MMD Nav Arch-II Theory

PH – I I FG
NAVAL ARCHITECTURE-II
THEORY ANSWERS TO MMD EXAM QUESTIONS
Compiled by SATHISH KUMAR

(Answers Set)
FIRST MATE OF A FOREIGN GOING SHIP (PHASE – II)
FUNCTION: CONTROLLING THE OPERATION OF SHIP AND CARE FOR PERSON ON BOARD
(Management Level)
PAPER: NAVAL ARCHITECTURE PAPER - II
Please Note:
These questions are consolidated by sorting out and manually removing the duplicates of all the questions asked in
PH-II FG MMD exams for Naval architecture from 2013 to May-2023.
Few questions have been deliberately skipped as their answer forms part of various answers compiled here.
Please note there were few past papers in which questions were not asked as per pattern.
DIGITAL Marketing
All the answers mentioned are compiled by referring to the following books and publications
PROPOSAL
Ship Construction by Capt. Errol Fernandes
Ship Stability for Masters and Mates by Bryan Barrass and D.R. Derrett
Stability, Trim and Cargo Calculations on MV Hindship and Oil Tankers by Capt.T.K. Joseph and
Capt.S.S.S.Rewari
Ship Stability – I, II & III by Capt. H Subramaniam
Reed’s Ship Construction for Marine Students by E.A. STOKOE
Ship Construction by D.J Eyres and G.J Bruce
Relevant IMO Conventions
PAGE NO. OF
QUESTION NO: TOPIC AS PER PATTERN
NUMBER QUESTIONS
4 SKETCHES OF MIDSHIP SECTION 1 14
5 THEORY ON STABILITY 12 20
6 PASSENGER SHIP SUBDIVISION / FIRE INTEGRITY 29 17
7 TONNAGE / LOAD LINE CONVENTION 40 13
8 SHIP BUILDING MATERIALS / SHIP YARD PRACTICES 50 19
9 INCLINING TEST 63 4
Midship Section Sketch (Q.4 as per the pattern)
1. Sketch and label the mid-ship section of a Ro-Ro vessel and enumerate the special features of these types of
ships.
Special Features:
 Internal bulkheads impede the free horizontal movement of vehicles.
 The transverse watertight bulkhead run up to only the freeboard deck because of operational restrictions.
 They have large openings in them protected by sliding watertight doors.
 Stability of the ship is poor because of high G value, leading to low GM.
 Large unrestricted decks are present in RO-RO due to which any water accumulation causes free surface
effect and loss of stability.
 Fire integrity becomes difficult due to the inability to divide the ship into main vertical zones.
 This is overcome by horizontal zoning and provisions of fire-fighting equipment.
 The ships have a large windage area which makes manoeuvring difficult especially during berthing and
unberthing in strong winds.
 To overcome this, modern ships are equipped with twin screws and bow thrusters for better control.
 The bow and stern doors get distorted over a period of time due to vehicles passing over it, effect of tide,
surging when moored and as well as exposure to the effect of waves at sea.
 Though, heavily framed these factors affect the ability of the door to close watertight.
 Hence modern ships are fitted with an auxiliary weathertight door inside the ramp.
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Compiled by Sathish Kumar NAVAL ARCHITECHTURE - II
2. Sketch and label the mid-ship section of a Ro-Ro vessel and enumerate the special features of these types of
ships.
Features:````
 All framings are longitudinal and is supported by large transverses 3 m to 5 m apart, depending on the ship's
size.
 In double-hulled tankers the double bottom has longitudinal framing with supporting plate and bracket
transverse floors similar to cargo ships.
 The double hull side space and any hopper tanks are also longitudinally framed with support from
transverses aligned with the bottom floors, bulkheads etc.
 Bulkheads may be corrugated rather than stiffened,
 The corrugations are arranged vertically on transverse bulkheads and horizontally on longitudinal bulkheads.
3. Discuss the advantage and disadvantages of such construction over single hull tankers
 The double-layer construction helps in reducing the risks of marine pollution during a collision, grounding,
and any other form of ship’s hull damage.
 It also saves the ship from water ingress or flooding if the outer layer fails.
 Double hull oil tankers often incorporate dedicated ballast spaces between the inner and outer hulls. These
spaces act as a monitoring zone for leakage detection.
 If oil seepage occurs from the cargo tanks, it can be detected and addressed before it breaches the outer
hull.
 As compared to the ballast tanks of single hull ships, those of the double bottom tanks are easily accessible
because of their increased height and width. This makes the work during inspection much easier.
 The cleaning of cargo tanks in double-hull tanker ships is easier and faster.
 The reason behind it that most of the vessel’s cargo tank framing is located in the ballast tanks, leaving
smooth surfaces in the cargo tanks.
 The double hull construction allows for effective coating and protection systems to be applied to both the
inner and outer hulls, reducing the risk of corrosion.
 This helps maintain the structural integrity and prolong the service life of the tanker.
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4. Sketch and label the mid-ship section of an LPG ship.
FULLY REFRIGERATED
FULLY PRESSURISED
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5. Sketch and label the mid-ship section of an LNG Ship.
Features:
Type A Tanks:
 Type A tanks are rectangular independent tanks.

 Cargo is carried at atmospheric pressure and at a temperature at or below the boiling point.
 The tank structure is in the form of prismatic structure.
 Prismatic tanks are self-supporting, being tied to the main hull structure by a system of chocks and keys.
 They make excellent use of the available space.
 As per IGC code type A tanks must have secondary barrier to contain any leakage for at least 15 days.
 The secondary barrier must be a complete barrier of such capacity that it is sufficient to contain the
entire tank volume at any angle of heel.
Membrane Tanks:
 Membrane tanks are of rectangular form and rely on the main hull structure for their strength.
 Membrane tanks are non-self-supporting structures.
 Their primary barrier consists of a thin layer of membrane (0.7 to 1.5 mm thick).
 The membrane is made of invar material. Invar is 36% nickel have very low coefficient of expansion.
 The membrane is supported to the inner hull structure through an insulation that can range up to 10 mm
thickness as per IMO IGC Code.
 This lining must be constructed of low expansion material or it must be of corrugated form to allow for
changes in temperature.
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6. Sketch and label mid ship section of spherical type LNG carrier and enumerate the special features of these
type of ships.
Features:
 These tanks are constructed from aluminium alloy and carry LNG at cryogenic temperatures and at a
pressure close to atmospheric pressure.
 The tanks are placed within void spaces and situated in line from forward to aft within the hull.
 The spaces between the inner hull and outer hull are used for ballast and provide protection to cargo
tanks in the event of collision or grounding.
 There are no secondary barriers as due to their spherical construction, they have high degree of safety
against fracture or failure.
 The tanks are heavily insulated with approximately 220mm of polystyrene foam to reduce boil off to a
minimum.
 The tanks are each supported by a metal skirt from the equatorial ring, which transmits the weight of the
tank and the cargo to the lower hull.
 The skirt is stiffened in the upper part by horizontal rings and the lower part by vertical corrugated
stiffeners.
 The basis of the design philosophy is the ‘leak before failure’ concept
 When the cargo leaks in the drip pan installed below the cargo tanks, temperature sensors fitted detects
the presence of LNG and provides alarm.
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7. Sketch and label the mid-ship section of a Modern Chemical Tanker
8. In the above sketch indicate the spacing required for these tank sides from the ship’s side and the bottom for
different types of chemical tankers are required by the IBC Code.
Type I:
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TYPE II: TYPE III:
Type I:
 From side shell - B/15 or 11.5m whichever is less.

 From the moulded line of the bottom shell – B/15 or 6 whichever is less.
 Nowhere less than 760mm from shell plating.
Type II:
 From the moulded line of the bottom shell – B/15 or 6 whichever is less.
 Nowhere less than 760mm from shell plating.
Type III:
 No such requirements
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9. Sketch and label the mid ship section of a cellular container.
10.Sketch and label the mid-ship section of a hatch coverless container ship. Illustrate additional features for
compensating loss in strength due to large openings.
Markings similar to previous diagram, except hatch coamings
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Features for compensating loss in strength due to large openings:
 Longitudinal framing is used throughout the main body of the ship, transverse framing being used in the fore
and after parts.
 Strong longitudinal box girders are formed port and starboard by the upper deck, passageway flat, upper
side shell and top of the inner hull shell.
 High tensile steels are frequently used for the upper deck and sheer strake which are integral members of
this structural box.
 In addition to providing longitudinal strength these box girders are designed to resist torsional stresses at
the deck.
 These are referred to as torsional box.
11.Discuss the advantage and disadvantages of such ship over a normal container ship.
Advantages:
 The risk of losing containers overboard from open-top container ships is greatly reduced as the ship sides are
extended upwards.
 The considerable weight of hatch covers has been eliminated, thus increasing the deadweight.
 The elimination of the hatch covers also excludes the need to open and close the same. This speeds-up port
turn-around time and has the potential for reducing cargo operation costs.
 Furthermore, since the hatch covers were located high in the ship, their removal (removal of their weight)
significantly improves stability.
 More number of containers can be stowed on the deck.
 The extended cell guides provide better securing for the containers stowed above deck and eliminates the
need for manually securing the containers.
 Absence of hatch covers would mean lesser cost during construction.
 Also, the cost for installing hatch cover operating mechanisms is also saved.
 The maintenance of hatch covers, hatch clamps, coaming gaskets, and other hatch securing gear is
eliminated.
Disadvantages:
 Open ships naturally allow a certain amount of water to enter the holds.
 These ships require additional independent bilge pumps to pump out water in case of water ingress in the
holds.
 These ships cannot be fitted with the common fire-fighting equipment such as the CO2 system. They are
instead protected by a fixed water spray system which sprays water into the cargo hold from deck level
downward.
 The majority of dangerous goods is carried on deck. Since open-top container ships do not have a separation
(hatch covers), dangerous goods may leak into the cargo hold.
 Also, IMDG goods that require ‘on deck only’ stowage cannot be carried on the hatch coverless ships. This
reduces the flexibility for the operator to carry containers with dangerous goods
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12.Sketch and Label mid-ship section of a bulk carrier / double skin bulk carrier. What will be the provisions for
panting and pounding in the fore peak tank of this ship?
Provisions for panting and pounding
Panting
 This is a stress which occurs at the ends of a ship due to variations in water pressure on the shell plating as
the ship pitches in a seaway.
 Side stringers spaced vertically about 2 m apart and supported by 'panting beams' fitted at alternate frames.
 These 'panting beams' are connected to the frames by brackets and, if long, supported by a partial wash
bulkhead at the centreline.
 Panting stringers are fitted over a length of 15% from forward.
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 Or Side shell plate thickness is increased by 15% for ships of 150m or less and 5% for ships of 215m or more.
Intermediate lengths thickness decided by interpolation.
Pounding:
 Bottom shell plating thickness is increased by 15% to 30%.

 In transversely framed ships, spacing between frames are reduced to 700mm.
 Longitudinal framed ships, spacing between longitudinal are reduced to 700mm.
 Longitudinal girders fitted 2.2m apart.
 Solid floors are fitted at every frame and attached to bottom shell by continuous welding.
13.Make a sketch of the mid ship section of a double skin bulk carrier what are the various features which ensure
that it is strengthened for the carriage of high- density cargoes
Diagram same as the previous question.
Strengthening members for the carriage of high-density cargoes:
 Web frames are increased to provide structural stiffness and resistance to the compressive forces exerted by
the high-density cargoes.
 Thickness of the bulkhead is increased and number of stiffeners on the bulkhead is also increased.
 Additional strengthening members for hopper tanks and its sloping are provided. These constitute of hopper
tank sloping longitudinal and decreased spacing between them.
 Hopper tank plating thickness can be found with increased scantlings.
 Increased scantlings of inner bottom plating, inner bottom longitudinal and DB floors.
 Spacing between inner bottom longitudinal and bottom longitudinal is also reduced.
14.Sketch and label the mid-ship section of a general cargo ship.
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Theory on Stability (Q.5 as per the pattern)
15.Describe the IMO weather criteria against wind and wave as required by code of intact stability
Code on Intact Stability for all type of ships:
Chapter 3.2 Severe wind and rolling criterion (weather criterion)
Objective:
 To demonstrate that the ability of a ship to withstand the combined effects of beam wind and rolling.
Steady Wind Criteria:
 It is assumed that ship will be subject to steady beam winds of ‘P’ i.e. 504 pascals
 Due to this, vessel will roll starboard side in this example producing heeling moment (lW1).
 As the vessel inclines, it will have a righting moment. The angle at which heeling moment is equal to righting
moment is φ0.
 φ0 should not be more than 16° or 80% of angle of deck edge immersion whichever is less.
ࡼ࢞࡭࢞ࢆ
࢒ࢃ ૚ ൌ
૚૙૙૙࢞ࢍ࢞ࢤࡰ࢏࢙࢖࢒ࢇࢉࢋ࢓ ࢋ࢔࢚
Where P- wind pressure of 504 pascals
A – protected lateral area of the ship & deck cargo above the waterline (m2)
Z – Vertical distance from the centre of A to the centre of the underwater lateral area or approximately to a
point at one half the mean draft.
g- 9.81 m/s2
Wave & Gust effect: Now the ship is assumed to roll windward from earlier condition, to port side in example due to
wave effect from φ0 to φ1.
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 Then, the ship is assumed to experience gust effect from port side in this example producing heeling
moments which is 1.5 times lW1.
 And this heeling moment is represented as lW2.
 The area under the IW2 and GZ curve mentioned as ‘b’ in the diagram must be equal or greater than the
area mentioned as ‘a’.
 Area ‘a’ is the amount of work required for the gust to roll the vessel to φ0.
 Due to the combined effect of wave and gust, the ship will roll until the area b is equal or more than area a.
 The angle up to which this rolling takes place is φ2.
- φ2 shall be at least 50° or angle of down flooding.
- φ2 shall not exceed φc plotted as shown in the diagram. This is the angle at which righting lever GZ will
become zero.
16.Explain how a rolling period test is taken. What is the relationship between GMT and rolling period?
Rolling Period: Time taken by the ship during natural rolling to turn from upright position to one side at an angle and
to turn opposite side to an angle and then to return to upright position.
Procedure:
 The time should be taken for not less than about 5 of these complete oscillations.
 The counting of these oscillations should begin when the ship is at the extreme end of a roll.
 After allowing the roll to completely fade away, this operation should be repeated at least couple of more
times.
 The ship can be made to roll by rhythmically lifting up and lowering a weight as far off middle line. Usually
done using cranes.
 If the calculated value of (T) in seconds is less than the breadth of the vessel in meters, it is like that the initial
stability is sufficient and the vessel has high freeboard.
 Long rolling period indicates low stability.
ࢌ࢞࡮
ࡾ࢕࢒࢒࢏࢔ࢍ ࡼࢋ࢘࢏࢕ࢊ ࢀ࢘ =
√ࡳࡹ
f – rolling coefficient, varies from 0.88 in ballast condition to 0.73 for fully loaded ship.
B – Breadth of the ship.
Tr – Period of roll in seconds.
 A long rolling period corresponding to a GM of 0.2 or less indicates low stability, but the accuracy of the GM
obtained reduces.
 The rolling period test should be conducted in port, in still water.
Relationship between GM and Rolling Period
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ࢌ࢞࡮
√ࡳࡹ
From the above figure, if G is raised, i.e. GM gets reduced, the righting lever GZ also gets reduced.
 The rolling period will be longer when it has small righting lever.
 Therefore, more the GM less the rolling period, and less the GM more the rolling period.
 GM is inversely proportional to rolling period.
17.With suitable sketches, explain why does a vessel normally heels outwards and not inwards when settles into a
turn at uniform rate of turn.
When the helm is put over to turn the ship, two forces come into play. Water pressure on the rudder and centrifugal
force.
Water pressure on the rudder:
 Consider the helm is put over to port, aft part of the rudder moves to port.
 Force q acting through the centre of pressure on the rudder pushes the stern to starboard.
 The reaction force acts towards COB. Since the rudder is very near the level of the keep, COP is lower than COB.
 Thus, heeling moment is caused to port.
 Area of the rudder is very small compared to underwater part of the ship, this heel is very small and is overcome
by the heel caused by centrifugal force.
Heel caused by Centrifugal Force:
 When turning, centrifugal force, acting at the COG & away from centre of turn, forms a couple with the righting
force which acts inwards through COB. They are separated by BG.
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Reason for outward turn:
 When the helm is put over to one side, water pressure on the rudder would cause a small heel (say 1 or 2°)
towards the centre of the turn, whereas centrifugal force would cause heel away from the centre of turn.
 The centrifugal force tends to have a greater value than the heel caused by water pressure.
18.What are the Intact Stability requirements of Oil Tanker Ships?
Regulation 27 (Intact Stability) of Annex I to MARPOL 73/78:-
 In port, the initial metacentric height GM, corrected for the free surface measured at 0° heel, shall be not
less than 0.15 m.
At sea, the following criteria shall be applicable:
 the area under the righting lever curve (GZ curve) shall be not less than 0.055 m·rad up to θ = 30° angle of
heel and not less than 0.09 m·rad up to θ = 40° or
 Other angle of flooding θf if this angle is less than 40°.
 Additionally, the area under the righting lever curve (GZ curve) between the angles of heel of 30° and 40° or
between 30° and θf, if this angle is less than 40°, shall be not less than 0.03 m·rad;
 the righting lever GZ shall be at least 0.20 m at an angle of heel equal to or greater than 30°;
 the maximum righting arm shall occur at an angle of heel preferably exceeding 30° but not less than 25°; and
 the initial metacentric height GM, corrected for free surface measured at 0° heel, shall be not less than
0.15m.
For combination carriers’ simple supplementary operational procedures may be allowed, which means written
procedures made available to the master which:
 are approved by the Administration.

