Understanding Design Of Bulk Carriers

By Soumya Chakraborty | In: Naval Architecture | Last Updated on September 11, 2019

One of the oldest types of ships plying at the seas are the ones that carry unpackaged
bulk cargo like coal, grains, iron ore, sulphur, etc. The design of bulk carriers depends
on a lot of factors. Over the time, the type of cargo carried by bulk carriers have
increased, and economic forces have caused a growth in the number, types, and size of
such ships. Today, SOLAS (International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea) define a
bulk carrier as ‘a ship constructed with a single deck, top side tanks and hopper side
tanks in cargo spaces and intended to primarily carry dry cargo in bulk; an ore carrier; or
a combination carrier.’

Though the term bulk carrier encompasses all the ships that carry cargo in bulk, solid
and liquid, both. But the ones that carry liquid cargo in bulk are further categorised as oil
carriers and liquefied gas carriers. Hence, the term bulk carrier is generally used to refer
to ships that carry dry cargo in bulk. In this article, we will look at all the different types
of dry bulk carriers based on their size, type of cargo, and structural arrangements. We
will study the general arrangement of a typical bulk carrier, and its unique design
features. The article will support each design feature with the reason behind it, which is
something a ship designer should be very well versed with.
 Image for Representation purpose only;
Credits: wikimedia.org
Types of Bulk Carriers:

Dry bulk carriers are categorised on different aspects like size, type of cargo, and
structural properties. While considering design of bulk carrier, it is important for a
designer to know them well because a client would use these terminologies in the
technical contract to specify the size, type of cargo. It is based on these inputs that the
final particulars are fixed after various iterations and feasibility studies.

According to Size:

 Handysize: 10,000 DWT to 30,000 DWT

 Handymax: 35,000 DWT to 60,000 DWT
 Panamax: 60,000 DWT to 80,000 DWT
 Capesize: 80,000 DWT and over.

Handysize and Handymax size bulkers comprise of around 70 percent of the total dry
bulker fleet. This size of bulk carriers are seeing the maximum growth rate in today’s
market, as shipping companies prefer smaller sizes due to many restrictions put on
ships of larger size. Ships of these size are also able to access most of the ports and
canals, which increases their scope of trade-making abilities.

According to Structural Properties:

 Single Bottom Bulk Carrier: These type of bulk carrier ships do not have a
double bottom, and the only barrier between the sea and the cargo is the outer
bottom plate. Bulk carriers under 120 m length do not require a double bottom as
per structural requirements, but today, ship designers still prefer to avoid single
bottoms in order to prevent contact of cargo with sea water in case of structural
damages.

 Double Bottom-Single Hull Bulk Carrier: These ships have a single hull, but are
provided with a double bottom or a tank top throughout its length (from aft of the
forward collision bulkhead to the aft peak bulkhead). The double bottom spaces
are used for storage of ballast and duct keel for passage of pipelines.

 Double Hull Bulk Carrier: The use of double hull in bulk carrier designs have
increased rapidly over the last ten years. The wing tanks at the sides are an
added advantage, and provide more marginal ballast, and better control on the
stability of the ship.

Based on the type of cargo carried and the size, there are some commercial terms used
for nomenclature of bulk carriers, as discussed below:

OBO Carriers: Ore-Bulk-Oil Carriers have holds such arranged that they can carry ore,
solid dry bulk, and oil in the same voyage, without interference between each cargo
type. We will discuss the design of these bulk carriers in a later stage of this article.

O/O Carriers: Ore and Oil carriers can carry a combination of ore and oil in the same
voyage. These vessels need to comply with special codes that are to be followed for
containment and transportation of oil at sea.

VLOC: Very Large Ore Carrier.

VLBC: Very Large Bulk Carrier.

ULOC: Ultra Large Ore Carrier.

ULBC: Ultra Large Bulk Carrier.

We will now look into the design of bulk carriers which include the hullform, general
arrangement of different types of bulk carriers based on their functionality, structural
design and arrangement of bulk carriers and how they vary with the type of cargo. One
unique feature we will look into, is the various types of loading sequences followed in
order to maintain the structural loads within limits, and how these functional factors are
incorporated in the design process.

