4.1 SPECIES, COMMUNITIES AND ECOSYSTEMS.

Vocabulary
Ecology: the study of relationships between living organisms and between organisms and their environment.
Ecosystem: a community and its abiotic (non-living) environment.
Population: a group of organisms of the same species who live in the same area at the same time.
Community: a group of populations living and interacting with each other in an area.
Species: a group of organisms which can interbreed and produce fertile offspring (ex. humans).
Habitat: the environment in which a species normally lives or the location of a living organism

- Interdependence of Living Organisms

- Cyclic Nature of Ecosystems
- What is a Species?
- A group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
- Members of Sepcies
- Similar characteristics
- Ability to interbreed
- Different gene pools than other organisms
- Common phylogeny (family tree)
- Some members of separate species that can interbreed, but they can't reproduce. This is because
they usually do not have the same amount of chromosomes.
- Some members of the same species don't interbreed because they are separated by long
distances, still the same species
- Some organism reproduce asexually, cant determine if the same species by trying to breed, must
take a look at genetics
- Some individuals may be infertile, another limitation to the “interbreeding” defenition
- Hybrids:
- Offspring of two similar but different species.
- Mule, Zorse, Liger = cannot produce offspring
- Generally do not occur naturally in nature. Do not find attractive.
- Populations can become isolated
- Why biodiversity?
- When groups of one species are separated for a very long period of time, millions of
years, theses species will evolve differently in different environments. Will evolve
separately and over time lose the ability to reproduce. Genes will be too different
- Migrations, canyons, flooding, volcanic eruptions
- Autotrophs and Heterotrophs
- Autotrophs:
- Can synthesize organic molecules out of inorganic molecules, usually through
photosynthesis.
- Also called producers because they make food that is eaten by other organisms
- Plants algae bacteria
- Heterotrophs:
- Must obtain organic molecules from other organisms
- Also called consumers, animals, fungi, some bacteria
- Consumers:
- Obtain (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins) by ingesting other organism.
- Can eat producers or consumers. And or their products.
- Detritivores: eat non living organic matter,dead leaves, feces, carcasses
- Ex. Earth Worms, dung beetles
- Detritis ( non living organic matter)
- Internal digesters, they consume what they eat
- Saprotrophs: same thing as detritivores
- Still eating non living things, but instead of internally digesting it, they digest the food
externally
- By secreting digestive enzymes onto other non living things and then the saprotrophs will
reabsorb the digestive materials.
- Very important to eco systems because they recycle nutrients, They break down the
nutrients and dead things and make them available for other organism to use, and they
also kinda clean up the area yk.
- Communities:
- Population: group of the same species living in the same area
 - Community: a group of populations living and interacting with each other in the same area.
Different populations. Symbiotic relationships?
- Interacting: Feeding, providing vital substances, getting protection for one another
- Ecosystem
- Abiotic: components of the environment that are non living.
- Ph, temp, light levels, moisture levels,rocks clouds
- Biotic: components of the environment that are living
- Plants, animals, bacteria, fungi, protists
- Ecosystem: All of the biotic and abiotic factor in a given are.

- Where do autotrophs get their nutrients

- e: Carbon, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus
- Get their nutrients from photosynthesis (mainly)
- Make organic compounds from inorganic compounds
- Called producers
- Start of the food chain
- Nutrient Cycling
- The earth is a closed system
- Energy can come and go but the amount of matter always stays the same
- Energy flows through a system but nutrients are recycled
- Energy Comes into earth via the sun, then get turned into chemical energy in plants,
which is the eaten by other organism and the leaves the hearts atmosphere as heat that is
given o ff by these organisms
- Ecosystems must recycle important nutrients such as carbon nitrogen and other elements
- Decomposers
- Saptrothrops and Detritivores
- Unlock nutrients stuck in dead bodies
- Digestive enzymes convert the organic matter into a form that is more useful for
other organisms
- Ex. Nitrogen fixing bacteria turns proteins from dead organism into
nitrates that plants can use
- Turn nutrients into components of soil that other plants can use.
- Sustainability of Ecosystems
- Producers take inorganic substances and turn them into organic molecules
(compounds) like glucose or sugar, so super cool
- Convert the monosaccharides into larcher polysaccharides Starches
- Can also produce other important molecules like lipids and proteins
- Consumers will eat the producers
- Those complex molecules are digested into smaller things like glucose or amino
acids, when the consumers die, the cells are broke down be decomposers, and
then the nutrients are returned back into the soil
- MESOCOSM
- Model for the earth
- Many examples of nutrients: oxygen, carbon, nitrogen , phosphorus
- The Nitrogen Cycle:
- Nitrogen is very important, a lot of bio molecules depend on nitrogen (
Proteins and DNA)
- Atmosphere and Soil, nitrogen cycle in a terrestrial place.
- Plants separate the soil and the atmosphere
- Plants need nitrogen, Nitrogen in atmosphere is not in
the correct for for plants to absorb. In the soil,
nitrogen is absorbed and is fixed and is fixed by
nitrogen fixing bacteria. They convert the nitrogen
into a form that plants can use. Then the plants can
absorb it and become part of the plant.
- Animals also need nitrogen, the animals can eat the
plant and then they can have the nitrogen too. How
does the nitrogen goes back into the atmosphere
- When animals die or poo, the decomposers will break
down the nitrogen and the decomposer will return the
nitrogen into the atmosphere.
-
- Scavengers;
- principally feed on dead and decaying carcasses rather than hunting live prey (crows, vultures,
hyenas.)

