilalang pigura o maliwanag na halimbawa.
 Ito ay may kahalong pilosopiya sa buhay.
5. Pastoral
 Ito ay tulang may kinalaman sa bukid
6. Elehiya
 Ang elehiya ay isang uri ng tulang liriko na
nagpapahayag ng damdamin o guni-guni tungkol sa
kamatayan o sa paggunita sa isang yumao na.
Elemento ng Elehiya:
a. Tema:
 Ito ay ang pangkabuoang kaisipan ng elehiya. Ito
ay kadalasang konkretong kaisipan at pwedeng
pagbasehan ang karanasan.
b. Tauhan:
 Taong kasangkot sa tula.
c. Tagpuan:
 Lugar o Panahon na pinangyarihan ng tula.
d. Kaugalian o tradisyon:
 Nakabatay sa kultura, paniniwala at tradisyon ng
makata.
e. Wikang ginamit:
 Pormal- Ito ay may standard o pamantayan na
sinusunod.
 Impormal- Madalas gamitin sa pang-araw-araw na
pag- uusap.
f. Simbolismo:
 Paggamit ng mga simbolo para magpahiwatig ng
isang ideya o kaisipan.
g. Damdamin:
 Ito ay tumatalakay sa saloobin ng nagsulat.
 Wika at Gramatika:
Pokus ng Pandiwa
Si Dr. Jose Rizal, ang pambansang bayani ng
bansa ay gumamit ng kanyang husay sa pagsulat at
pagbigkas upang matupad ang kanyang layunin.
Ang kauna-unahang tulang kanyang isinulat ay
tumatalakay sa pagmamahal sa sariling wika. Ito ay
ang “Sa Aking mga Kabata” na kanyangisinulat sa
edad na walong taong gulang. Pagkaaga-aga niyang
naipakita ang pagmamahal para sa bayan.
Samantala, ang dalawang nobelang kanyang
isinulat, ang Noli Me Tangere at ang El Filibusterismo
ay maituturing na dalawa sa pinakamahusay na obra
maestra ng ating lahi. Sakdal hirap ang kanyang
dinanas sa pagsulat ng mga ito.
Ito ang mga nobelang naglantad ng matinding
pang-aabuso, kasakiman at kawalang puso ng mga
Espanyol kasabay ng pagpapakita sa kahinaan ng mga
Pilipino.
Itinatag niya ang La Liga Filipina sa Tundo,
Maynila nang siya ay bumalik sa Pilipinas noong
Hulyo 3, 1892. Ito’y isang samahang sibikong
humihingi ng pagbabago para sa bansa mula sa mga
Espanyol. Sadyang natakot ang mga Espanyol sa
samahang ito, ipinadakip si Rizal at ipinatapon sa
Dapitan noong Hulyo 7, 1892. Mula sa Dapitan siya ay
ibinalik sa Maynila at ikinulong sa Fort Santiago at
ditto niya isinulat ang kanyang kahuli-hulihang tulang
pinamagatang “Huling Paalam.”
Siya ay nilitis at nahatulan ng kamatayan.
Noong ika-30 ng Disyembre, 1896 binaril siya sa
Bagumbayan o Luneta na ngayon ay kilalang Rizal
Park.
 Ang pagpapasidhi ng damdamin ay isang uri
ng pagpapahayag ng saloobin o emosyon. Nagagamit
ito sa pamamagitan ng pag-iiba-iba ng mga salitang
may ugnayang sinonimo
Mga Halimbawa:
4.poot 4.pagmamahal
3.galit 3.pagliyag
2.asar 2.pagsinta
1.inis 1.paghanga
Mga Kataga/Pahayag sa Pagpapasidhi ng Damdamin
Sa pagpapahayag ay mahalagang maipakita ang
damdaming nais bigyang- diin o pangibabawin upang
higit nan a maipahayag ang kaisipan o bagay sa nais
na maiparating. Sa ganitong sitwasyon ay mahalagang
matutuhan kung paano mapapasidhi ang
pagpapahayag ng damdamin sa pamamagitan ng mga
kataga o pahayag. Narito ang ilang paraan kung paano
maipapahayag ang masidhing damdamin.
1. Sa pamamagitan ng pag-uulit ng pang-uri
Magandang-maganda ang tinig ng mga Pilipino
kapag binibigkas ang sariling wika.
Mainit na mainit ang damdamin ng dalawang
nagtatalo kanina.
2. Sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng panlaping
napaka-, nag-an, pagka- at kay-, pinaka-, ka- -an
upang mapasidhi o maipakita ang pasukdol na
katangian ng pang-uri.
Napakaganda ng wika nating mga Pilipino.
Pagkasaya-saya ng aking nanay sa regalong
kanyang natanggap.
 3. Sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng mga salitang
ubod, sakdal, tunay, lubhang at ng pinagsamang
walang at kasing upang mapasidhi o maipakita ang
pasukdol na katangian ng pang-uri.
Walang kasingsarap sa pandinig ang wikang
Pilipino.
Ubod ng lakas ang palakpak na natanggap niya
mula sa manonood.