Design Aspects of Bulk Carriers:

Hullform:

The characteristic feature of a bulk carrier’s hull geometry is its high coefficient of
buoyancy. In other words, it has a full-form, which means when compared to finer form
ships like container ships or naval warships, the volume of hull at the forward and aft
sections is higher in case of a bulk carrier.

Hull of a bulk carrier in lightship condition. (Source: wikipedia)

The aforementioned is very clearly notable in figure above. As can be seen, a bulk
carrier has a long parallel mid body extended over most part of its length forward and
abaft midship. This is to enable maximum volume within the hull for maximizing the
usable cargo carrying volume within the holds. The blunt shape of the bow is actually a
result of the long parallel mid body. The coefficient of buoyancy of bulk carriers range
from 0.7 to 0.8.
Though bulk carriers fall under the category of Type A according to International Load
Line Convention for Ships, they have low freeboard in loaded condition, that is, these
are ships with high loaded draft. This makes it important for the ship designer to
calculate the ballast capacity accordingly so that the ballast draft achieved in fully
ballasted condition is not significantly different from the fully loaded draft. Attaining an
optimised draft in all loading conditions is necessary because maximum hydrodynamic
efficiency is achieved at these drafts. The ballast capacity of bulk carriers are usually
high so as to achieve propeller immersion.

All bulk carriers today have a transom stern and a bulb shaped aft below the waterline
which allows undisturbed streamlined flow onto the propeller disc and maximises the
propeller efficiency. The design speed of most bulkers range from 12 to 18 knots.

General Arrangement:

The following figures show the general arrangement (Profile view, Plan view, and
Midship Plan) of a bulk carrier. A common dry bulk carrier has a clear main deck with
the machinery room and superstructure. Hatches with unrestricted access to holds are
designed on the main deck with steel hatch covers to facilitate easy loading and
discharge of cargo.
 General Arrangement Plan of a typical bulk carrier. (Source of Profile and Plan view: Wikimedia Common

Most bulk carriers have deck mounted cranes that have 360 degree access and can
load and discharge cargo from the holds immediately forward and aft. We will look into
the ballast spaces when we study the midship section of bulk carriers. The just forward
of the forward collision bulkhead is used for chain locker. The fore peak tank in the
bulbous bow is used to control and maintain the trim of the vessel and to ensure
complete propeller immersion.

Usually, cylindrical type bulbous bows are used for bulk carriers. That is because most
of the volume in these bulbs is concentrated at the center of the bulb, hence providing
optimum efficiency at both, fully loaded and 100 percent ballast conditions.

Structural Design:

Midship Section:

Single Hull Double Bottom Bulk Carrier: The drawing that makes for a unique
identification for a ship’s type, functionality, and structural arrangement is the midship
section drawing. In order to be able to design a midship section, a designer should be
able to read a midship section drawing and understand why each component is present
where it is, and how is the scantling of each component decided. We will now look into
the midship sections of different types of bulk carriers and discuss the functional
aspects along with.

Figure below shows the midship section of a typical single hull bulk carrier with a double
bottom. Ducted keels are generally preferred in such ships as they provide enough
space for passage of pipelines. Some designers also prefer to call it a pipe tunnel. But
its structural purpose is to transmit the weight of the ship to the keel blocks when dry-
docked. The thickness of the duct keel plates is higher than the adjacent plating by at
least 5 mm.

Bulk carriers are longitudinally stiffened, that is the stiffeners on the plates run in
longitudinal direction. This is because the loads coming onto a bulk carrier (which we
will discuss at a later stage) cause longitudinal bending moments. Hence failure of the
hull girder due to longitudinal bending becomes more probable.
 Midship Section of a Typical Single hull Double bottom Bulk Carrier (Port Side only)

The tank top plating and and outer bottom plating are held together by vertical plate
structure called the plate floor. Note here that though the term uses the word ‘floor’, it is
actually a vertical structure. The circular perforations on the plate floor are provided for
reducing the weight of the structure. They are called lightening holes. The oval
perforations are manholes that provide human access for maintenance operations.