- Fieldwork:
- Counting exacntu numbers individuals in an ecosystem or even in a small area can be
nearly impossible
- How do we find?
- We do this by taking a sample
- Taking a sample from random parts of the field using a quadrat.
- How many quadrant to count whole area and make
- If you do this in random spots of the field, you can make
conclusion about how many are in a whole field.
- 1 x1 square usually.
- if two species are typically found within the same habitat, they show a positive association
- Two species end not to occur within the same habitat, they show a negative
association

-
4.2 Energy Flow

- Energy Source:
- All green plants, and some bacteria, are photoautotrophic – they use sunlight as a source of energy
- This makes light the initial source of energy for almost all communities (cause it can be traced
back)
- Producers can also be chemo autotrophic
- Makes organic compounds from energy derived from oxidation of chemicals
- which use energy derived from chemical processes

- Light energy is absorbed by photoautotrophs and is converted into chemical energy (stored into
carbon organic compounds) via photosynthesis and is transferred to heterotrophs via feeding

- Flow:
- Energy enters most ecosystems as sunlight, where it is converted into chemical energy by
producers (via photosynthesis)
- Trophic Levels:
- The position an organism occupies within a feeding sequence is known as a trophic level
- Producers always occupy the first trophic level in a feeding sequence
- Primary consumers feed on producers and hence occupy the second trophic level
- Further consumers (e.g. secondary, tertiary, etc.) may occupy subsequent trophic levels

- Food Chain
- Sequence of feeding relationships and energy flow between trophic levels where each member
feeds on the previous one
- Arrows represent the transfer of energy and matter as one organism is eaten by another, follow the
flow of energy

-
- The first organism in a food chain is always a producer, followed by consumers (primary,
secondary, tertiary, etc)
- Food Webs:
- A food web is a diagram that shows the feeding relationships in a community.
- b shows a much more realistic picture of the feeding relations of organisms in a community than a
food chain
 - Organisms can have more than one food source
- Organisms can have more than one predator
- This means that, unlike a food chain, organisms in a food web can occupy more than
one trophic level
- Energy Transforamtions
- Energy stored in organic molecules (ex. sugars and lipids) can be released by cell respiration to
produce ATP
- ATP is then used to fuel metabolic reactions required for growth and homeostasis
- by-product of these chemical reactions is heat (thermal energy), which is released from the
organism, into the atmosphere.
- Examples:
- Light energy can be converted to chemical energy in photosynthesis.
- Chemical energy can be converted to kinetic energy in muscle contraction.
- Chemical energy can be converted to electrical energy in nerve cells.
- Chemical energy can be converted to thermal energy in heat-generating adipose
tissue.

- Heat loss
- All of these chemical conversion reactions are exothermic (cellular respiration) and release thermal
energy (heat) as a by-product
- Living organisms cannot turn this heat into other forms of usable energy
- This heat energy is released from the organism and is lost from the ecosystem to the environment
(unlike nutrients, which are recycled)
- Hence ecosystems require a continuous influx of energy from an external source (such as the sun)

- ENERGY ‘LOSS’
- Only chemical energy can be used by the next trophic level.
- Typically only 10-20% (energy efficiency) of the energy is used from the previous step in the food
chain because:
- Not all of the organism is consumed as a food source.
- Not all the food eaten can be assimilated, i.e. absorbed and used in the body, so some
passes out in the feces.
- Some organisms die before being eaten by an organism from the next trophic level
- Energy is lost as heat due to cellular respiration at all trophic levels.