4. Sa pamamagitan ng pagpapasidhi ng anyo ng

pandiwa.
Paggamit ng panlaping magpaka.
Paggamit ng panlaping mag- at pag-uulit ng
unang pantig ng salitang-ugat.
Pagpapalit ng panlaping -um sa panlaping mag-
at nagkakaroon ng pag-uulit sa unang pantig.
Pagpapalit ng panlapin -um sa panlaping
magpaka-
5. Sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng mga
pangungusap na walang paksa.
Padamdam – nagpapahayag ng matinding
damdamin ang mga ito.
Halimbawa:
Sugod!
Laban!
Ang tapang!
 Maikling Sambitla – ang mga sambitlang tinutukoy
ay mga iisahin o dadalawahing pantig na
nagpapahayag ng matinding damdamin.
Halimbawa:
Naku!
Aray!
Grabe!
Ay!
 Maikling Kuwento mula sa Timog at Kanlurang
Asya Panitikan:
 Kilala bilang pinakamalaking lungsod sa Pakistan at
ang capital ng lalawigan ng Sindh.
 Tinagurian itong “Karachiite” ng katutubong taga-
Karachi.
 Isang sentrong pananalapi at pangkalahatan ng
Pakistan at isang mahalagang puwertong panrehiyon.
 Sa Dagat Arabo ito matatagpuan sa hilaga-kanluran
ng Ilog Indus Delta.
 Ang una at ikatlong larawan ay tinaguriang “Paris ng
Asya”.
 Ang ikalawang larawan ay ang “Lungsod ng mga Ilaw”

Uri ng Tunggalian ng Tauhan….

Tunggalian – isa sa mga sangkap ng maikling
kuwento na humhubog sa pagkatao ng tauhan at
siyang nagtutulak sa mga pangyayari sa kuwento.
Tunggaliang panloob:
1. Tao laban sa sarili
o nangyayari ito sa loob mismo ng tauhan
o halimbawa nito ay ang mga suliraning may
kinalaman sa moralidad at paniniwala.
Tunggaliang panlabas:
1. Tao laban sa tao
o pangunahing uri ng panlabas na tunggalian ng
tauhan
o ang tauhan ay nakikipagbanggaan sa isa pang
tauhan.
2. Tao laban sa kalikasan
 o kapag ang tauhan ay direktang naapektuhan ng
mga pwersa ng kalikasan
o halimbawa nito ay ang karanasan ng tauhan
habang at pagkatapos ng kalamidad
3. Tao laban sa lipunan
o umiiral ito kapag lumilihis ang tauhan sa mga
pamantayang itinakda ng lipunan.
o dalawa ang magigiting kalalabasan nito: ang
magtagumpay ang tao o magapi siya ng
sinumang kinakalabang sistema.
4. Tao laban sa tadhana
 Nangyayari ang tunggalian ito kapag ang
tadhana ang nagdidikta sa mga nangyayari sa
tauhan.
 Sasabihin niyang siya ang magtatakda ng
kanyang magiging kapalaran.
 May kapangyarihang mabago ang takbo ng
pangyayari ng kwento.