 will be readily understandable to the officer-in-charge of liquid transfer operations;
 provide for planned sequences of cargo/ballast transfer operations;
 allow comparisons of attained and required stability using stability performance criteria in graphical or
tabular form;
 require no extensive mathematical calculations by the officer-incharge;
 provide for corrective actions to be taken by the officer-incharge in case of departure from recommended
values and in case of emergency situations; and
 are prominently displayed in the approved trim and stability booklet and at the cargo/ballast transfer control
station and in any computer software by which stability calculations are performed.
19.Elaborate the Alternative Stability Criteria for Ships with Timber Deck Cargo with suitable GZ Curve diagram, as
per the IMO Code of Intact Stability.
Stability Criteria
 The area under the righting lever curve (GZ curve) should not be less than 0.08 metre-radians up to θ = 40°
or the angle of flooding if this angle is less than 40°.
 The maximum value of the righting lever (GZ) should be at least 0.25 m.
 At all times during a voyage, the metacentric height GMo should not be less than 0.10 m after correction for
the free surface effects of liquid in tanks and / or the absorption of water by the deck cargo and/or ice
accretion on the exposed surfaces.
 With respect to wind and rolling criteria, the angle of heel under action of steady wind (θo) should be limited
to 16°.
 80% of angle of deck edge immersion is not applicable for timber ships.
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 The ship should be supplied with comprehensive stability information which takes into account timber deck
cargo.
 Such information should enable the master, rapidly and simply, to obtain accurate guidance as to the
stability of the ship under varying conditions of service.
 Ships carrying timber deck cargoes should operate, as far as possible, with a safe margin of stability and with
a metacentric height which is consistent with safety requirements but such metacentric height should not be
allowed to fall below the recommended minimum value.
 The master should cease all loading operations if a list develops for which there is no satisfactory
explanation and it would be imprudent to continue loading;
 Before proceeding to sea, ensure that:
- the ship is upright;
- the ship has an adequate metacentric height; and
- the ship meets the required stability criteria.
20.Enumerate the minimum intact criteria for passenger ships with suitable sketches.
As Per 3.1 of intact stability code:
The following criteria are recommended for passenger and cargo ships
 The area under the righting lever curve (GZ curve) should not be less than 0.055 metre-radians up to θ = 30° angle
of heel and not less than 0.09 metre-radians up to θ = 40° or the angle of down-flooding θf if this angle is less than
40°
 Additionally, the area under the righting lever curve (GZ curve) between the angles of heel of 30° and 40° or
between 30° and θf, if this angle is less than 40°, should not be less than 0.03 metre-radians.
 The righting lever GZ should be at least 0.20 m at an angle of heel equal to or greater than 30°
 The maximum righting arm should occur at an angle of heel preferably exceeding 30° but not less than 25°
 The initial metacentric height GM should not be less than 0.15 m.
 On passenger ships, the angle of heel on account of crowding of passengers to one side should not exceed 10°
 Assumed weight of each passenger shall be 75 Kg, and the distribution of baggage shall be approved by the
administration.
 Height of centre of gravity of passengers shall be
 1 m above the deck for standing passengers
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 0.3 m above the seat for seated passengers
 Passengers without luggage shall be considered as distributed to provide the most unfavourable
stability condition.
 The angle of heel on account of turning shall not exceed 10⁰
Thus, for each voyage GZ curves are drawn and made sure that the ship satisfies all the above criteria
21.Enumerate the minimum damage stability criteria for passenger ships with suitable features for compensating
loss in strength due to large openings.
Damage Stability Assumption:
The ship shall meet the damaged stability criteria under the following assumptions:
- The ship is in the worst anticipated service conditions as regards stability.

- Permeability of various compartments are taken as follows:
- Accommodation spaces – 95%
- Machinery spaces – 85%
- Liquid tanks – 0 to 95 whichever results in least stability.
- The longitudinal extent of damage is assumed to be 3m +3% of ship’s length or 11m whichever is less.
- If the factor of sub division is 0.33 or less, the such extent shall be increased as necessary.
- The transverse extent of damage is one fifth of ship’s breadth
- The vertical extent of damage is from the base, upward without limit.
Factor of Subdivision: The factor of subdivision shall depend on the length of the ship, and for a given length shall
vary according to the nature of the service for which the ship is intended.
Factor A & B:
૞ૡ.૛ ૜૙.૜
࡭ = ࡸି૟૙ + ૙. ૚ૡ B= ࡸି૝૛ + ૙. ૚ૡ
Factor A primarily for cargo ships and B for passenger ships. The factor of sub division determines how
many compartments may be flooded before the margin line is immersed.
Damage stability Criteria:
 Where the ship’s factor of subdivision is more than 0.5, she should be able to withstand the flooding of any
one compartment.
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 If two adjacent compartments are separated by a stepped bulkhead, she should be able to withstand the
flooding of the two adjacent compartments.
 Where the ship’s factor of subdivision is 0.5 or less but more than 0.33, she should be able to withstand the
flooding of any two adjacent compartments.
 Where the fact of subdivision is 0.33 or less, she should be able to withstand the flooding of any three
adjacent compartment.
22. Discuss the effect of GMT, Draft & Displacement, Beam & distribution of weights on board, on the rolling of
ships in a seaway.
Effect of GMT:
ࢌ࢞࡮
√ࡳࡹ
 From the above figure, if G is raised, i.e. GM gets reduced, the righting lever GZ also gets reduced.
 The rolling period will be longer when it has small righting lever.
 Therefore, more the GM less the rolling period, and less the GM more the rolling period.
 GM is inversely proportional to rolling period.
Effect of draft and displacement on rolling
 Rolling is a simple harmonic motion caused by an external force (waves) changing the underwater shape of the
vessel and thereby centre of buoyancy B.
 The extent to how much of the vessel is immersed i.e. Draft and volumetric displacement has an important
role to play in the rolling of ships.
 When the displacement is more, the righting moment (W x GZ) is more, i.e. amount of work required to bring
the ship back is more, taking more time.
 Thus, an increase in displacement leads to a longer rolling period.
Effects of Distribution of weights:
 If the athwartship distribution of weights on board is increased, the period of roll of a ship would increase.
 The athwartship distribution of weights affects the ship's moment of inertia, which is a measure of its
resistance to changes in angular motion.
 When the distribution of weights across the ship's beam is increased, the moment of inertia increases as well.
 This results in a higher resistance to rolling motion and a longer period of roll.
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Effects of beam:
 More the beam of the ship, the rolling period will be longer.
 Larger the beam, more the moment of inertia and thus the rolling period will be longer.
23.Explain following: a) Unresisted Rolling of a large vessel b) synchronized rolling c) What action is taken to avoid
Synchronous rolling?
Unresisted Rolling of a large vessel:
 A ship normally will not roll in still water as the COB will remain on the centre line.
 However, rolling can be induced, theoretically for study purposes, by lifting a heavy weight slightly off a wharf
by the ship’s derrick or crane, thereby creating a slight list, and suddenly lowering it fully.
 The ship would then roll in simple harmonic motion with reducing amplitude until it is steadily upright. (Similar
to pendulum)
 The period of roll so experienced is the natural rolling period of the ship in that condition for that GMF and for
that athwartship distribution of weights on board.
 If the athwartship distribution of weights on board was increased, the period of roll of the ship would increase
& vice versa.
ࢌ࢞࡮
 The natural period of roll of a ship is calculated by ࡾ࢕࢒࢒࢏࢔ࢍ ࡼࢋ࢘࢏࢕ࢊ ࢀ࢘ =
√ࡳࡹ
Conclusion:
 From the above, if the GM is more, the rolling period will be shorter and vice versa.
 If the displacement of the ship is more, rolling period will be longer.
 More the distribution of weight in the athwartship direction, longer the rolling period.
 Larger the beam, more the moment of inertia and thus the rolling period will be longer.
Synchronized Rolling:
Wave Period: The time taken to pass a fixed point by two successive waves.
 When the waves are from abeam, if the wave period and natural rolling period of the ship coincide,
synchronous rolling would occur.
 Consider a vessel rolling. When the vessel is reaching the maximum roll angle say to port side, at that moment,
the crest of a wave appears at starboard side and gives a push to port.
 The same happens when the vessel rolls to other side.
 In a short time, the angle of roll would increase considerably.
 The amplitude of roll would gradually increase to very high values and the ship may tend to capsize.
Actions to be taken:
 In order to avoid such situation either rolling period must change or the wave period.
 Adjust the ballast on board to reduce or increase the KG, so that GM would change, thereby changing the
vessel’s natural roll period.
 Change in heading shall be done so that there will be a change in the approaching wave frequencies.
 Alter the ship’s speed until synchronism or resonance no longer exists with the wave frequency
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24.Write short notes on Parametric and Synchronous rolling. Parametric rolling is not experienced on small coastal
vessels. Justify the above statement giving reasons. (Or) Masters of very large container vessel, such as Post
Panamax Vessels, have complained that have encountered very severe rolling with heavy seas from the bows
or quarters, at times losing large numbers of containers overboard. Discuss the factors responsible for such
large rolling & remedial action required to prevent it.
Synchronous rolling same as mentioned earlier
Parametric Rolling:
 It is a phenomenon whereby a ship which is pitching moderately in bad weather suddenly experiences very
heavy rolling without warning.
 The roll angle can increase from 2 or 3° to over 30° in just two or three cycles.
Role of Ship’s design:
 Ships with wide beam, streamlined underwater hulls at the bow and large bow flares
 Post panama container ships fits this description.
 At the forward the waterplane are is small below the waterline so as to minimise water resistance, thereby
aiding in speed.
 They have large flare to carry more containers on deck. Thus, the area of waterplane increase drastically and
suddenly as draft forward increases.
Cause of Parametric rolling:
 Consider the bow is down during moderate pitching and the ship has rolled slightly to one side say to
starboard.
 The sudden immersion increases the draft on starboard, thereby increasing waterplane suddenly and
drastically due to large flare.
 This causes the restoring buoyancy force to push the bow upwards and to the other side of roll, port side in
our example.
 The same happens to the vessel on the port side during the next pitch.
 Within few cycles, the angle of roll would suddenly increase without any warning.
 Thus, parametric rolling is the result of synchronism between the pitch, roll and wave periods.
The small coastal vessels do not meet the above design criteria to experience parametric rolling.
Actions:
 Change the heading to bring the wind broad on the bow to break the synchronism.
 Adjust the ballast to change the GM.
 If time and space permit, steer a zig zag course spread over few hours until weather subsides.
25.Write short notes on the following calculation of approximate GM by rolling period of the ship
to pendulum)
௙௫஻ ଶ
 An approximation of the initial GM in small ships may be obtained by expression ‫= ݋ ܯܩ‬ ( )
்௥
f – rolling coefficient, varies from 0.88 in ballast condition to 0.73 for fully loaded ship.
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B – Breadth of the ship.
Tr – Period of roll in seconds.
 The rolling coefficient varies with the radius of gyration.