- Energy Loss and Biomass

- As energy is lost between trophic levels, higher trophic levels store less energy as carbon
compounds and so have less biomass
- Biomass is the total mass of a group of organisms – consisting of the carbon compounds contained
in the cells and tissues after all water content is removed
- Because carbon compounds store energy, scientists can measure the amount of energy added to
organisms as biomass
- Biomass diminishes along food chains with the loss of carbon dioxide, water and waste products
(ex. urea) to the environment

LENGTH OF FOOD CHAINS

- Because energy and biomass are lost between each level of a food chain, the number of potential trophic
levels is limited
- Higher trophic levels receive less energy / biomass from feeding and so need to eat larger quantities to
obtain sufficient amounts
- Because higher trophic levels need to eat more, they expend more energy (and biomass) hunting for food
- If the energy required to hunt food exceeds the energy available from the food eaten, the trophic level
becomes unviable
PYRAMID OF ENERGY

A graphical representation of the amount of energy at each trophic level of a food chain;
n units of energy per area per time (e.g. kJ m–2 year–1),
Shows how much and how fast energy flows from one trophic level to the next one in a community
Notice the loss of energy with each transfer in a food chain; only ~10% energy passes to the next trophic level.

Units used are kilojoules per square meter per year; kJ m-2 y-1

Chi Squared Test:

A chi-squared (X2 ) statistical test can be applied to data generated from quadrat sampling to determine if there is a
statistically significant association between the distribution of two species\

A chi-squared test can be completed by following five simple steps: 1. Identify hypotheses (null versus alternative) 2.
Construct a table of frequencies (observed versus expected) 3. Apply the chi-squared formula 4. Determine the
degree of freedom (df) 5. Identify the p value (should be <0.0
A chi-squared statistical test is only valid if all the expected frequencies are 5 or more and the sample was taken at
random from the population

■ Null hypothesis (H0): There is no significant difference between the distribution of two species (i.e.
distribution is random)
 ■ Alternative hypothesis (H1): There is a significant difference between the distribution of species (i.e. species
are associated)

A table must be constructed that identifies expected distribution frequencies for each species (for comparison against
observed)

Expected frequencies are calculated according to the following formula:

■ Expected frequency = (Row total × Column total) ÷ Grand total

The formula used to calculate a statistical value for the chi-squared test is as follows:

∑ = Sum ; O = Observed frequency ; E = Expected frequency

Step 4: Determine the degree of freedom (df)

the degree of freedom is a mathematical restriction that designates what range of values fall within each significance
level

df = (m – 1) (n – 1)

Where: m = number of rows ; n = number of columns

■ When the distribution patterns for two species are being compared, the degree of freedom should always be
1

The final step is to apply the value generated to a chi-squared distribution table to determine if results are statistically
significant

■ A value is considered significant if there is less than a 5% probability (p < 0.05) the results are attributable to
chance
■ A value of 7.90 lies above a p value of 0.01, meaning there is less than a 1% probability results are caused
by chance
4.3 Carbon Cycling

Carbon- backbone of all organic marcmolecules: proteins, carbs, fats, amino acids,DNA,

● The four spheres are the atmosphere (air), lithosphere (ground), hydrosphere (water / oceans) and biosphere
(living things)
Different forms of carbon

- Atmospheric gasses – mainly carbon dioxide (CO2 ), but also methane (CH4 )
- Oceanic carbonates – including bicarbonates dissolved in the water and calcium carbonate in corals and
shells
- As organic materials – including the carbohydrates, lipids and proteins found in all living things
- As non-living remains – such as detritus and fossil fuels

Different processes facilitate the cycling of carbon between the different forms (ex. feeding, combustion, etc.)