The bottom corner of the section is provided with angular tanks running along the length
of the ship. These are called hopper tanks, and the angular plating that covers them is
called hopper tank plate or hopper tank sloping bulkhead. These are also stiffened
longitudinally by steel profiles. The most common profile used in stiffening hull girder
plates are bulb and L sections. Bulb sections are more preferable as they have more
moment of inertia for the same cross sectional area as compared to L sections. Hopper
tanks are used for storage of water ballast.

The hopper tank section is stiffened by a heavy web as shown above. These web
sections are provided at frames having plate floors, and these are repeated after every
three to four frames. The stiffeners at the bilge and the hopper plate are welded to the
web frame. The web plate is further stiffened by flat bar stiffeners to prevent distortion.

The topside corner is also provided with a sloping bulkhead, and the space is used for
either storing another type of cargo, or for storage of water ballast. These tanks are
called upper wing tanks. The main purpose of providing the wing tank sloping bulkhead
is however different. Bulk cargo when stored always forms a slope on the surface. The
angle of this slope is called angle of repose. If the angle of the surface of the heap
increases, the material shifts until the angle of repose is attained. In order to prevent the
angle of the surface from exceeding the angle of repost, the wing tank sloping bulkhead
is provided at such an angle so that the above phenomenon is prevented. Hence, in
case of bulk carriers carrying more than a single type of cargo in multiple voyages, the
angle of the topside sloping bulkhead is determined by the cargo having the minimum
angle of repose. This prevents cargo shifting in the transverse direction, and does not
result in listing during transit.

The side shell plate is stiffened transversely instead of longitudinally, by a side frame
which is usually an L section. The side frame is connected to the hopper tank plating
and wing tank plating by brackets. The brackets are also flanged at free ends, and are
provided for proper stress flow from the plates to the web frames.

Sheer strake is the plate that connects the deck plating and the side shell. The
thickness of sheer strakes is usually at least 3 mm more than the deck plate or side
shell (whichever is more). This is because a lot of stress concentration occurs in this
region. Hence higher plate thickness is required to keep the stress levels within design
limits.

A hatch coaming is provided around the hatch opening. The height and thickness of the
hatch opening above the main deck is determined by the rules prescribed by
classification societies. The coaming is usually supported by brackets that maintain
stress flow from the coaming to the deck plate.

Double Hull Bulk Carrier: Many companies prefer double hull designs today, not only
because of the increased safety of cargo containment, but also due to increased
stability of these designs. Figure 4 shows the midship section of a double hull or double
skin bulk carrier.

The space within the outer and inner skin is strengthened by transverse frames and
longitudinal stiffeners running along the ship’s length. Stringers (Shown as Stringers 1,
2 and 3 in the figure) are used to decrease the span and depth of the transverse
frames. They are also used to divide the double hull space into multiple wing tanks.

Midship Section of a double hull bulk carrier.

Since the wing tanks at various heights are used as ballast spaces, these designs do
not require hopper tanks, therefore increasing the space for cargo containment.
However, topside sloping tanks are provided to prevent cargo shifting. The left side of
the above figure shows an ordinary frame without plate floors. At intervals of every three
to four such frames, web frames (right half of Figure 4) are provided with plate floors or
solid floors. Pipe ducts are provided within the duct keel and upper most part of the
double hull space for carrying oils and ballast water.

Ore Bulk Oil (OBO) and Ore Oil Carriers: Hybrid bulk carrier designs have been
developed to carry oil, dry bulk cargo, and ores in a single voyage. The midship section
of an Ore/Oil carrier is shown in Figure 5. The ship is transversely divided into sections,
where the section at the center is used to carry ore, and the tanks at the sides and
bottom is used to carry oil. If you, however, look at the arrangement of the ore hold, you
would notice it is positioned at the top. Why do you think this is done?