 A long rolling period corresponding to a GM of 0.2 or less indicates low stability, but the accuracy of the GM
obtained reduces.
 The rolling period test should be conducted in port, in still water.
 Determination of GM by rolling period test in open disturbed waters must be considered as a very
approximate estimation only.
26.Distinguish between stability at small and large angle of heel?
Stability at small angle of heel:
 Small angles of heel are generally considered to be in the region of 10 - 15°

 It is assumed for small angle of heel that when the vessel is heeled, the force of buoyancy acting upwards from
the shifted centre of buoyancy ‘B1’ passes through a fixed metacentre M.
 In other words, we assume the KM remains the same.
ࡳࢆ
ࡿࡵࡺ ࣂ = ࡳࡹ OR GZ = GM SIN ࣂ
Stability at large Angle of Heel:
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 Beyond small angles of heel, the buoyancy force B acting vertically upwards does not pass
through M.
 The path of the centre of buoyancy (B) departs from a circular arc of radius BM, as shown above
as a dotted line from B to B1.
 As a result of this the GZ is no longer geometrically related by the simple Sine relationship.
 The righting lever GZ then is obtained by
 For larger angle of heel, it is assumed that the vessel is still wall sided.
27.Write note on: a) Free surface effect due to slack tank b) Multiple loadline (Also known as alternate load line)
FSE due to slack tank:
 When the ship heels, the liquid in the slack tank flows to the low side of the tank and its centre of gravity g
shifts to g1.
 This will cause the ship’s G to shift to G1, parallel to gg1.
 The vessel behaves as if her GM has been reduced, i.e. virtual loss GM. This effect is known as free surface
effect.
 Due to this angle of roll and period of roll gets increased.
 Free surface in a ship with small initial metacentric height will cause virtual loss of GM and result in negative
metacentric height.
 This would cause the ship to take up an angle of loll which is dangerous and undesirable.
B Multiple Loadline
Purpose:
 They are used when, for a period of time the vessel has to operate temporarily with a greater freeboard in
accordance with the International Load-Line regulations.
 For commercial purposes to reduce port dues.
 To meet the maximum deadweight restriction in some ports.
Procedure:
 Owners request RO’s to issue additional load line certificate.

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 After survey and approval load line marks corresponding to assigned freeboard shall be welded on the ship
side, verified by surveyor.
 Only one set of load line marks and the corresponding certificate shall be use at any time.
 Old load line marks shall be removed and associated certificate shall be kept in a sealed envelope by the
surveyor and kept at the custody of master.
 Master shall make an entry in the official log-book and deck log-book on every occasion, that the load-line are
changed
28. Write short notes on the following:- a) Calculation of approximate GM by rolling period of the ship. b)
Parametric rolling and how to avoid it. c) Surf riding and broaching.
a & b have been explained in previous questions.
Surf Riding and broaching to:
 Surf riding occurs when the vessel experiences following seas or seas from quarter (quartering seas).
 And the speed of the waves is same or faster than the ship.
 During such conditions, when vessel is situated at the wave height it glides or gets accelerated to ride on the
wave i.e. down the slope of a wave.
 When the vessel glides, it loses steerage way and control of vessel’s heading.
 The vessel may turn abruptly with great centrifugal inertia exposing her broadside to beam seas, often
resulting in instantaneous capsizing.
 This sudden change of heading when the vessel glides / surf rides is known as ‘broaching-to’
Avoiding Actions:
This is the chart provided in MSC

circular 1228 to aid in avoiding surf
riding and broaching.
Surf riding happens when the waves

are from 135 to 225° relative to ships
head. This is indicated in curved X axis
in the chart.
Formula given in the y axis is used to

determine the value of y axis.
The aim is to keep the vessel out of the

shaded surf-riding zone.
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29.Differentiate between parametric and synchronous rolling.
S. No Parametric Rolling Synchronous Rolling

Caused when period of pitch and period of Caused when period of rolling and period of wave
1
wave matches. matches.
Vessel’s parameters such as GM and design Synchronous rolling is independent of vessel’s
2
causes such rolling. parameters.
Mostly occurs when waves are nearly ahead
3 Mostly occurs when waves are abeam.
or astern.
Angle of roll increases faster without any Amplitude of roll gradually rises and vessel may
4
warning. capsize.
Occurs only when the pitching is heavy
5 enough for the flared bow to submerge Pitch is not associated with synchronous rolling.
when the ship pitches down by head.
Often seen only on containerships with large Synchronous rolling can occur with any type of
6
flare. vessel.
GM can be increased by taking ballast if
Alteration of course will affect the wave period, and
7 possible, course/speed alteration can be
synchronous rolling avoided.
done to break the sync with wave period.
30.Write short notes on body plans, sheer plan and half breadth plan and their uses.
Sheer Plan
 When the planes are vertical and parallel to centreline a sheer plan is obtained which is a side view of the ship.
 The ship is divided into convenient equally spaced ordinates called ‘design stations’ (As we use in SF BM
calculation).
 At the fore and aft ends where the change of shape is greater, half ordinates are used for greater accuracy.
 The plan is divided vertically by equidistant horizontal lines called water lines.
 The fore and aft outline of the ship forms ‘bow and buttock lines’
 It is conventional to draw the starboard view.
 The following information is obtained from the plan:
- Sheer of the deck
- Position of side stringers
- Location of transverse frames
- Arrangement of superstructures.
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Half breadth Plan:
 When the planes are horizontal and parallel to the waterline, the form obtained is a half breadth plan which
is a bird’s eye view of the ship.
 The half breadth plan is drawn for half the ship only as the ship is symmetrical on port and starboard sides
 It is conventional to draw the port side.
 This plan is usually superimposed on the sheer plan.
 Waterlines appear curved while bow and buttock lines are straight. It shows
- The shape of waterplane at difference waterlines
- Shape of decks
- Position of transverse bulkheds
Body Plan
 When the planes are vertical and perpendicular to the centreline, a body plan is obtained which is a end view
of the ship.
 Body plan shows the transverse sections at design stations which appear as curved shapes.
 As the ship is symmetrical, only half the transverse section is shown, the portside is used to depict the forward
part of the ship and the starboard side the aft par.
 Water lines appear as straight lines.
 The body plan shows the shape of frames, transverse bulkheads, floors, knees, margin plates, etc.
 Gives position of girders, longitudinal, decks, panting beams, stringers, tank top etc.
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31.What precautions must be observed for conducting a rolling period test. Also state the precaution of using the
rolling period formula.
Precautions for conducting rolling period test:
 The test should be conducted with the ship in harbour, in smooth water with the minimum interference from
the wind and tide.
 There should be reasonable clearance of water under the keel and at the sides of the ship.
 As soon as forced rolling has commenced the means by which it has been induced should be stopped and the
ship allowed to roll freely and naturally.
 If rolling has been induced by lowering or raising a weight, it is preferable that the weight is moved by a
dockside crane.
 If the ship’s own derrick/crane is used, the weight should be placed on the deck, at the middle line as soon as
the rolling is established.
 The timing and counting of the oscillations should only begin when it is judged that the ship is rolling freely
and naturally.
 The mooring should be slack
 Weights of reasonable size which are liable to swing e.g. lifeboat or liable to move should be secured against
such movement.
 The free surface effects of slack tanks should be kept as small as practicable during the test.
Precaution for using the formula:

ࢌ࢞࡮
 The unresisted rolling period of a ship in still water is found using ࡾ࢕࢒࢒࢏࢔ࢍ ࡼࢋ࢘࢏࢕ࢊ ࢀ࢘ =
√ࡳࡹ
This expression should not be used to estimate her GM from her roll at sea.
 The actual rolling period at sea is a resisted rolling. But the formula derived is for unresisted rolling.
 Also, when rolling at sea, the water is not still and the rolling may be forced oscillations due to a seaway and
not entirely free oscillations.
 The radius of gyration is approximate only.
32.What is forced rolling and synchronised rolling. What are the limitations of rolling period test?
Forced Rolling in Still Water:
to pendulum)
 During such test rolling is forced either my lifting and lowering weights or a tug is used to cause the list by
pulling the ship and releasing the tug line. This is known as a forced rolling in still water.
Forced rolling at sea:
 When the vessel is at sea, the water is not still and the rolling may be forced oscillations due to seaway and
wind.
Synchronised rolling: As mentioned in earlier question.
Limitation of rolling period test:
 Can be done only in still water.

 The radius of gyration used in the formula is approximate only.
 Cannot be used to estimate GM at sea. GM obtained at using rolling period formula is approximate only.
 Results become less reliable if Initial GM is less than or equal to 0.2m
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33.What do you understand by “Torsional Moment”? How do you calculate the Torsional Moment in a container
ship? How significant is Torsional Stress in a Container ship?
Torsional Moment & significance of it in Container Ships:
 When any body is subject to a twisting moment which is commonly referred to as torque, that body is said to
be in ‘torsion’.
 It tends to twist the hull girder along the longitudinal plane.
 Container ships owing to their wide decks/ hatches and non-homogeneous cargoes may experience severe
Torsional stresses
 Classification societies specify maximum permissible Torsional moments at a number of specified cargo bays.
 There are static torsion and dynamic torsion.
 Statin torsion is due to uneven distribution of weights along the transverse plane. For example, cargo loaded
on port side of fwd and stbd side in the aft. These weights result in twisting motion.
 Dynamic torsion: When the waves are about 4 points on the bow, the crest will affect the bow and the trough
of the wave affects the stern or vice versa.
 The crest causes the bow to move in clockwise direction while trough causes the stern to move in the opposite
direction.
 This induces a twisting force on the hull girder.
Calculation of Torsional Moment:
 On modern ships torsional forces along with permissible values are calculated and displayed on the load
computer.
 On the older ships, it is manually calculated and the calculation is pretty similar to the calculation of SF and
BM.
 The levers for each row are taken from the centre line and printed a sheet. Enter the weights and products are
calculated. The resulting moment of each bay is found and recorded with correct sign.
Twin Bays 01/03 05/07 09/11 13/15 17/19 21/23 25/27 29/31 33/35
Torsion
+150 -200 -1000 -100 +50 -600 -200 -300 +800
Moment
Accumulated
torsion +150 -50 -1050 -1150 -1100 -1700 -1900 -2200 -1400
moment
 In the above, example, total listing moment of 1400 mt to starboard and excessive torsional moment at bays
25 to 31
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34.Write short notes on: - i) Racking Stresses induced by ships Rolling Motion. ii) Reduction of Torsional Stresses in
a vessel.
Racking stress:
 When a ship rolls in a seaway, there is a tendency for the ship’s side to get deformed.
 This deformation is caused when the deck moves laterally relative to the bottom structure.
 This in turn causes the side shells to move vertically relative to each other.
 Such deformation is called as racking stress.
 This stress is more pronounced on the corners of the ship due to wave action on the hull.
 Racking stresses are reduced by fitting beam knees and tank side brackets.
 Most effective way to resist racking is to fit transverse bulkheads and increased if required.
Reduction of torsional stresses:
 Container ships owing to their wide decks/ hatches and non-
homogeneous cargoes may experience severe Torsional stresses
 This problem is overcome by fitting torsion boxes on each side of
the ship.
 These boxes are formed by the upper deck, top part of the
longitudinal bulkhead, sheer strake and upper platform. All of
these are of thick material.
 The boxes are supported inside by transverses and wash
bulkheads in addition to the longitudinal framing.
 They extend into the engine room in the aft and as far forward as
the form of the ship. Attached to transverse webs at these places.
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Passenger Ship Subdivision / Fire Integrity (Q.6 as per the pattern)
35.Define following with respect to chapter II of solas, standard fire test, a class division, service spaces.
Standard fire test:
 A standard fire test is a test in which specimens of the bulkheads or decks are exposed in a test furnace.
 The exposure temperature corresponds to standard time-temperature curve mentioned in the fire test
procedures code 2010.
 Orientation of the test piece shall be maintained. A bulkhead shall be tested vertically and a deck or ceiling
shall be tested horizontally.
 A and B Class Bulkheads and doors shall be tested from each side.
 A class uninsulated steel bulkheads and decks shall be treated as A 0 and no test is required.
 Constructions shall be tested without paint or other superimposed finishes, subject the approval of the Flag
administration.
 The standard time-temperature curve is defined by a smooth curve drawn through the following temperature
points measured above the initial furnace temperature:
 Temperatures shall be recorded at intervals not exceeding 1 minute.
A class Division:
A" class divisions are those divisions formed by bulkheads and decks which comply with the following
criteria:
 they are constructed of steel or other equivalent material;

 they are suitably stiffened;
 they are insulated with approved non-combustible materials.
 The non-combustible material’s average temperature of the unexposed side shall not rise more than
140°C above the original temperature,
 The temperature of non-combustible at any one point, including any joint, shall not rise more than
180°C above the original temperature, within the time listed below:
class "A-60" 60 min

class "A-30" 30 min
class "A-15" 15 min
class "A-0" 0 min
 A class division are constructed as to be capable of preventing the passage of smoke and flame to the
end of the one-hour standard fire test.
Service Spaces:
 Service spaces are those spaces used for galleys, pantries containing cooking appliances, lockers, mail
and specie rooms, storerooms, workshops other than those forming part of the machinery spaces,
and similar spaces and trunks to such spaces.
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36.Write short notes on the following:
a) Functional requirements of fire protection and detection.
b) “A” class division
c) Sprinkler type fixed fire extinguishing system.
Functional requirements of fire protection and detection: In order to achieve the fire safety objectives, the
following functional requirements are:
 Division of the ship into main vertical and horizontal zones by thermal and structural boundaries;
 Separation of accommodation spaces from the remainder of the ship by thermal and structural
boundaries;
 Restricted use of combustible materials;
 Detection of any fire in the zone of origin;
 Containment and extinction of any fire in the space of origin;
 Protection of means of escape and access for fire-fighting;
 Ready availability of fire-extinguishing appliances; and
 Minimization of possibility of ignition of flammable cargo vapour.
“A”class division mentioned in earlier question.
Sprinkler type fixed fire extinguishing system:
 The system consists of a pressure tank half filled with fresh water.
 The pressure in the tank is maintained by supplying compressed air.
 The pipeline from pressure tank till sprinkler head is charged with fresh water or dry air in dry
systems.
 Sprinkler head is fitted with a small quartzoid glass bulb with a liquid sealed inside it.
 In the event of fire the liquid inside the bulb is heated to a predetermined temperature, expands and
breaks the glass bulb. Audible and visual alarm gets triggered.
 This opens the pipeline at the sprinkler head and the pressurized fresh water flows out of the
sprinkler head.
 As the water reduces, the low-level alarm triggers the sea water pump which supplies water to the
tank.
 The system consists of testing valve to check the flow of the water and drain valve to drain.
 It has a provision for hose connection at the pump to ensure that system gets water from shore
supply in dry dock.
37.Write short notes on the followings: a) Non-combustible material b) Standard fire test c) Types of bulkheads
NON-COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAL:
 SOLAS defines Non-combustible material is a material which neither burns nor gives off flammable
vapours in sufficient quantity for self-ignition when heated to approximately 750°C, this being
determined in accordance with the Fire Test Procedures Code.
 A & B class divisions shall be constructed of non-combustible materials with exceptions to veneers
Standard fire test as mentioned in earlier question.

Types of bulkheads
A class, B Class and C class bulkheads are the types as defined in SOLAS.
A class-bulkheads: As mentioned in earlier question
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B Class bulkheads:
B' class divisions are those divisions formed by bulkheads, decks, ceilings or linings which comply with the
following criteria:
 They are constructed of approved non-combustible materials.