Pool: a reserve of carbon, ex. atmosphere, biomass of producers

Flux: transfer of carbon from one pool to the other, ex. photosynthesis, respiration

CARBON FIXATION

Autotrophs, such as all plants and algae, convert inorganic carbon dioxide into organic compounds via
photosynthesis

These organic compounds include the carbohydrates, lipids and proteins required by the organism for survival

Since autotrophs use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, the levels of carbon dioxide within the organism should
always be low, i.e. carbon dioxide should always be at a higher concentration in the atmosphere (or water)

This concentration gradient ensures that carbon dioxide will passively diffuse into the autotrophic organism as
required

Heterotrophs cannot synthesize their own organic molecules and instead obtain carbon compounds via feeding
Co2 Absorption

In terrestrial plants, CO2 diffuses from atmosphere into plants through stomata on the underside of leaves

In aquatic plants, it diffuses from water through any parts of the plant

RELEASE OF CARBON DIOXIDE

- All organisms may produce the chemical energy (ATP) required to power metabolic processes via the
process of cell respiration

- Begins anaerobically (without oxygen) in the cytoplasm of cells and is completed aerobically (with oxygen) in
mitochondria of cells.

- Cell respiration involves the breakdown of organic molecules (ex. sugars) and produces carbon dioxide as a
by-product
- The buildup of CO2 in respiring tissues creates a concentration gradient, allowing it to be removed by
passive diffusion
-
PHOTOSYNTHESIS VERSUS RESPIRATION

The amount of carbon dioxide in the environment will be determined by the level of carbon dioxide in these two
processes:

If there is more net photosynthesis than cell respiration occurring in the biosphere, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels
should drop

If there is more net respiration than overall photosynthesis occurring, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels should
increase

DISSOLVED CARBON
Carbon dioxide dissolves in water and some of it will remain as a dissolved gas, however the remainder will combine
with water to form carbonic acid (CO2 + H2O ⇄ H2CO3 )

Carbonic acid will then dissociate to form hydrogen carbonate ions (H2CO3 ⇄ HCO3 – + H+)

This conversion also releases hydrogen ions (H+), which is why pH changes when CO2 is dissolved in water (>
acidic)

Autotrophs absorb both dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen carbonate ions and use them to produce organic
compounds

LIMESTONE

When the hydrogen carbonate ions come into contact with the rocks and sediments on the ocean floor, they acquire
metal ions

This commonly results in the formation of calcium carbonate and the subsequent development of limestone

Living animals may also combine the hydrogen carbonate ions with calcium to form calcium carbonate

This calcium carbonate forms the hardened exoskeleton of coral, as well as forming the main component of mollusca
shells

When the organism dies and settles to the sea floor, these hard components may become fossilized in the limestone
Methane production

Methanogens are archaean microorganisms that produce CH4 as a metabolic by-product in anaerobic conditions\
Anaerobic conditions where methanogens may be found include:

◦ Wetlands (ex. swamps and marshes)

◦ Marine sediments (ex. in the mud of lake beds)
◦ Digestive tract of ruminant animals (e.g. cows, sheep, goats)

Methanogens produce methane from the by-products of anaerobic digestion, principally acetic acid and carbon
dioxide:

Acetic acid → Methane and Carbon Dioxide (CH3COO– + H+ → CH4 + CO2 )

Carbon Dioxide and Hydrogen → Methane and Water (CO2 + 4 H2 → CH4 + 2 H2O)

Methane may either accumulate under the ground or diffuse into the atmosphere

When organic matter is buried in anoxic conditions (ex. sea beds), deposits of methane (natural gas) may form
underground

Rising global numbers of domesticated cattle may be increasing the levels of methane being released into the
atmosphere
OXIDATION OF ATMOSPHERIC METHANE

● When methane is released into the atmosphere as a result of anaerobic reactions, it only persists for ~12 years
● Methane will be naturally oxidized to form carbon dioxide and water (CH2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O)
●This is why methane levels in the atmosphere are not very large, even though significant quantities are being
produced

FOSSILIZATION
1. Partial decomposition
2. Coal formation from peat
3. Oil/natural gas formation

1. PARTIAL DECOMPOSITION
● In many soils, saprotrophic bacteria and fungi will decompose dead organisms and return nutrients to the soil for
cycling

● This decomposition process requires oxygen (cell respiration is required to fuel digestive reactions)

● Waterlogged regions may lack oxygenated air spaces within the soil and thus possess anaerobic conditions

● Anaerobic respiration by organisms in these regions produces organic acids (ex. acetate), resulting in acidic
conditions

● Saprotrophic bacteria and fungi cannot function effectively in anaerobic / acidic conditions, preventing
decomposition