It is because, most ore carriers carry iron ore, which has high density compared to most
other dry bulk cargo. Due to this, the weight to volume ratio of ore is much higher than
other dry bulk cargo. Hence, placing the ore hold at a lower position would lower the
vertical center of gravity of the ship to such an extent that the ship would become too
stable or stiff. This would cause the ship to experience rapid rolling motions, causing
cargo shift and motion sickness to the crew.

Figure 6 shows the midship section of an ore carrier. The notable feature of an ore
carrier is its high double bottom. Now that we have discussed why the ore holds in
ore/oil carriers are placed at higher vertical levels, it would be easy for you to
understand the reason behind providing high double bottoms for these ships.
Midship section of an Ore-Oil (O/O) Carrier.
 Midship Section of an ore Carrier.

Alternate Hold Loading:

Alternate hold loading is a common technique practiced by bulk carriers in case of iron
ore transportation or in cases when the amount of cargo to be transported is not
sufficient to fill all the cargo holds to their full capacity. Such a loading arrangement is
shown in Figure 7.

The advantage of this loading system is that it enables equal distribution of cargo weight
in the forward and aft holds of the ship, hence preventing any unwanted trim due to
longitudinally concentrated cargo. It also allows the cargo holds to be either fully empty
or filled to full capacity so as to prevent any shifting of cargo due to ship motions.

The only disadvantage is that alternate loading pattern leads to increased shear forces
at the transverse bulkheads. In order to prevent the shear forces from exceeding safe
limits of the bulkhead material, suitable alternate ballasting is done in the wing tanks of
the empty holds. Ships that are designed for alternate hold loading are also provided
with increased bulkhead plating thicknesses to maintain shear stresses below ultimate
levels.

Bulkheads:

All bulk carriers are provided with transverse watertight bulkheads between holds that
divide the ship into watertight compartments. The secondary purpose of these
bulkheads is to provide additional transverse strength to the ship structure.

The most common type of bulkhead used today is the corrugated transverse bulkhead,
as illustrated in Figure 8. Corrugations eliminate the need for the bulkhead plating to be
additionally stiffened, and also have a higher strength to weight ratio than typical
stiffened bulkhead panels. The base of the bulkhead is provided with a sloping plate
called the shredder plate (shown in Figure 9), and the corrugated bulkhead is mounted
on a bulkhead stool which transfers the weight onto the solid plate floors below. The
shredder plate prevents accumulation of cargo at the base of the corrugations.
Transverse and Plan view of Watertight Corrugated Transverse Bulkhead.
 Elevation and Plan View of a Corrugated Bulkhead.

Types of Hatch Covers:

There are different types of watertight hatch covers used in bulk carriers, and a general
knowledge of functionality and usability of each type is necessary for a designer to
make the right choice of hatch cover for a particular bulk carrier.

 Fore and Aft Single Pull Hatch Cover: These are the most common type of
hatch covers used in small scale bulkers. They consist of a series of plates
comprising the hatch cover. The plates at the center of the hatch opening (leading
plate) is driven by a chain pulley or by hydraulic motors, such that the cover plates
behind the leading plate are vertically stowed open.
 Folding Hatch Cover: These hatch covers consist of a series of cover plates that
can be lifted into folded condition by on board deck cranes, or the leading plate
can be pushed back by hydraulic actuators and the remaining plates are hence
folded into vertical position. These are provided on bulk carriers with less deck
space or in cases when the spacing between two holds is minimum. Figure 10
shows a folding hatch cover being opened.

 Piggy Back Hatch Cover: Piggy back hatch covers allow horizontal stowage of
the hatch cover forward and aft of the hatch opening. These are provided in longer
bulk carriers, where spacing between holds are sufficient. It consists of a panel
driven by motor that enables the bottom panel to roll in a piggy-back style with the
dumb panel stowed on top of it. Figure 11 shows the schematic diagram of a piggy
back hatch cover.

Piggy back hatch cover on a bulk carrier.