 All materials used in the construction and erection of "B" class divisions are non-combustible, with
the exception that combustible veneers may be permitted provided they meet other appropriate
requirements in SOLAS
 They have an insulation value such that the average temperature of the unexposed side will not rise
more than 140⁰C above the original temperature.
 The temperature at any one point, including any joint, shall not rise more than 225⁰C above the
original temperature, within the time listed below:
- Class B-15 15 min

- Class B-0 0 min
 They are so constructed as to be capable of preventing the passage of flame to the end of the first
half hour of the standard fire test; and
C Class bulkheads:
 "C" class divisions are divisions constructed of approved non-combustible materials.

 They need not meet requirements relative to the passage of smoke and flame.
 They need not meet limitations relative to the temperature rise.
 Combustible veneers are permitted provided they meet the requirements of SOLAS.
38.What are the special measures adopted to limit fire growth potential on ships?
SOLAS Chapter II-2, Part B – Regulation 5 – Fire growth potential:
Control of air supply and flammable liquid to the space:
 The main inlets and outlets of all ventilation systems shall be capable of being closed from outside the spaces
being ventilated.
 Power ventilation of accommodation spaces, service spaces, cargo spaces, control stations and machinery spaces
shall be capable of being stopped from an easily accessible position outside the space being served.
Means of control in machinery spaces
 Means of control shall be provided for opening and closure of skylights, closure of openings in funnels and
closure of ventilator dampers.
 Means of control for stopping ventilating fans in machinery spaces shall provided in two position, one shall be
outside the machinery space.
 Means of control shall be provided for oil fuel unit pumps, oil fuel transfer pumps, LO service pumps, purifiers.
 This shall be located outside the space they serve.
Use of non-combustible materials
 Insulating materials shall be non-combustible, except in cargo spaces, mail rooms, baggage rooms and
refrigerated compartments of service spaces
 On passenger ships, Partial bulkheads or decks used to subdivide a space for utility or artistic treatment shall be
made of non-combustible materials.
Use of non-combustible materials

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 Combustible materials used shall have a calorific value not exceeding 45 MJ/m2.
 Combustible material of low flame spread characteristics shall be fitted in the following areas: -
- Stairways, corridors, ceiling linings in accommodation, service spaces and control stations.
- surfaces and grounds in concealed or inaccessible spaces in accommodation and service spaces and control
stations.
39.Write short notes on the followings: Limitations in the use of oil as fuel, special category spaces and A-60 fire
division.
SOLAS Chapter II, Regulation 4.2 – Limitation in the use of oil as fuel
Except as otherwise permitted by this paragraph, no oil fuel with a flashpoint of less than 60°C shall be
used
 In emergency generators oil fuel with a flashpoint of not less than 43°C may be used;
 The use of oil fuel having a flashpoint of less than 60°C but not less than 43°C may be permitted (e.g.,
for feeding the emergency fire pump's engines and the auxiliary machines which are not located in
the machinery spaces of category A) subject to the following:
- fuel oil tanks except those arranged in double bottom compartments shall be located outside of
machinery spaces of category A;
- provisions for the measurement of oil temperature are provided on the suction pipe of the oil fuel
pump;
- stop valves and/or cocks are provided on the inlet side and outlet side of the oil fuel strainers;
- pipe joints of welded construction or of circular cone type or spherical type union joint are applied as
much as possible;
Special Category Spaces
As per SOLAS: -
 Special category spaces are those enclosed vehicle spaces above and below the bulkhead deck, into
and from which vehicles can be driven and to which passengers have access.
 Special category spaces may be accommodated on more than one deck provided that the total
overall clear height for vehicles does not exceed 10 m
 Examples – Vehicle decks in RO-RO and garage spaces in RO-RO Passenger vessels.
Protection of Special Category Spaces:
 In passenger ships carrying more than 36 passengers, the bulkheads and decks of special category
spaces shall be insulated to A-60 class standard.
 Indicator shall be provided on bridge to indicate when any fire door leading to or from special
category spaces is closed.
 The ventilation system must be sufficient to provide 10 air changes per hour.
A-60 fire division:
 It is one of the ‘A’ class division. They are constructed of steel or other equivalent material.
 They are suitably stiffened and insulated with approved non-combustible material.
 The non-combustible materials shall be such that the average temperature of the unexposed side will
not rise more than 140°C above the original temperature.
 Also, the temperature at any one point, including any joint shall not rise more than 180°C above the
original temperature within 60 minutes.
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 They are constructed as to capable of preventing the passage of smoke and flame to the end of the
one-hour standard fire test.
40.With the help of suitable sketches describe: (a) The differences between ‘A-60’ and ‘A-0’ class fire division. The
requirements for a ‘trunk way’ passing through an A-class division.
S. No A-60 A-0
1 Constructed of steel or equivalent material Constructed of steel or equivalent material
2 Suitably stiffened Suitably stiffened
Insulated with approved non-combustible
3 Not insulated.
material
Average temperature of the unexposed side
4 shall not rise by more than 140°C within No such requirement
60min of fire test.
The temperature of any one point including a
joint shall not rise by more than 180°C above
5 No such requirement.
the original temperature within 60min of fire
test.
Shall prevent passage of smoke and flame to Shall prevent passage of smoke and flame to the end of
6
the end of the one-hour standard fire test the one-hour standard fire test
E.g. Machinery spaces, high risk
7 Store rooms, workshops, pantries
accommodation spaces etc.
The requirements for a ‘trunk way’ passing through an A-class division.
 A fire damper shall be fitted adjacent to the division. Fusible link of fire damper shall be located
within the trunkway.
 Damper shall be capable of being manually operated from both sides of the division. Operation
positions shall be marked in red.
 Indicators shall be fitted to show whether the damper is open or shut.
 the trunkway between the damper and the division shall be as effective as the division in resisting
fire.
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41.Write short notes on Type A ships and B-60 ship. Why type A ships are assigned lesser freeboard than type B
ships.
Load Line Convention – Chapter III Regulation 27 – Type of ships:
Freeboards as assigned under the Load Line Convention fall into two grades Type A and Type B.
Type A ships and reasons for lesser freeboard:
 Type A ship is one which:

 Is designed to carry only liquid cargoes in bulk;
 Has a high integrity of the exposed deck with only small access openings to cargo compartments,
closed by watertight gasketed covers of steel or equivalent material; and
 Has low permeability of loaded cargo compartments.
 The basic freeboard of the vessel depends on its length L
 This freeboard is obtained from tables provided in the LL convention. E.g. a ship with L = 24 m will
have a basic freeboard of 200 mm. a ship with L = 365 m will have a basic freeboard of 3433 mm.
 Freeboards for Type A ships with lengths of 400 m and above shall be the constant value, 3460 mm.
 Freeboards for Type A ships with lengths of 400 m and above shall be the constant value, 3460 mm.
 Corrections to the values provided in the table are applicable.
 Such corrections are block co-efficient correction, correction for depth, correction for deck line,
correction with respect to bow height, sheer etc.
Type B-60 ship
 All ships that are not type A are type B ships.

 B-60 type vessel must have an LBP of more than 100.
 The reduction of freeboard is increased up to 60% of the total difference between values for basic
freeboard of type A and Type B.
 It must survive the flooding of any single compartment at an assumed permeability of 0.95 excluding
the machinery space.
 The machinery space must be considered as a flooding compartment for ships of length more than
150m
 They may have a hatch covers complying with the requirements specified in load line convention.
 Adequate measures for protection of crew on exposed deck.
 Adequate freeing arrangements shall be available.
 Bulk carriers are typical B-60 ships.
42.Write short notes on: b) Net Tonnage c) Permissible Length
Net Tonnage:
 Net tonnage (NT) is a measure of a ship's total available cargo and passenger carrying capacity.
 Net tonnage is calculated by deducting specific spaces and volumes from the gross tonnage
measurement, including spaces that are not considered available for cargo or passengers, such as
machinery spaces, fuel tanks, and other exempted areas.
 Net tonnage is primarily used for assessing port dues, determining registration fees, and establishing
crewing and manning requirements
 Exclusions: Net tonnage excludes spaces that are not available for carrying cargo or passengers, such
as machinery spaces and other areas deemed non-revenue generating.
 Net tonnage is measured in units of net tons, which are also calculated based on a mathematical
formula defined in the International Tonnage Convention.
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Permissible Length:
 The maximum permissible length of a compartment is obtained from multiplying the floodable
length by factor of subdivision.
 The factor of subdivision shall depend on the length of the ship, and for a given length shall vary
according to the nature of the service for which the ship is intended.
 The purpose of permissible length is to decide the number of sub-divisions i.e. bulkheads having
regard to nature of her service.
 The highest sub-division corresponds to the vessel’s greatest length.
 Thus, first floodable length is obtained from curve of floodable length and multiply it with factor of
sub-division.
 This will enable to decide the position and number of bulkheads to assess the damaged condition of
the vessel.
43.Explain Alternate load lines and Identification of the sub-division load lines on Passenger Ship.
Alternate load lines - Same as multiple load lines mentioned earlier.
Identification of sub-division lines on Passenger ship:
 In passenger ships number of sub-divisions is decided based on a particular maximum draft which is
called subdivision draft.
 This subdivision draft is marked by subdivision loadline.
 The subdivision load line marks are marked with the letter ‘C’.
 A passenger vessel may have multiple subdivision loadline if they have passenger spaces and cargo
spaces.
- C1 - Principally passenger carriers.

- C2 - Passengers in tween decks
- C3 - Passengers in lower decks carrier.
 Details of these load lines are recorded in the passenger ship safety certificate together with the
spaces used alternatively for passenger or cargo.
 The deepest subdivision mark cannot be above the deepest saltwater load line as per international
load line rule.
 If, however a subdivision load line is above the appropriate International Loadline for a particular
locality and season, the International loadline will apply.
 At no stage, in salt water, should the appropriate sub division loadline be submerged.
44.State the conditions of assignment of freeboard for a vessel of 200 meters long.
i. Master shall be provided with information to load and ballast his ship without unacceptable stresses.
ii. Bulkheads at exposed ends of enclosed superstructures shall be of an acceptable level of strength.
iii. All access openings in bulkheads at ends of enclosed superstructures shall be weathertight and sufficiently
strengthened.
iv. Hatchways at position 1 and 2 closed by portable covers and secured weather tight
v. Minimum height of hatchways/coamings 600 mm in Position-1 and 450 mm in Position-2.
vi. Machinery space openings in position 1 or 2 shall be properly framed and efficiently enclosed by steel casings
of ample strength.
vii. Sill heights of water tight doors in machinery space to be 600 mm in P1 and 380 mm in P2.
viii. Ventilators shall be provided on freeboard and superstructure decks in position 1 and 2.
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ix. To be provided with strong bracketed coamings of 900 mm height in P1 and un bracketed 760 mm in P2.
x. Air pipes Height 760 mm on Freeboard deck and 450 mm in superstructure decks with Permanently attached
means of closure
xi. No doors to be fitted below load line decks. Should maintain the structural and watertight integrity of the hull.
xii. If from enclosed spaces either above or below the freeboard deck they should be provided with non-return
(storm) valves.
xiii. Scuppers from open spaces to lead directly overboard
xiv. Exposed superstructure and freeboard decks should have guard rails or bulwarks to a minimum height of 1000
mm.
xv. Lowermost rail spacing should not exceed 230 mm and others 380 mm. Gangways and walkways are to
provided where considered necessary.
xvi. If the ship is intended to carry only liquids in bulk, then it shall be considered as type A ship and shall meet the
special conditions of assignment related to machinery casings, gangway access and hatchways.
xvii. If it’s intended to carry other than liquid but still the owner wants a lower freeboard, the vessel in addition to
meeting the special conditions of assignment, shall also meet additional condition of assignment as provided
in regulation 27. Then the vessel shall be of B-100 type.
xviii. As per freeboard table for type A, assuming no corrections the value for freeboard is 2612mm for a 200m
vessel.
xix. For type B, it is 3264mm without any corrections.
xx. Corrections related to block coefficient, f correction for depth, correction for deck line, correction with
respect to bow height, sheer etc shall applied based on ship’s profile.
xxi. The minimum freeboard applicable for various load lines such as summer, tropical, winter are
provided in regulation 40 of the international load line convention.
(Note: P1 and P2 mentioned above are position 1 and position 2 which are defined in load line convention.)
45.Describe step by step the procedures for computing the summer free board of ‘Type B’ ship
i. Basic Freeboard: Tabular columns with basic freeboard applicable for various lengths are provided in
Regulation 28 for type A and type B.
ii. Correction for Block Coefficient: Applicable when CB is greater than 0.68.
iii. Correction for depth: If the depth exceeds L/15 the freeboard shall be increased by (D – L/15)R mm. Where
D is less than L/15 no reduction shall be made.
iv. Correction to depth: If the upper edge of the deck line is not placed in line with deck, then correction must
be applied.
v. Deduction for freeboard and trunks: The basic freeboard provided in regulation 28 is provided without
taking freeboard into account. Deduction values are based on effective length of superstructures and trunks.
The deduction values for various lengths are stipulated in regulation 37. Such deduction shall be applied to
the freeboard.
vi. Correction for sheer (Sheer Credit): Sheer is defined as being the curvature of the freeboard deck in a fore
and aft direction.
Sheer provides greater reserve buoyance at the ends of the ship, particularly forward. Sheer measurements
are taken using simpsons rule.
Any deficiency in sheer will result in an increase in freeboard and excess sheer will result in a deduction in
freeboard. The amount of deduction or increase in freeboard is calculated using the formulae provided in
regulation 38.
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vii. Minimum bow height and reserve buoyancy: A minimum allowable bow height must be maintained when
the vessel is floating to the summer load line at its design trim.
The assigned Summer Freeboard for a vessel must be increased, if necessary, to ensure that the minimum
bow height requirements are met.
Regulation 39 provides a formula to calculate the minimum required bow height.
viii. Thus, after getting the basic freeboard value, then applying the above-mentioned necessary correction
freeboard is calculated. This freeboard is ship’s summer freeboard.
ix. Then by following regulation 5 to 8, freeboard for Tropical (T), Winter (W), Winter North Atlantic (WNA) and
Fresh water (F) are then calculated.
46.Describe additional requirement for B-60 ships.
 All ships that are not type A are type B ships.

 B-60 type vessel must have an LBP of more than 100.
 The reduction of freeboard is increased up to 60% of the total difference between values for basic
freeboard of type A and Type B.
 It must survive the flooding of any single compartment at an assumed permeability of 0.95 excluding
the machinery space.
 The machinery space must be considered as a flooding compartment for ships of length more than
150m
 They may have a hatch covers complying with the requirements specified in load line convention.
 Adequate measures for protection of crew on exposed deck.
 Adequate freeing arrangements shall be available.
 Bulk carriers are typical B-60 ships.
47.Differentiate between ‘Floodable length’ & ‘Permissible length’
S. No. Floodable length Permissible Length

Maximum portion of the length, having its
centre point which can be symmetrically Obtained by multiplying the floodable length by factor
1
flooded at the prescribed permeability of sub division.
without immersion the margin line.
Floodable length curve is used to get the Permissible length curve is used to get the permissible
2
floodable length at any point on the ship. length.
The basic features that affect the floodable
Factor of subdivision affects the permissible length
3 curves for a ship are the block coefficient,
curves.
sheer ratio, freeboard ratio and permeability
Floodable length is the basis for Purpose is to decide the maximum length of a
4 deterministic method of damage stability compartment. And also to decide on the sub-division
assessment. load line.
Changes in design to change the block
coefficient, sheer ration etc. changes the Permissible length decreases with increase in length of
5
floodable length and provide better damage the ship.
stability.
Deterministic method of damage stability is Permissible length is still an important factor in
6
no more used. deciding subdivision.
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48.Under subdivision of ships, describe any three: Permeability of compartments, Criterion of service numeral,
Floodable length, Permissible length.
Permeability of compartments:
 Permeability is the amount of water that can enter a compartment or tank after it has been bilged.
 When an empty compartment is bilged, the whole of the buoyancy provided by that compartment is
lost.
 The higher the value of the permeability for a bilged compartment, the greater will be a ship’s loss of
buoyancy when the ship is bilged.
 The permeability of a compartment can be found from the formula:
࡮࢘࢕࢑ࢋ࢔ ࡿ࢚࢕࢝ ࢇࢍࢋ
 ࡼࢋ࢘࢓ ࢋࢇ࢈࢏࢒࢏࢚࢟ = x 100%
ࡿ࢚࢕࢝ ࢇࢍࢋ ࡲࢇࢉ࢚࢕࢘
Criterion Service Numeral:
 Vessels intended for service intermediate between the two extreme types (cargo and passenger) are
given a factor of sub division between A and B called Cₛ.
 This is based on the volume of passenger spaces below the margin line, the number of passengers,
the volume of machinery spaces below the margin line.
 Any increase in any of these factors will increase the criterion numeral and decrease the factor or
sub-division, and thereby the permissible length.
 If the ship’s subdivision length is greater than 131 m, then CS will have as per regulations, a range of
values of 23 to 123.
 The lower limit of 23 applies for Type ‘A’ ships (carrying liquid in bulk).
 The upper limit of 123 applies for Type ‘B’ ships
Floodable length & Permissible length: - Same as mentioned in the earlier question.
49.Explain factor of subdivision and criteria service numeral. How do both relate to floodable length and
permissible length of passenger ships with respect t to subdivision requirements as per SOLAS 74 as amended
Factor of subdivision: As mentioned in earlier question.
Criteria Service numeral: As mentioned in earlier question.

Relation to floodable length and permissible length w.r.t to Subdivision requirement:
 SOLAS states Ships shall be as efficiently subdivided as is possible having regard to the nature of the
service for which they are intended.
 The degree of subdivision shall vary with the length of the ship and with the service, in such manner
that the highest degree of subdivision corresponds with the ships of greatest length, primarily
engaged in the carriage of passengers.
 Thus, in order to decide the length between two subdivision, first criterion service numeral is calculated using
the formula Cs = 72 (M + 29) / V.
- M is the total volume of machinery spaces below the margin line.

- P is the total volume of passenger space and crew space below the margin line.
- V is total volume of the ship from keel to the margin line.
 The value so obtained decides which factor of sub division shall be used. Either ‘A’ or ‘B’
 After knowing the factor of sub division, multiply it with floodable length to know the permissible
length which decides the length between two sub divisions.
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50.What are the requirements as per SOLAS for assigning, marking and recording of subdivision loadline for
passenger ships?
 In passenger ships number of sub-divisions is decided based on a particular maximum draft which is
called subdivision draft.
 This subdivision draft is marked by subdivision loadline.
SOLAS Chapter II-I, Part B-3, Regulation 18:
 A load line corresponding to the approved subdivision draught shall be assigned and marked on the
ship's sides.
 The subdivision load lines shall be recorded in the Passenger Ship Safety Certificate.
 It shall be distinguished by the notation P1 for the principal passenger service configuration, and P2,
P3, etc., for the alternative configurations.
 The freeboard corresponding to each of these load lines shall be measured at the same position and
from the same deck line as the freeboards determined in accordance with the International
Convention on Load Lines.
 Subdivision load line mark cannot be placed above the summer draft.
 If a subdivision load line is above the appropriate International Loadline for a particular locality and
season, the International loadline will apply.
 A ship shall in no case exceed the subdivision loadline for salt water appropriate to the particular
voyage and service configuration.
51.What parts of a ship counteract sagging, hogging, racking and grounding stresses?
Hogging & Sagging
 Hogging is a condition in which the ship's hull or keel bends upwards at amidships.
 Sagging is a condition in which the ship's hull or keel bends downwards at amidships.
 Hogging and sagging are longitudinal stresses.
 The keel is designed with the certain allowable maximum bending moment and shear forces.
 Stringers are longitudinal beams or plates, both on the inner and outer hull.
 They are typically positioned parallel to the frames and provide additional reinforcement to the hull structure,
enhancing its strength and rigidity.
 Longitudinal bulkheads constructed continuous or extended along the length of the ship also supports in
counteracting hogging and sagging.
Racking:
 This problem is overcome by fitting torsion boxes on each side of the ship.
 These boxes are formed by the upper deck, top part of the longitudinal bulkhead, sheer strake and upper
platform. All of these are of thick material.
 The boxes are supported inside by transverses and wash bulkheads in addition to the longitudinal framing.
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 They extend into the engine room in the aft and as far forward as the form of the ship. Attached to transverse
webs at these places.
Grounding Stress:
 This stress is experienced when vessel is at drydock.

 This has a tendency to set up the keel due to the up-thrust of
the keel blocks resulting in a change in the shape of the
transverse section.
 In order minimize the stress, the ships weight must be equally
distributed.
 Keel blocks help distribute the weight of the vessel and
provide support along the keel, preventing excessive bending.
 Bilge blocks provides support and stability to prevent the ship from rolling or shifting during drydocking and
distributes weight to some extent.
 Docking shores/blocks/wedges provide additional stability and distribute the loads evenly.
 All the ship’s transverse and longitudinal members aid in minimizing such stress.
Tonnage / Loadline Convention (Q.7 as per the pattern)
52.Explain the salient features of the load line convention
Salient Features of Load Line Conventions

 International Convention on Load line was adopted in 1966 and came into force in 1968.
 The provisions in the conventions are made for determining the freeboard of ships by subdivision and
damage stability calculation.
 The convention consists of Annex I, Annex II, Annex III & Annex IV. Annex I consist of four chapters. 45
Regulations are present in these four chapters.
 Annex I - Chapter 1 – General details out about Load lines marked on the ship's hull, indicating the
maximum allowable draft corresponding to different load conditions.
 These marks are assigned by recognized organizations and are placed amidships on both sides of the vessel.
 The marks are divided into tropical, summer, winter, and other load lines based on the ship's assigned
freeboard and the load line zones it will operate in.
 Freeboard refers to the vertical distance between the waterline and the deck.
 Annex I – Chapter 2 – Conditions of Assignment of Freeboard sets minimum freeboard requirements based
on the ship's length, breadth, and other parameters.
 The purpose is to maintain sufficient reserve buoyancy, stability, and safety margins
 The regulations take into account the potential hazards present in different zones and different seasons.
 Annex II establishes several load line zones based on geographical areas, sea conditions, and seasonal
variations.
 Each zone has specific requirements for the assignment and positioning of load lines, considering factors like
wave height, sea temperature, and navigational limits.
 The technical annex contains several additional safety measures concerning doors, freeing ports, hatchways
and other items.
 The main purpose of these measures is to ensure the watertight integrity of ship’s hulls below the freeboard
deck.
 Ships intended for the carriage of timber deck cargo are assigned a smaller freeboard as the deck cargo
provides protection against impact of waves.
 Ships subject to the convention undergo load line surveys to ensure compliance with the requirements.
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 These surveys are conducted by recognized classification societies or flag state authorities to verify the ship's
load line markings, structural integrity, stability calculations, and overall compliance with the convention's
standards.
 Ships complying with the Load Line Convention receive an International Load Line Certificate, which is valid
for a five year period subject to annual survey.
53.Differentiate between a type A and type B-100 ship as per load line convention 1966
S.No TYPE A TYPE B 100

1 Ships carry only liquid cargoes in bulk Ships may carry other cargoes, E.g. bulk carrier.
Cargo tank has small access openings and they are Large hatchways and it can only be made
2
closed by watertight and gasketed covers of steel. weathertight.
Permeability is high relative to type A and depend
3 Type A ships have low permeability.
on cargoes carried.
Freeboard is same as type A ships. Lower than B-
4 Freeboard is lower than type B ships
60 and other ships in between.
No margin line submersion in the case of flooding
No margin line submersion in the case of flooding of
5 of two adjacent compartment within cargo hold
one compartment. Permeability 95%.
length Permeability 95%.
In order to be classified as B-100, additional
condition of assignment such as adequate
6 Special conditions of assignments shall be complied.
measures for protection of crew on exposed deck,
additional freeing port etc. must be met
54.Describe the following a) Uniform average permeability, b) Margin Line c) Super Structure.
UNIFORM AVERAGE PERMEABILITY
 Permeability of a space is the proportion of the immersed volume of that space which can be occupied by
water.
 Uniform average permeability is a calculated value using formulas provided is SOLAS.
 This shall be used to determine the floodable length of the vessel.
 It is different for machinery spaces and other spaces.
 A machinery space is taken from the keel to the margin line and between the watertight bulkheads that
contain main and aux propulsion machinery, boilers and permanent bunker spaces.
UAP (for machinery space) = 85 + 10 (a – c) / V
 ‘a’ – volume of passenger space, c – volume of cargo space, V – volume of machinery space.
Margin Line:
 A line drawn at least 76mm below the upper surface of the bulkhead deck at side, (SOLAS).
 This is the highest permissible location at the ship side up to which the vessel shall be flooded in any
damaged condition.
 All the requirements on the damage stability are with reference to the margin line.
 It is not a constant value for all the ships and depend on construction of sheer and main deck.
 Higher the deck sheer, lower the value. Higher deck sheer, because of its geometry accounts for the reduced
safety margin.
Super Structure: (As per load line convention Regulation 3)
 A superstructure is a decked structure on the freeboard deck, extending from side to side of the ship.
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 The height of a superstructure is the least vertical height measured at side from the top of the
superstructure to the top of the freeboard deck.
 A bridge is a superstructure which does not extend to either the forward or after perpendicular
 A poop is a superstructure which extends from the after perpendicular forward to a point which is aft of the
forward perpendicular
 A forecastle is a superstructure which extends from the forward perpendicular aft to a point which is
forward of the after perpendicular
 A full superstructure is a superstructure which, as a minimum, extends from the forward to the after
perpendicular
55.Define as per International Load Line Convention 1966. (Any five)

a) Length b) Enclosed Superstructure
c) Effective Length of Superstructure d) Well
e) Side scuttle f) Sheer credit
Length:
 The length (L) shall be taken as 96% of the total

length on a waterline at 85% of the least moulded
depth measured from the top of the keel, or
 As the length from the fore side of the stem to the
axis of the rudder stock on that waterline, if that be
greater.
 For ships without a rudder stock, the length (L) is to
be taken as 96% of the waterline at 85% of the least
moulded depth.
Enclosed Superstructure:
An enclosed superstructure is a superstructure with:
(i) enclosing bulkheads of efficient construction;
(ii) access openings, if any, in these bulkheads fitted with doors meeting regulation 12;
(iii) all other openings in sides or ends of the superstructure fitted with efficient weathertight means of closing
Effective length of superstructure:
 Effective length is applicable only for superstructures which are enclosed.

 The effective length of an enclosed superstructure of standard height shall be its length.
 If the height of enclosed superstructure is less than the standard height, then the ratio of actual height to
the standard height is taken as effective length
 Effective length of raised quarter deck with intact bulkhead is 0.6L.
 Raised quarter deck without intact bulkhead shall be treated as poop.
Well:
 A well is any area on the deck exposed to the weather, where water may be entrapped.
 Wells are considered to be deck areas bounded on two or more sides by deck structures
Side scuttle:
 Side scuttle are typically circular in shape and are installed in the ship's hull structure.
 Side scuttle are made watertight with gaskets or seals.
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 Sidescuttles may be equipped with safety features such as deadlights or covers that can be secured during
heavy weather or hazardous conditions to prevent water ingress and protect the interior spaces from
potential damage.
 Sidescuttles are commonly found in various areas of the ship, including cabins, corridors, engine rooms, and
machinery spaces.
 For yachts Round or oval openings with an area not exceeding 0.16 metre2 are considered as side scuttle.
Sheer Credit:
 Sheer is defined as being the curvature of the freeboard deck in a fore and aft direction.
 Sheer provides greater reserve buoyance at the ends of the ship, particularly forward. Sheer measurements
are taken using Simpsons rule.
 While calculating freeboard as per load line convention, any deficiency in sheer will result in an increase in
freeboard.
 And excess sheer will result in a deduction in freeboard.
 This correction to the freeboard due to sheer is known as sheer credit.
 The amount of deduction or increase in freeboard is calculated using the formulae and guidelines provided
in regulation 38.
56.What are the requirements and special conditions needed for a ship to be categorized as a Type – A ship as per
load line regulations? Under what circumstances is a Load Line Exemption Certificate issued?
Requirements for Type A ship – As mentioned earlier
Regulation 26 Special conditions of assignment for type 'A' ships:
Machinery Casings:
 Machinery casings on type 'A' ships shall be protected by an enclosed poop or bridge of at least standard
height or a deckhouse of equal height and equivalent strength.
 Machinery casings may be exposed if there are no openings in it giving access from freeboard deck.
Gangway Access:
 A fore and aft permanent gangway, shall be fitted on type 'A' ships at the level of the superstructure deck
between the poop and the midship bridge if fitted
 Safe access from the gangway level shall be available between crew accommodations and the machinery
space.
Hatchways:
 Exposed hatchways on the freeboard and forecastle decks shall be provided with efficient watertight covers.
Freeing arrangements
 Type 'A' ships with bulwarks shall have open rails fitted for at least half the length of the weather deck.
 The upper edge of the sheer strake shall be kept as low as practicable.
 Where superstructures are connected by trunks, open rails shall be fitted for the whole length of the
exposed parts of the freeboard deck
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Circumstances under which Loadline Exemption Certificate is Issued:
Article 6.1:
 Ships must be on international voyages between near neighbouring ports of two or more states.
 Conditions of such voyages or sheltered conditions between the ports may make it impracticable or
unreasonable to apply provisions of load line conventions.
 If the government of such ports agree a load line exemption certificate shall be provided to vessels engaged
in such voyages.
Article 6.2
 Ships that has features related to new or unique design and if load line convention is applied, may seriously
impede research into the development of such features.
 Thus, administration shall issue a load line exemption certificate provided that such vessel complies with
safety requirements which are adequate in the opinion of the administration.
 The government of the state visited by such ships shall also agree to such exemptions.
Article 6.4
 A ship which is not normally engaged on international voyages but which, in exceptional circumstances, is
required to undertake a single international voyage may be exempted by the Administration.
 Such vessel shall comply with safety requirements which are adequate in the opinion of the administration.
57.With reference to ‘International Convention on Load Lines 1966’. Write short notes on the following:
i) Block Co-efficient ii) Watertight and Weather tight iii) How the minimum bow height is assigned and
importance of the bow height.
Regulation 3.7 Block Coefficient:

ࢁࢃ ࢂ࢕࢒࢛࢓ ࢋ
࡯࢈ =
ࡸ ࡮ ࢊ૚
UW Volume: is the volume of the moulded displacement of the ship, excluding appendages, in a ship with a
metal shell, and is the volume of displacement to the outer surface of the hull in a ship with a shell of any other
material, both taken at a moulded draught of d1
d1 - 85% of the least moulded depth.
3.13 Weathertight:
Weathertight means that in any sea conditions water will not penetrate into the ship
3.14 Watertight:
Watertight means capable of preventing the passage of water through the structure in either direction with a
proper margin of resistance under the pressure due to the maximum head of water which it might have to sustain
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Regulation 39 Minimum Bow Height:
 The bow height (F b), defined as the

vertical distance at the forward
perpendicular between the waterline
corresponding to the assigned summer
freeboard and the designed trim and
the top of the exposed deck at side.
 Minimum Bow height is calculated
incorporating below values in a formula
provided in regulation 39.
- Length, Moulded breadth, draft at
85%, block coefficient, waterplane
area.
 If sheer is included, then the sheer shall extend 0.15L from forward perpendicular.
 If the ship is going to be fitted with raised forecastle, such forecastle shall extend over 0.07L
Significance of Bow Height:
 Minimum bow height is established to ensure an adequate freeboard at the forward section of the ship,
particularly in rough seas and during heavy weather conditions.
 It aids in sufficient amount of reserve buoyancy in forward.
 Also reduces impact of waves and green water.
58.Differentiate between enclosed spaces and excluded spaces as per International Tonnage Convention
S. No Enclosed Space Excluded Space

Enclosed spaces are included in the calculation Excluded spaces are not included in the calculation of
1
of gross tonnage gross tonnage.
Contribute to the total internal volume of the Not considered part of the ship's total internal volume.
2
ship.
Examples: cargo holds, machinery spaces, crew Examples: spaces for propulsion machinery, anchor
3
accommodations, passenger areas, etc. handling equipment, steering gear, etc.
The measurement of enclosed spaces Do not have a direct impact on determining the ship's
contributes to determining the size and size or regulatory obligations.
4 regulatory requirements of the ship, such as
port fees, manning requirements, and safety
regulations
Contribute to revenue generating functions. Typically associated with non-revenue-generating
5
functions.
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59.With reference to ‘International Convention on Tonnage of Ships’ write
short notes on the following: (i) Gross Tonnage (ii) Net Tonnage (iii) Excluded Spaces (iv) Enclosed Space
i. Gross Tonnage:
Article 2 Definitions – “gross tonnage" means the measure of the overall size of a ship determined in accordance
with the provisions of the present Convention
Annex-1 Regulation 3 – Gross Tonnage:
The gross tonnage (GT) of a ship shall be determined by the following formula:
GT = K1 V
where: V= Total volume of all enclosed spaces of the ship in cubic metres,
K1 = 0.2 + 0.02 log10V
 Enclosed spaces are all those spaces which are bounded by the ship's hull, by fixed or portable partitions or
bulkheads, by decks or coverings other than permanent or movable awnings.
 No break in a deck, nor any opening in the ship's hull, in a deck or in a covering of a space, or in the
partitions or bulkheads of a space, nor the absence of a partition or bulkhead, shall preclude a space from
being included in the enclosed space.
 Regulation 6: In calculating the tonnage, all volumes shall be measured to the inner side of the shell or
structural boundary plating in ships.
 Volumes of appendages shall be included.
Net Tonnage:
 Net tonnage (NT) is a measure of a ship's total available cargo and passenger carrying capacity.
 Net tonnage is calculated by deducting specific spaces and volumes from the gross tonnage
measurement, including spaces that are not considered available for cargo or passengers, such as
machinery spaces, fuel tanks, and other exempted areas.
 Net tonnage is primarily used for assessing port dues, determining registration fees, and establishing
crewing and manning requirements
 Exclusions: Net tonnage excludes spaces that are not available for carrying cargo or passengers, such
as machinery spaces and other areas deemed non-revenue generating.
 Net tonnage is measured in units of net tons, which are also calculated based on a mathematical
formula defined in the International Tonnage Convention.
Annex 1 – Regulation 2 Definition (5) Excluded Spaces:
 Volume of excluded spaces shall not be included in the volume of enclosed spaces except in the following
conditions
- the space is fitted with shelves or other means for securing cargo or stores;
- the openings are fitted with any means of closure;
- the construction provides any possibility of such openings being closed
Examples of Excluded spaces – Wheel house, galley, machinery spaces above the upper deck etc.
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60.With reference to Tonnage Convention differentiate between Gross Tonnage & Net Tonnage, GRT & NRT.
S.No Gross Tonnage Net Tonnage

Gross tonnage (GT) is a measure of the total Net tonnage (NT) is a measure of a ship's total available
1 internal volume of a ship, including all enclosed cargo and passenger carrying capacity.
spaces and structures, with certain exceptions.
Gross tonnage is calculated by applying a Net tonnage is calculated by deducting specific spaces
formula that takes into account the total and volumes from the gross tonnage measurement,
enclosed volume of all spaces within the ship, including spaces that are not considered available for
2
including cargo holds, machinery spaces, cargo or passengers, such as machinery spaces, fuel
passenger areas, crew accommodations, and tanks, and other exempted areas
other compartments.
3 GT = K1V NT = K2Vc(4d / 3D )2 + K3(N1 + N2/10)
Gross tonnage is primarily used for determining Net tonnage is primarily used for assessing port dues,
the size of a ship for regulatory and determining registration fees, and establishing crewing
4 administrative purposes, such as assessing port and manning requirements
fees, determining manning requirements, and
establishing safety regulations.
Inclusions: Gross tonnage includes all spaces Exclusions: Net tonnage excludes spaces that are not
within the ship, regardless of their function or available for carrying cargo or passengers, such as
5 purpose, except for certain exempted spaces machinery spaces and other areas deemed non-
explicitly specified in the International Tonnage revenue generating.
Convention.
Gross tonnage is measured in units of gross Net tonnage is measured in units of net tons, which are
tons, which are calculated based on a also calculated based on a mathematical formula
6
mathematical formula defined in the defined in the International Tonnage Convention.
International Tonnage Convention.
S. NO GRT NRT
GRT is ship’s total internal volume
NRT is a ship’s cargo volume capacity expressed
1 expressed in register tons, each equal to
in register tons, each equal to 100 cubic feet.
100 cubic feet.
GRT uses the total permanently enclosed Calculated by subtracting non-revenue earning
2 capacity of the vessel as its basis for spaces. i.e. spaces not available for carrying
volume. cargo, for example engine rooms, fuel tanks etc.
Replaced by Gross Tonnage after adoption Replaced by Ne Tonnage after adoption of
3
of tonnage convention. tonnage convention.
Numerical value for ship’s GT is always Numerical value for ship’s NT is always smaller
4
smaller than the numerical values of GRT. than the numerical values of GRT.
61.Explain with sketches excluded spaces and enclosed spaces as per international tonnage Convention 69 as
amended
 Enclosed spaces are all those spaces which are bounded by the ship's hull, by fixed or portable partitions or
bulkheads, by decks or coverings other than permanent or movable awnings.
 No break in a deck, nor any opening in the ship's hull, in a deck or in a covering of a space, or in the
partitions or bulkheads of a space, nor the absence of a partition or bulkhead, shall preclude a space from
being included in the enclosed space.
Annex 1 – Regulation 2 Definition (5) Excluded Spaces:
 Volume of excluded spaces shall not be included in the volume of enclosed spaces except in the following
conditions.
- the space is fitted with shelves or other means for securing cargo or stores;
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- the openings are fitted with any means of closure;
- the construction provides any possibility of such openings being closed.
Following are the other excluded spaces:
0 – Excluded space, C – Enclosed Space. B- breadth of the deck.
i. If the opening width of the space is less than or equal to 90% of breadth of the deck, Space is measured
between line at the opening of the space and a parallel line at a point which is B/2 from the opening line.
Area between these lines will the excluded space.
ii. If the opening width of the space is less than or equal to 90% of breadth of the deck, draw a line at the
opening of the space.
Then there could be a point beyond which the breadth will be less than 90% of the breadth of the deck.
Draw a line in that point parallel to the opening.
Then draw a line at a point which is B/2 from the opening line.
Area between opening line and any of the two lines mentioned above whichever is greater in athwartship
distance shall be considered as excluded space.
62. Define as per International Convention on Tonnage measurement: Upper Deck, Depth, Weathertight,
excluded space
Upper Deck:
 The upper deck is the uppermost complete deck exposed to weather and sea
 It has permanent means of weathertight closing of all openings in the weather part
 Below the upper deck all openings in the sides of the ship shall be fitted with permanent means of watertight
closing.
 In a ship having a stepped upper deck, the lowest line of the exposed deck and the continuation of that line
parallel to the upper part of the deck is taken as the upper deck.
Depth:
 The moulded depth is the vertical distance measured from the top of the keel to the underside of the upper
deck at side.
 In ships having rounded gunwales, the moulded depth shall be from top of the keel to the point of intersection
of the moulded lines of the deck and side shell plating.
 Where the upper deck is stepped and raised, the moulded depth shall be from top of the keel to the lower
part of the raised deck.
Weathertight and excluded spaced mentioned earlier.
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63.As a Chief Officer, give full details of the items that you will have checked and prepared to ensure the weather
tight integrity of the ship to present the ship for Load Line Survey
As per latest resolution on HSSC, A 1140 (31), Annex 2:
 Checking, in general, that there has been no deterioration in the strength of the hull
 Checking the positions of the deck line and load line which, if necessary, are to be re-marked and re-painted
 Checking the positions of the deck line and load line which, if necessary, are to be re-marked and re-painted
 Examining the superstructure end bulkheads and the openings therein
 Examining the means of securing the weathertightness of cargo hatchways, other hatchways and other openings
on the freeboard and superstructure decks
 Examining the ventilators and air pipes, including their coamings and closing appliances
 Examining the watertight integrity of the closures to any openings in the ship's side below the freeboard deck
 Examining the scuppers, inlets and discharges
 Examining the garbage chutes
 Examining the means provided to minimize water ingress through the spurling pipes and chain lockers
 Examining the sidescuttles and deadlights examining the bulwarks including the provision of freeing ports, special
attention being given to any freeing ports fitted with shutters
 Examining the guardrails, gangways, walkways and other means provided for the protection of the crew and
means for safe passage of the crew
 Examining the special requirements for ships permitted to sail with type "A" or type "B-minus" freeboards
checking, when applicable, the fittings and appliances for timber deck cargoes
 Checking that the stability and, where applicable, the loading and ballasting information is available
 Checking whether any new equipment has been fitted and, if so, confirm that it has been approved before
installation and that any changes are reflected in the appropriate certificate
 Validity of all trading certificates.
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Ship Building Materials / Ship Yard Practices
(Q.8 as per the pattern)
64.Describe the stress-strain relationship in a metal

 Stress: Stress is the force exerted on a body.
 Strain: Strain is the effect of stress on a body. It
results in deformation of the body.
 X axis indicates strain and Y axis indicates stress.
 From the graph, it can be seen that stress is
directly proportional to strain until the point L
which is the limit of proportionality.
 Limit of proportionality is the highest stress prior
to which deformation increases proportionally to
the load applied.
 Also, stress being proportional to strain until the
elastic limit is known as Hooke’s law.
 After the point L, strain increases with stress but
at higher rate and only until point Y which is the
yield point.
 Stress is no more proportional to strain.
 Yield point is the point at which a body ceases to
be elastic and becomes permanently distorted.
 Once the bar is slightly bent within elastic limits, now the stress required to bend reduces.
 After Y rate of strain increases.
 Now the bar is said to be in plastic state.
65.Explain the testing of metals in ship building
Testing of Metals:
 Metals used for shipbuilding has to undergo various test to determine its strength.
 The tests are destructive tests carried out on a sample metal.
 Some of the tests are: -
i. Tensile test
ii. Bend Test
iii. Hardness test
iv. Impact Test
v. Creep Test
vi. Fatigue Test
Tensile Test:
 Tensile test is carried out in a tensile test machine. It applied a load hydraulically at the ends to pull apart.
 The purpose of the test is to determine the elongation, limit of proportionality, yield point and ultimate breaking
stress of steel.
 The cross-sectional area and distance between the two punch marks are carefully noted.
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ࢀࢋ࢔࢙࢏࢒ࢋࡿ࢚࢘ࢋ࢔ࢍ࢚ࢎ ൌ
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50 | P a g e
Bend Test:
 The bend test is carried out to determine the ductility of the

metal.
 A test bar or plate is bent cold over a former, through 180°, till
the ends are parallel.
 The diameter of the bend may be 3 or 4 times the diameter of
the bar or the thickness of the plate as dictated by the test
specification.
 The bent area is closely inspected for cracks or fractures. If
none, the test is passed.
Hardness Test:
 Hardness of a metal indicates its ability to withstand wear and tear.