Recent development in bulk carrier designs have focused on improvement of hull

geometry to attain better hydrodynamic characteristics. Many design firms have
developed models of single hull and double skin bulk carriers keeping in mind advanced
cargo containment and waste treatment facilities. The International Association of
Classification Societies (IACS) have now developed Common Structural Rules for
design of bulk carriers, that are being followed by all classification societies to design
the structure of single hull and double hull bulkers. Advancement in design of bulkers
are now more focused on size optimization and achieving maximum cargo carrying
capacity under given space constraints, which gives a lot of scope not only for naval
architects but also for structural engineers and fluid dynamic specialists.

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Bulk carriers are a type of ship which transports cargoes in bulk quantities. The cargo
transported in such ships is loose cargo i.e. without any specific packaging to it and
generally contains items like food grains, ores and coals and even cement. Since their
inception towards the mid-19th century, bulk vessels have been revolutionised and
streamlined in order to facilitate greater ease for their owners and operators, presently.

In addition to carrying dry cargo like the ones specified above, a bulker is also engaged
at times to carry liquefied cargoes. The liquefied cargo carried by the bulk ship includes
oil, petrol and various other liquid chemical substances.

Image for Representation Purpose Only; Credits: wikimedia.org

IMO Recognition and Vessel Requirements

Although bulk carriers have been employed since the 1850s, their appropriate definition
and interpretation can be found in the SOLAS Convention – year 1999. However, over
the years various other interpretations have also been added to the official definition,
which are now being employed quite effectively.
 Image for Representation purpose only;
Credits: wikimedia.org

In terms of capacitances, bulk vessels can carry a maximum cargo of about 4, 00,000
DWT. The vessels are further sub-divided into six major classes based on their cargo
carrying capacitance and the important marine channels through which they can easily
pass. The various classes of bulk cargo vessels in the descending order of cargo
capacitance can be elaborated as under:

– Very Large Carriers

– Capesize & handymax

– Panamax

– Handysize

– Small sized
Apart from these major classifications, there are several other classifications applicable
to certain specific navigation channels. These vessel classifications however do not
form a part of the international shipping domain but are restricted to certain
geographical shipping arenas.

In order to bring about a better quality to the cargo ship, it has been proposed that these
vessels be built according to Common Structural Rules or CSR. Vessels that are built
according to the CSR specifications are annotated with the CSR notation, which helps
to boost the vessel’s credibility in the global sector.

Similarly the vessels are also required to undertake the ESP (Enhanced Survey
Program) as a part of the SOLAS Convention rules. The ESP mainly involves a
thorough monitoring and checking of the hulls of these types of ships.

Statistically, the bulk cargo carriers have a stake of about 40% in the international
shipping sector. Of these 40%, the market leaders in terms of ownerships and
operations are the South Asian countries like China, Japan and South Korea. In addition
to these nations, Greece is yet another leading owner and operator of bulk carriers.

Looking at these figures, it can be inferred that the bulk ship still enjoys a vital position
in the overall scheme of operations in the maritime sector. Also with a greater reduction
in the threat to safety and health of the crewmen and the longevity of the vessel as well,
it can be prognosticated that these vessels will still continue to remain a part of the
maritime industry for years to come.

Disclaimer: The authors’ views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the
views of Marine Insight. Data and charts, if used, in the article have been sourced from
available information and have not been authenticated by any statutory authority. The
author and Marine Insight do not claim it to be accurate nor accept any responsibility for
the same. The views constitute only the opinions and do not constitute any guidelines or
recommendation on any course of action to be followed by the reader.

The article or images cannot be reproduced, copied, shared or used in any form
without the permission of the author and Marine Insight.
(DB) tanks,topside tanks & wing tanks for bulk carriers
ballast handling

All bulk carriers must have ballast tanks of sufficient capacity to

allow immersion of the propeller and ensure suitable trim and
stability. The ballast conditions of a bulk carrier are as follows:

1. Light ballast has empty ballast holds

2. heavy ballast (seagoing condition), which is with the ballast
holds full
3. port condition is for trimming/air draught situations, using the
additional dedicated cargo ballast holds that are for port use
only.