 The hardness test is carried out in a machine which applies a load to dent the surface of the metal.
Impact Test:
 Impact test tests the ability of the metal to withstand fracture under shock loads.
 It gives brittleness and crack propagation properties of a metal.
 Charpy V-notch machine is the most common device used for impact test.
Fatigue Test:
 Fatigue test determines the ability of a material to withstand repeatedly applied stresses.
 The material is subjected to a number of alternating stresses and the number that will produce fracture at a given
value of applied stress is noted.
 The value of the applied stress can be increased or decreased which will cause the material to fracture at a lower
or higher number of cycles.
66.With the aid of sketch, Describe the procedures of impact test conducted on a metal
 Steel used for shipbuilding has to undergo various test to determine its strength.
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 The tests are destructive tests carried out on a sample metal.
 Impact test tests the ability of the metal to withstand fracture under shock loads.
 It gives brittleness and crack propagation properties of a metal.
 Charpy V-notch machine is the most common device used for impact test.
 There is a heavy striker at the end of a pendulum.
 The specimen is placed at the bottom of pendulum’s swing.
 Now, the pendulum is pulled, the potential energy of the striker is noted down.
 Now the pendulum is releases and the striker provides a blow and breaks the specimen.
 Again, the potential energy is noted at the striker after it breaks the specimen.
 Difference between initial and final potential energy provides the energy absorbed by the specimen.
 The test is carried out at 0°C for metals used at ambient temperatures which have to be able to absorb at least 20
joules.
 For cryogenic metals, the test is carried out at temperatures ranging from -20° C to -196°C depending on the
temperature for which the metal can be used.
67.With the help of neat diagrams describe two destructive tests for steel.
i. Impact Test
ii. Bend Test
As mentioned in earlier question.
68.Explain the following with respect to properties and treatment of steel: malleability, ductility elasticity,
annealing, hardening.
Elasticity:
 It is the ability of a metal to recover its original configuration i.e. shape and dimensions, when the stress is
removed.
 It exhibits a linear stress-strain relationship within their elastic limit.
 Steel has high modulus of elasticity in comparison with aluminium.
Malleability:
 It is the property of a metal of becoming permanently flattened or stretched by hammering or rolling without
cracking or breaking.
 Malleable material undergoes permanent deformation under compression without fracturing.
 Malleability depends on the material’s crystal structure and the ability of atoms to rearrange under stress.
Ductility:
 It is the property of a metal which permits it to be drawn into wires.

 If a bar or wire is drawn out lengthwise the amount of extension or reduction in cross sectional area measures its
ductility.
 Steel, copper, nickel exhibit high ductility.
 It is determined by material’s atomic bonding and crystal structure.
Annealing:
 Annealing is a heat treatment process that involves heating a metal to a specific temperature and then slowly
cooling it down.
 This makes the metal more ductile and softer. It also relieves if there are any internal stress.
 Decrease in hardness after annealing indicates increased softness.
Hardening:
 Hardening steel is a heat treatment process used to increase its hardness and improve its mechanical properties.
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 The hardening process involves heating the metal and rapidly cooling it.
 Rapid cooling is known as quenching.
69.Define and describe: 1) Normalizing 2) Brittle Fracture 3) Yield point.
Normalizing:
 Normalizing is a heat treatment process used to refine the grain structure and improve the mechanical properties
of ferrous metals.
 The process involves heating the metal above its critical temperature, holding it at that temperature for a specific
time, and then cooling it in still air.
 The main objective of normalizing is to achieve uniformity in the microstructure of the material, resulting in
improved machinability, ductility, and toughness.
 The process reduces internal stresses, removes impurities, and refines the grain size, leading to a more
homogeneous and stable material.
 Normalizing is commonly used for preparing the material before further processing, such as machining, forging,
or welding.
Brittle Fracture:
 Brittle fracture refers to the sudden and catastrophic failure of a material without significant plastic deformation
or warning signs.
 It occurs in materials that have limited ductility and exhibit little to no deformation before breaking.
 Brittle fractures are characterized by a clean, shiny, and flat fracture surface perpendicular to the applied stress.
 Common causes of brittle fracture include high-stress concentrations, low temperatures, improper material
selection, and manufacturing defects.
 Brittle fractures are of concern in structural components and machinery parts as they can occur without prior
indication, leading to sudden and unexpected failures.
Yield Point:
 The yield point is the stress level at which a material undergoes a significant and permanent deformation, known
as plastic deformation, without any further increase in load.
 It marks the transition from the elastic to the plastic region in a stress-strain curve.
 The yield point is an important parameter used to determine the strength and ductility of a material.
 The yield point is typically determined through the offset method, where a line parallel to the initial linear portion
of the stress-strain curve is drawn, and the point of intersection with the curve represents the yield point.
 Yield strength, which is the stress at the yield point, is often used as a design criterion for structural components,
indicating the maximum stress the material can withstand without permanent deformation.
70.Compare and contrast between steel and aluminium in ship building.
S. No STEEL ALUMINIUM
1 High density, high strength and stiffness. Low density, moderate strength and stiffness
2 Susceptible to corrosion Excellent corrosion resistance
3 Excellent weldability Good weldability
4 Resistant to fatigue Sensitive to fatigue
Requires heavy machinery and equipment for
5 Easier to fabricate, lightweight construction.
fabrication.
6 Requires regular maintenance Low maintenance requirements
7 Relatively cost effective. High initial cost, but beneficial in long term.
8 Preferred for large ships and structures. Suitable for small to medium sized vessels.
9 High impact resistance Moderate impact resistance
10 Easier to salvage and repair More difficult to salvage and repair
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71.How is brittle fracture different from ductile fracture? Elaborate in the form of tabular column on the grounds
of temperature, thickness, superficial appearance, speed of propagation, type of steel and tests used to
evaluate them.
FEATURE BRITTLE FRACTURE DUCTILE FRACTURE

Brittle fracture occurs at low
Temperature Ductile fracture occurs at higher temperatures
temperatures
It is more likely in thinner sections of
Thickness It is more common in thicker sections of materials
materials
It exhibits a clean and flat fracture
Superficial It exhibits a rough and torn fracture surface with
surface perpendicular to the applied
Appearance necking
stress
It propagates rapidly and occurs
Speed of It propagates relatively slower with plastic
suddenly without significant
Propagation deformation and necking
deformation
It is more likely in high-strength, low- It is more common in low to medium strength, high-
Type of Steel
ductility steels ductility steels
Susceptibility is evaluated using tests
Behaviour is assessed through tensile testing or
Tests Used such as Charpy Impact Test or Izod
elongation tests
Impact Test
72.What are the special measures adopted when aluminium structures are to be connected to the steel structure?
Electrical Isolation: Ensure there is no direct electrical contact between aluminium and steel components.
Gasketing: Install gaskets or suitable sealing materials at the aluminium-steel interfaces to prevent contact and
minimize moisture transfer.
Differential Expansion: Consider the differential expansion and contraction rates of aluminium and steel when
designing the connection points to accommodate thermal changes without compromising structural integrity.
Avoid Bi-metallic Junctions: Minimize the number of bi-metallic junctions (direct contact between aluminium and
steel) to reduce the risk of galvanic corrosion.
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Bonding: Implement bonding techniques using conductive adhesives or bonding agents to enhance the connection
between aluminium and steel, while still maintaining electrical isolation.
Fastener Selection: Use fasteners made from compatible materials (e.g., stainless steel) to avoid galvanic corrosion
caused by dissimilar metals.
Coatings and Protection: Apply corrosion-resistant coatings (e.g., epoxy or polyurethane) to exposed aluminum
surfaces and consider protective coatings or galvanizing techniques for steel components.
Cathodic Protection: Implement cathodic protection systems, such as sacrificial anodes or impressed current
systems, to control electrochemical potential and prevent galvanic corrosion.
Monitoring and Maintenance: Regularly inspect connection points and surrounding areas for signs of corrosion or
degradation, and establish a proactive maintenance program.
73.Briefly describe methods of corrosion control at joint of steel hull with aluminium super structure?
When connecting aluminium plate or sections to steel, bimetallic corrosion is an issue that has to be tackled. This is
done in various ways.
Bimetallic Transition Inserts
 A transition sheet comprising pure aluminium and mild

steel separated by polystyrene and is explosively bonded
together.
 These sheets are used to separate the aluminium section
from the steel plate and weld nugget process used to weld
this sheet to the aluminium and steel section.
 The nugget is steel to steel on one side and aluminium to
aluminium on the other side.
 Explosive bonded transition plates are used to join
aluminium deckhouses to steel decks and for producing arc
welded joints between aluminium and steel pipe lines.
Adhesive Bonding
 An electrically inert adhesive agent is used

to bond the metal and steel surfaces
together.
 Sealant keeps out electrolyte from seeping
into the joint.
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Mechanical fastening with bolts and rivets
 The two dissimilar metals are separated from

each other with inert neoprene joint.
 The rivet / bolt is driven through it is
separated from the metals by a neoprene
tube.
 Similarly. the bolt and nut surfaces are also
separated from the dissimilar metals.
74.What are the advantages and disadvantages of using Aluminium in ship building?
Advantage:
 The huge reduction in weight that the use of aluminium in shipbuilding affords (up to 60%) makes it an attractive
alternative to mild steel.
 Ease of forming, bending and machining
 Availability and diversity of functional semi-finished products of aluminium aids is quick building or replacement.
 High thermal and electrical conductivity. Lower maintenance cost as it has better anti corrosion properties
 High strength to weight ratio aids in fuel savings.
 Its density is one-third that of steel. Increased range i.e. more distance can be steamed due to lower fuel
consumption.
 Excellent corrosion resistance. Aids is increased deadweight capacity.
 Speed of the vessel can be comparatively higher due to lesser light weight.
 Manoeuvrability is comparatively is easier.
 Recyclable, non-magnetic and lower total ownership cost.
Disadvantage:
 Needs to be strengthened, these results in the weight advantage dropping to 60%.

 Comparatively more difficult to paint.
 Cannot be soldered
 Lower fatigue life
 Reduced mechanical properties after welding.
 Cost of maintenance is high.
 Low melting point relative to steel.
75.Explain significance of different grades of steel for shipbuilding.
 Grades of steel are Grade A, B, C, D & E. These grades are standardised by IACS and all members of it have
agreed.
 Grade A and B are mild steel, Grade C & D are notch tough while Grade E is extra notch tough.
 Grade A: used in majority ship structures of less than 20mm thickness.
 Grade B: Better quality than Grade A, used for members of 20-25mm thickness.
 Grade C: American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) standard.
 Grade D: Notch-tough steel for the thickness of more than 25mm.
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 Arctic D is used for extreme low-temperature conditions.
 Grade E: Extra-notch-tough steel. It is heat-treated grade D steel used for structures of thickness 50mm or over.
 It is used for sheer strake, bilge strakes, keels and all other high-stress regions of the ship.
High Tensile Steels:
 HTS have greater tensile strength for equivalent thickness.

 This strength is retained even at low temperatures.
 HTS are suitable for use in highly stressed areas of the vessel such as in large tankers and ore carriers.
 Classification Societies has granted permission for a reduction in scantlings where high tensile steels are used.
 They are denoted by AH, BH, CH and so on for various grades.
Cryogenic or low temperature material:
 These materials are used in liquified gas carriers and in vessels trading in extreme latitudes.
 Steel of grades D and E are acceptable for temperatures up to 0°C.
 Where lower temperatures are encountered, carbon manganese steel is used. This steel is used for temperature
up to -60°C
 9% nickel steel is used for temperature up to -165°C
76.Describe the advantages and disadvantages of using high tensile steel in ship building (or) At present a large
number of ocean-going ships are built with high tensile steel, in this regard explain the advantage and
disadvantages of using high tensile steel with respect to: i) Initial Cost ii) Structural maintenance iii) Earning
capacity.
Advantages:
 HTS have greater tensile strength for equivalent thickness.

 This strength is retained even at low temperatures.
 HTS are suitable for use in highly stressed areas of the vessel such as in large tankers and ore carriers.
 Improved notch resistance.
 Have better ductility.
 Classification Societies has granted permission for a reduction in scantlings where high tensile steels are used.
Disadvantage:
 Increased material cost.

 Great attention should be given to prevent corrosion.
 Corrosion affects both ordinary steels as well has HTS.
 After a period of time, the corrosion being equal, the reduction in thickness for a high tensile steel plate as a
percentage of original thickness is greater, leaving HTS plate weaker than an ordinary plate.
 Due to the reduced scantlings rusting can bring the section modulus below optimum levels causing the plate to
crack.
 While welding, care should be taken that only low hydrogen electrodes are used.
77.Differentiate in between steel castings and forging? Give examples of scantlings on a ship where these are
used.
S. No Steel Casting Forging

1 Carbon steel is mainly used for casting. Made from ingots of killed steel
Molten steel is poured into a mould and Solid metal is heated and shaped through
2
allowed to solidify mechanical force
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Suitable for complex shapes and intricate
3 Suitable for complex shapes and intricate details
details
Can have varied and tailored material
4 Typically have superior mechanical properties
properties
Have a refined grain structure and high internal
5 Typically have superior mechanical properties
soundness
Higher cost due to the more extensive
6 Relatively lower cost
manufacturing process
7 Can be produced in larger and heavier sizes Can be produced in larger and heavier sizes
Stern frame, parts of rudder, anchors, cylinders Crankshafts, shackles, crane hooks, flanges, etc. are
8
heads etc. are made by steel casting. made by forging
78.With help of a block diagram, explain the general layout of a ship yard and their Inter relationship
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79.Describe the sequence of events which take place in a modern Shipyard while building a ship?
 SHEER PLAN, HALF BREADTH

PLAN & BODY PLAN
 Table of Offsets and fairing

 Mould Loft
 1/10 Scale Plan
 1/100 glass negatives
 Numerical Control
 CAD/CAM
 Traditional Mould loft

 Optical marking
 Numerical controllers
 Computer controlled flame
profilers
 Issue of plates
 Grit Blasting
 Priming
 Marking
 Cutting
 Machining
 Bending & Shaping
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80.What is prefabrication and what are its advantage? To what extent has it replaced ‘erection sequence’ in ship
building? Explain the erection sequence in shipyard practice in ship construction.
Prefabrication:
 The parts of the ship remain the same but they are assembled into large subsections or blocks in the shop, not on
the building ways or the erection dock.
 Plates and sections are cut, machined and sent to the different bays for sub-assembly.
 Curved shell plates, frames, etc are held in position by clamps or placed on jigs and tack welded into position
before being automatic welded.
 Machinery and piping for each subsection are fitted in place during shop assembly.
 The subsections are then moved to the building ways or the erection dock.
 The sub-assembly then lifted and lowered into position and welded to the main body.
 Prefabrication has developed into an advanced shipbuilding technique over a period of years and is extensively
used today.
Advantages:
 Assembly and prefabrication can be carried out in sheltered conditions on the shop floor.
 Facilities like tools, jacks, cranes, electrodes, gases for cutting, electric power and compressed air are easily
available.
 Vertical and overhead are kept to the minimum by the ability to turn units over resulting in time saving and
better results.
 Work in inaccessible, uncomfortable and dangerous positions are reduced.
 Proper planning can reduce labour, time and material and the shipbuilding sequence can be controlled.
 Jobs can be contracted out to specialists while the shipyard retains the overall responsibility of assembly.
Erection Sequence:
Erection sequence id done taking in the shipyard’s labour and equipment facilities to minimise positional welding
and fairing but in general starts from aft to forward and bottom to top in the following sequence.
 Double bottom tanks

 Transverse bulkheads
 Side shell with frames
 Wing tanks
 Deck units with girder
 Mast houses
 Accommodation modules
 Deck fittings
 Wiring
 Final painting
81.What is a ‘wire frame model’? What are its benefits when used with hidden line removal and ‘tendering’
applications?
Wire frame model:
 At the initial stage, a line plan of lateral sections is made.
 Along with the lines plan, table of offsets are made. This table consists of half breadth, height of decks, stringers
etc. at each design stations.
 The line plan is then sent to the lofts-men for lofting. Lofting is essentially of preparing in full size an exact
skeleton plan of the hull to be built.
 This practice has been replaced today by CAM/CAD technology.
 Here, table of offsets is fed in and the full-scale plan can be obtained with fairing done automatically.
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 This plan is saved in the form of a wire frame model in the computer and
 The wire frame model provides a simplified representation of the ship or object, focusing on the structural
framework in three dimensions.
 It can be rotated and viewed from any angle.
Benefits when used with Hidden line removal:
 In wire frame model some of the lines may be hidden by other objects that are closer to the viewer.
 Hidden line removal is the process of selectively removing lines from the visual representation to improve clarity
and understanding.
 Enhances the understanding of the object's form, structure and reduces visual confusion.
 This facilitates the analysis of structural elements, such as load-bearing components, supports, or connections.
 Enables the viewer to more accurately perceive the spatial relationships between different parts of the object.
Benefits when used with tendering:
 A wire frame model can be used as part of the proposal or bid package.
 By including a wire frame model in their tender submission, shipbuilders can effectively communicate their
proposed design and demonstrate their understanding of the project requirements.
 makes it easier for multiple stakeholders, such as naval architects, shipbuilders, and clients, to collaborate and
communicate.
 It aids in accurate cost estimation, evaluation, and comparison of different bids.
82.How is the fire integrity maintained in the construction of a ship?
Fire safety Objectives:
Division of the ship into main vertical and horizontal zones by thermal and structural boundaries;
 Separation of accommodation spaces from the remainder of the ship by thermal and structural
boundaries;
 Restricted use of combustible materials;
 Detection of any fire in the zone of origin;
 Containment and extinction of any fire in the space of origin;
 Protection of means of escape and access for fire-fighting;
 Ready availability of fire-extinguishing appliances; and
 Minimization of possibility of ignition of flammable cargo vapour.
Solas Chapter II Part B, C, D, E, F and G sets out various constructional standards to meet the above fire
safety objectives.
Fire Protection Measures:
 Use of fire-resistant materials in construction and the provision of fire barriers, fire doors, and fire
dampers to compartmentalize the ship.
Structural Fire Protection:
 The ship's structure should be designed and constructed to withstand the effects of fire and prevent
the collapse or spread of fire.
 This may involve the use of fire-resistant bulkheads, ceilings, decks, and insulation materials in critical
areas.
61 | P a g e
Fire Safety Systems:
 Ships must be equipped with fire safety systems, such as automatic sprinkler systems, fire detection
and alarm systems, fire extinguishing systems, and emergency fire pumps.
Escape Routes and Evacuation:
 SOLAS Chapter II requires ships to have clearly marked and easily accessible escape routes, including
stairways, corridors, and emergency exits.
 Evacuation plans and procedures should be in place, and crew members should receive appropriate
training in fire safety and emergency response.
Firefighting Equipment:
 Ships must carry a range of firefighting equipment, including portable fire extinguishers, fire hoses,
fire hydrants, and fixed firefighting systems in machinery spaces and other high-risk areas.
Electrical and Machinery Spaces:
 These areas require adequate ventilation, fire detection and suppression systems, and fire-resistant
enclosures to prevent or contain fires that may occur due to electrical or mechanical faults.
Fire Safety Plans:
 Ships should have approved fire safety plans detailing fire prevention, firefighting procedures, and
emergency response strategies.
 These plans assist the crew in effectively managing fire incidents and coordinating with shore-based
firefighting resources if necessary.
62 | P a g e
Inclining Experiment / Stability At Small and Large Angles of Heel
(Q.9 as per the pattern)
83.With the help of suitable sketches, explain the principle and procedure of inclining experiment. Or How the
initial KG of the vessel is calculated?
Purpose:
 The inclining experiment is performed by the shipyard in order to obtain the KG of the ship in light condition.
 Once this is known, the KG can thereafter, be calculated for any desired condition of loading.
 The inclining experiment should be done when the building of the ship is complete or nearly so.
Principle:
 Two or three long pendulums are rigged on the centre line of the ship One forward, one midships and one aft.
 List is created by moving several known weights, usually two or three.
 Result obtained by different pendulums are averaged.
 By knowing the deflection of the pendulum, plumb length, KM, W including known weights and distance moved,
initial GM is calculated. Calculated GM is the GM fluid for that condition.
Procedure:
 Two or three long pendulums are rigged on the centre line of the ship One forward, one midships and one aft.
 The bob is immersed in oil or water to damp out oscillations.
 A horizontal batten, graduated in centimetres is fitted above the plumb.
 Ideally six equal weights are placed on deck, three on each side, at equal distances off centre line.
 The total of weights shall be about 1/500 of light displacement.
 Using dock crane, one weight is shifted from starboard to port, after allowing sufficient time for the ship to settle
in the listed condition, the deflection of the pendulum is noted.
 The second weight is shifted from starboard to port and the deflection is noted. The third weight is also shifted
and deflection noted.
 All the three shifted weights are then returned to their original position. Entire procedure is repeated for weights
on the port side and deflection noted.
Calculation:
ࢊ࢝
ࢀࢇ࢔ࡸ࢏࢙࢚ൌ
ࢃ Ǥࡳࡹ
ࢊࢋࢌ࢒ࢋࢉ࢚࢏࢕࢔࢕ࢌ࢖ࢋ࢔ࢊ࢛࢒࢛࢓ ࡽࡾ
ࢀࢇ࢔ࡸ࢏࢙࢚ൌ =
ࡸࢋ࢔ࢍ࢚ࢎ࢕ࢌࡼ࢒࢛࢓ ࡸ࢏࢔ࢋ ࡼࡽ
ࢊ࢝ ࢊࢋࢌ࢒ࢋࢉ࢚࢏࢕࢔
=
ࢃ Ǥࡳࡹ ࡸࢋ࢔ࢍ࢚ࢎ࢕ࢌࡼ࢒࢛࢓ ࡸ࢏࢔ࢋ
ࢊ࢝ Ǥࡸࢋ࢔ࢍ࢚ࢎ࢕ࢌࡼ࢒࢛࢓ ࢈ࡸ࢏࢔ࢋ
ࡳࡹ ൌ
ࢃ Ǥࢊࢋࢌ࢒ࢋࢉ࢚࢏࢕࢔
63 | P a g e
 A plot is made with dw on X axis and
deflection / plumb length on Y axis.
 The plot of all reading should lie on
straight line, if not there were other
moments acting during the experiment.
 These, moment must be identified and
removed.
 The entire procedure must be repeated
until a straight line obtained.
 GM for each shift of weight is calculated
and the average initial fluid GM in that
condition is obtained.
 Actual method of averaging varies
between shipyards.
 KM for that displacement and the FSC
would have already been calculated by
the shipyard.
84.When inclining tests are required on cargo and passenger ships? List the precautions which must be taken
while conducting the experiment.
 Regulation II – I/22 of SOLAS requires every passenger ship regardless of size and every cargo ship of length 24m
and over to be inclined to determine the elements of her stability.
 Where any structural alterations are made to the ship, which would affect her stability elements, the ship shall be
re-inclined.
 At intervals not exceeding five years, al light weight survey shall be carried out on all passenger ships to verify any
change in light ship displacement and LCG.
 If there is a deviation of light ship displacement exceeding 2% or a deviation in the LCG exceeding 1% of L she
shall be re-inclined.
 The inclining test need not be done if basic stability data are available from inclining test of a sister ship provided
the administration allows it.
Precautions:
 Before the commencement of the experiment, the ship should be perfectly upright.
 A large trim should be avoided.
 The ship’s initial GM should not be too small.
 There should be no wind. If this is not possible, the ship should be heading into the wind.
 All mooring lines to be slack.
 Gangway to be well clear of jetty.
 No other craft to be alongside.
 The depth of water should be enough to ensure that the ship is freely afloat throughout this experiment.
 All portable beams, derricks, boats etc to be in proper sea going condition.
 Any loose weight to be secured.
 All persons not directly connected with the experiment should be ashore. Those onboard should stay on centre
line.
 Boilers to be completely empty or full.
 As far as possible all tanks should be full or empty. If not possible, the value of FSM should be noted.
 All bilges to be dry.
 Draft fwd, aft and amidships and the density of water to be noted.
64 | P a g e
 Due allowance must be made, in all calculations, for the weights placed on board for the conduct of the
experiment.
 The weight and the distance moved should be adjusted such that the list caused is reasonably small.
 If the list is insufficient, the deflection would be too small resulting in an inaccurate GM.
 If the list is more than a few degrees, the consequent increase of KM would render inaccurate results.
85.Write short notes on the following: Effect of increasing beam on GZ curve.

Beam
 Let curve A in Figure represent the curve of stability for a certain box-shaped vessel whose deck edge becomes
immersed at about 17 degrees heel.
 Let the draft, freeboard and KG remain unchanged, but increase in the beam.
 For a ship-shaped vessel BM = I/V, and for a box-shaped vessel BM = B2/12d.
 Therefore, an increase in beam will produce an increase in BM
 Hence the GM will also be increased, as will the righting levers at all angles of heel.
 The range of stability is also increased. The new curve of stability would appear as curve B in Figure.
 The angle of heel at which the deck edge becomes immersed, has been reduced.
 The increase in the beam, as shown in Figure (b), will result in the deck edge becoming immersed at a smaller
angle of heel.
 When the deck edge becomes immersed, the breadth of the water-plane will decrease and this will manifest itself
in the curve by a reduction in the rate of increase of the GZs with increase in heel.
65 | P a g e
86.State with suitable sketches the difference between the Heeling arm curve and the Righting arm curve for a
vessel authorized to carry grain.
S. No. Righting Arm Curve Heeling Arm Curve

It represents the righting lever for various It is used to know the angle of heel due to
1
angles of heel. assumed shift of grain.
It is curve typically start from zero at upright Often it would be a slope line commencing from
2 condition followed by an increase as angle of maximum value followed by a decrease as angle
heel increases. of heel decreases.
Area under the righting arm curve indicates the
Area between heeling arm and righting arm
3 amount of work done to bring the ship back to
curve indicates residual dynamical stability.
upright condition.
Calculated using moment created by the Calculated using volumetric heeling moment,
4
combined forced if buoyancy and gravity. stowage factor and displacement.
Area between heeling area and righting arm
Area under the GZ curve should not be less than
curve shall not be less than 0.075 metre radians
0.09 metre radians up to an angle of heel of 40°
5 up to 40° or angle of flooding or angle of
or angle of flooding whichever is less for cargo
maximum separation between heeling arm and
ships and passenger ships.
righting arm
87.Define the following with respect to chapter II/ 2 of SOLAS 74 as amended:

a) Central Control Station b) ‘C’ class divisions
c) Services spaces d) Main vertical zones
Central control station is a control station in which the following control and indicator functions are centralized:
 .1 fixed fire detection and fire alarm systems;

 .2 automatic sprinkler, fire detection and fire alarm systems;
 .3 fire door indicator panels;
 .4 fire door closure;
 .5 watertight door indicator panels;
 .6 watertight door closures;
 .7 ventilation fans;
 .8 general/fire alarms;
66 | P a g e
 .9 communication systems including telephones; and
 .10 microphones to public address systems.
C" class divisions are divisions constructed of approved non-combustible materials.
 They need meet neither requirements relative to the passage of smoke and flame nor limitations relative to the
temperature rise.
 Combustible veneers are permitted provided they meet the requirements of this chapter.
Service spaces are those spaces used for galleys, pantries containing cooking appliances, lockers, mail and specie
rooms, storerooms, workshops other than those forming part of the machinery spaces, and similar spaces and trunks
to such spaces
Main vertical zones are those sections into which the hull, superstructure and deckhouses are divided by "A" class
divisions, the mean length and width of which on any deck does not in general exceed 40 m.
67 | P a g e

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PH – I I FG

Compiled by SATHISH KUMAR

4 SKETCHES OF MIDSHIP SECTION 1 14

6 PASSENGER SHIP SUBDIVISION / FIRE INTEGRITY 29 17

7 TONNAGE / LOAD LINE CONVENTION 40 13

8 SHIP BUILDING MATERIALS / SHIP YARD PRACTICES 50 19

 Type A tanks are rectangular independent tanks.

 From side shell - B/15 or 11.5m whichever is less.

Markings similar to previous diagram, except hatch coamings

Provisions for panting and pounding

 Bottom shell plating thickness is increased by 15% to 30%.

Strengthening members for the carriage of high-density cargoes:

14.Sketch and label the mid-ship section of a general cargo ship.

Code on Intact Stability for all type of ships:

Chapter 3.2 Severe wind and rolling criterion (weather criterion)

Steady Wind Criteria:

B – Breadth of the ship.

Tr – Period of roll in seconds.

Relationship between GM and Rolling Period

Water pressure on the rudder:

Heel caused by Centrifugal Force:

18.What are the Intact Stability requirements of Oil Tanker Ships?

Regulation 27 (Intact Stability) of Annex I to MARPOL 73/78:-

 are approved by the Administration.

As Per 3.1 of intact stability code:

Damage Stability Assumption:

- The ship is in the worst anticipated service conditions as regards stability.

Effect of draft and displacement on rolling

Effects of Distribution of weights:

Unresisted Rolling of a large vessel:

Synchronous rolling same as mentioned earlier

Role of Ship’s design:

Cause of Parametric rolling:

Tr – Period of roll in seconds.

 The rolling coefficient varies with the radius of gyration.

26.Distinguish between stability at small and large angle of heel?

Stability at small angle of heel:

 Small angles of heel are generally considered to be in the region of 10 - 15°

Stability at large Angle of Heel:

FSE due to slack tank:

 Owners request RO’s to issue additional load line certificate.

Surf Riding and broaching to:

This is the chart provided in MSC

Surf riding happens when the waves

Formula given in the y axis is used to

The aim is to keep the vessel out of the

S. No Parametric Rolling Synchronous Rolling

Precautions for conducting rolling period test:

Precaution for using the formula:

Forced Rolling in Still Water:

Forced rolling at sea:

Synchronised rolling: As mentioned in earlier question.

Limitation of rolling period test:

 Can be done only in still water.

Torsional Moment & significance of it in Container Ships:

Calculation of Torsional Moment:

Standard fire test:

 they are constructed of steel or other equivalent material;

class "A-60" 60 min

“A”class division mentioned in earlier question.

Sprinkler type fixed fire extinguishing system:

Standard fire test as mentioned in earlier question.

 They are constructed of approved non-combustible materials.

- Class B-15 15 min