Topside Tanks

These are tanks of triangular configuration fitted at both

shoulders/wings of the cargo holds. Their purpose is to carry ballast
water. Topside tanks consist of a `transverse ring' made from
frames in the transverse direction. Each transverse ring consists of:

1. A deck transverse the part of the frame under the deck

supporting the deck plating
2. a side transverse the part of the frame supporting the side
shell plating. This is in line with the side shell frames within the
cargo holds (in single skin bulk carriers)
3. a bottom transverse the part of the frame supporting the
bottom part of the topside tank.

The topside tanks are connected to the main ballast system of the
ship. When discharging topside tanks the BLU Code stipulates that
during the loading/ discharging of cargo the discharge rate must
remain constant and that the weight of ballast water should be
harmonized with the weight of the cargo.

Wing Tanks (Lower Hopper Tanks)

These tanks are on the sides of the vessel within the bottom wing of
each cargo hold and are the continuation of the DB tanks. They
provide additional space for ballast and the sloping margins of the
tanktop to collect the cargo in the central part of the hold.

The fuel tank plating forms a sloping boundary that carries static
and dynamic load due to cargo and ballast. The transverse frames
in the wing tanks are divided into three types, side transverse,
bottom transverse and bilge transverse, according to the structure
to which they are attached.

In addition to carrying ballast, the upper and lower wing tanks have
the following advantages:

 The space where an untrimmed cargo would otherwise shift

into is occupied by the upper wing tanks and void space (upper
stool), meaning cargoes such as grain can sometimes be
carried without being trimmed.
 the lower wing tank, combined with the lower void space,
shapes the lower part of the cargo hold enabling cargo to be
easily accessed in the central part of the hold when discharged
with grabs.
Fig : Tanks configuration of a typical bulk carrier

Double Bottom (DB) Tanks

The double bottom is fitted between the forward collision bulkhead

and the after peak bulkhead. Its top or `inner bottom' forms the
deck of the cargo holds and continues out to the ship's side so that
the turn of the bilge can be protected.

The design of double bottom tanks is based on the length of the

ship, ie for ships longer than 120 m the arrangement of DB tanks
and sloped bulkheads of wing tanks consists of longitudinal framing,
while for ships of 120 m or less the arrangement consists of
transverse framing (at least) within the cargo hold. The cargo hold
area directly below the hatchway must be strengthened. On many
ships, the double bottom is divided transversely into three
compartments instead of two. In this case, there is a central void
known as the `duct keel' where piping may be routed.
As noted earlier, wing tanks and DBs are connected and form part
of the ballast system with the exception that some DBs are
dedicated FO/DO tanks only and will not be connected to the ballast
system, avoiding any chance of contamination.

Lower hopper and DB tanks in the aft hold can be fuel tanks while,
correspondingly, top side tanks are ballast.
The general-purpose bulk carrier, in which usually the central
hold section only is used for cargo. The partitioned tanks which
surround it are used for ballast purposes either on ballast
voyages, or in the case of the saddle tanks, to raise the ship's
center of gravity when a low density cargo is carried. Some of
the double-bottom tanks may be used for fuel oil and fresh
water.

Fig :Profile of a typical bulk carrier

The saddle tanks also serve to shape the upper region of the
cargo hold and trim the cargo. Large hatchways are a feature
of bulk carriers, since they reduce cargo-handling time during
loading and unloading.

Fig : A Bulk carrier on sea passage

Bulk carrier general arrangement and size range are similar to

that of tankers, as shown in Figure . Single-purpose bulk
carriers are generally designed as ore carriers, built to carry
heavy cargoes stowing at 25 cubic feet per long ton or less, or
dry bulk carriers, for grain and similar cargoes stowing at 45 to
50 cubic feet per ton.
Like tankers, the general arrangement of cargo spaces is
dictated by the facts that the cargo is in the form of
homogeneous particles of more or less uniform size, and can
be transferred by blowers, conveyors, or grab buckets. Cargo
spaces are divided into holds to meet structural and
subdivision requirements, to restrain cargo movements and
resulting upsetting moments, to permit the carrying of
different cargoes simultaneously, and to provide for ballasting.
Machinery is invariably aft, and the nonperishable nature of
the cargoes leads to speeds in the 12- to 16-knot range, with
attendant full hull forms.

Relatively small volumes of dense ores and similar cargoes will

settle a ship to her summer load line. Holds on ore carriers are
therefore quite small, bounded by broad wing tanks and deep
double bottoms. The double bottom and longitudinal bulkheads
are of heavy construction to carry the heavy ore load.

The narrow hold breadth limits transverse weight shifts and

the depth of the double bottom is sufficient to keep the center
of gravity of the ore high enough to prevent stiff rolling in a
seaway. Large volume wing tanks are used for ballast.
Fig : Cargo hold construction of a typical bulk carrier

Designed for low-density cargoes, dry bulk carriers require

much greater hold volume than ore carriers, and therefore
have much shallower inner bottoms .

In some designs the topside tanks are omitted or fitted with

bolted plates in the sloping plating facing the hold. When very
light cargoes are carried, the plates are removed and the tanks
are filled along with the hold; the cargo in the tanks feeds into
the hold by gravity when discharging. Larger carriers are
sometimes built with an inner side shell, which eases hold
cleaning and provides additional ballast space.

Shallow double-bottom bulk carriers are sometimes designed

to carry high-density cargo, by arranging them with alternate
long and short holds. High-density cargo is loaded only in
alternate holds to keep the center of gravity high enough to
prevent excessive metacentric height.
The double-bottom structure under the holds intended for
heavy cargo is augmented. The alternating cargo distribution
causes high vertical shear near the bounding bulkheads, which
may require increased shell scantlings.

With the increase in industrial demand for raw materials

paralleling that for petroleum, the design of bulk carriers, like
tankers, also evolved to include larger hulls. Bulk carrier
deadweights range from quite small to over 200,000 tons.

In order to increase the proportion of payload operation above

the 50-percent level typical of most straight bulk carriers (for
tankers or dry bulk carriers operating between specific ports,
cargo is often carried on only one leg of the journey), a trend
toward combination carriers began about 1950. At first, these
were dual purpose ships (ore/oil, bulk/oil) which carried
different cargos on separate legs of a voyage cycle consisting
of two or more legs. This development has evolved into
combination carriers known as ore/bulk/oil ships (OBO).
Despite differences, bulk carriers of all types have certain
features in common:

i) Single cargo deck, without ’tween decks.

ii) Machinery aft of cargo spaces so shaft tunnel does not

interfere with discharging gear.

iii) Large ballast capacity.

iv) Double bottoms under bulk cargo holds.

To facilitate rapid cargo discharge and minimize cleaning

requirements, holds are designed with a minimum of internal
obstructions that might catch and hold cargo. Bulkhead
stiffening is attained by the use of corrugated plate rather than
welded stiffeners. Hold cross section, is arranged so that cargo
is self-trimming and self-loading:

i) Cargo will flow outwards from the point of discharge of

bucket grabs or gravity chutes to fill the entire cargo space
with a minimum of hand trimming.

Bulk carrier subdivision

ii) The narrowing width at the top of the hold limits transverse
cargo shifts when the hold is not completely filled.

iii) During discharge, remaining cargo will flow to a fairly small

area where it can be picked up by the discharging equipment.

Holds of different lengths may be distributed throughout the

length of the ship for flexibility in cargo distribution; cargoes of
varying densities can be distributed so as to keep the
longitudinal bending moment within acceptable limits.

Except for equipment to open or remove hatch covers, most

bulk carriers are without cargo gear. Cargo is loaded by gravity
chutes or derrick grabs and discharged by grabs, conveyor
systems, or in the case of grain and similar light cargo, by
suction.

Some bulk carriers are built as self unloaders, either by the

provision of derrick grabs, or by trimming the cargo spaces to
belt conveyers running under the holds to a bucket conveyer
which transfers the cargo to another belt conveyor on a long
unloading boom. Conveyor type self-unloaders are fairly
common on the Great Lakes . Combination carriers are fitted
with cargo pumps and piping systems for discharging oil
cargoes.