2. COAL FORMATION

● Large quantities of partially decomposed organic matter have accumulated in some ecosystems (waterlogged soils)
and become compressed to form a dark brown acidic material called peat

● When deposits of peat are compressed under sediments, the heat and pressure force out impurities and remove
moisture

● The remaining material has a high carbon concentration and undergoes a chemical transformation to produce coal

3. OIL/NATURAL GAS FORMATION

● Oil (i.e. petroleum) and natural gas form as the result of the decay of marine organisms on the ocean floor

● As a result of the burial and compaction, the organic material becomes heated and hydrocarbons are formed

● The hydrocarbons form oil and gas, which are forced out of the source rock and accumulate in porous rocks (ex.
sandstone)

● The formation of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) takes place over millions of years, making them a non-renewable
energy source

COMBUSTION OF FOSSIL FUELS

● When organic compounds rich in hydrocarbons are heated in the presence of oxygen, they undergo a combustion
reaction

● This reaction is exergonic (produces energy) and releases carbon dioxide and water as by-products

● The carbon dioxide is typically released into the atmosphere, increasing the concentration of the gas in the air
COMBUSTION SOURCES
 Fossil fuels
● Organic compounds can become rich in hydrocarbons when compacted underground for millions of years

● The resulting products of this process are fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas)

● Because this geological process takes millions of years to occur, fossil fuels are a non-renewable energy source

BIOMASS

● An alternative to relying on fuels produced by geological processes is to manufacture fuels from biological
processes

● Living organisms produce hydrocarbons as part of their total biomass (either for use or as a waste product)

● These hydrocarbons can be extracted and purified to produce an alternative fuel source (ex. bioethanol and
biodiesel)

● Provided new raw materials are provided and waste products are removed, this source of energy is renewable

CARBON FLUXES
● Carbon fluxes describe the rate of exchange of carbon between the various carbon sinks/ reservoirs (lithosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere)

● The rate at which carbon is exchanged between these reservoirs depends on the conversion processes involved:

◦ Photosynthesis – removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and fixes it in producers as organic
compounds
◦ Respiration – releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere when organic compounds are digested in living
organisms
◦ Decomposition – releases carbon products into the air or sediment when organic matter is recycled after
death of an organism
◦ Gaseous dissolution – the exchange of carbon gasses between the ocean and atmosphere
◦ Lithification – the compaction of carbon-containing sediments into fossils and rocks within the Earth’s crust
(e.g. limestone)
◦ Combustion – releases carbon gasses when organic hydrocarbons (coal, oil and gas) are burned as a fuel
source
ESTIMATING CARBON FLUXES

● It is not possible to directly measure the size of the carbon sinks or the fluxes between them – instead estimates
are made

● Global carbon fluxes are very large and are therefore measured in gigatonnes (1 gigatonne of carbon = 1 billion
metric tonnes)
● Understanding of the factors that can affect the exchange of carbon between different sinks, such as climate
conditions, natural events and human activity will provide better estimates of flux changes

FACTORS AFFECTING CARBON FLUXES

● Climate Conditions ◦ Rates of photosynthesis will likely by higher in summer seasons, as there is more direct
sunlight and longer days ◦ Oceanic temperatures also determine how much carbon is stored as dissolved CO2 or as
hydrogen bicarbonate ions ◦ Climate events like El Nino and La Nina will change the rate of carbon flux between
ocean and atmosphere ◦ Melting of polar ice caps will result in the decomposition of frozen detritus

● Natural Events ◦ Forest fires can release high levels of carbon dioxide when plants burn (loss of trees also reduces
photosynthetic carbon uptake) ◦ Volcanic eruptions can release carbon compounds from the Earth’s crust into the
atmosphere

● Human Activity ◦ Clearing of trees for agricultural purposes (deforestation) will reduce the removal of atmospheric
CO2 via photosynthesis ◦ Increased numbers of ruminant livestock (ex. cows) will produce higher levels of methane ◦
The burning of fossil fuels will release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere

MONITORING ATMOSPHERIC CO2

● Atmospheric CO2 concentrations have been measured at the Mauna Loa Observatory (in Hawaii) since 1958 by
Charles Keeling

● From these continuous and regular measurements a clear pattern of carbon flux can be seen: ◦ CO2 levels
fluctuate annually (lower in the summer months when long days and more light increase photosynthetic rates)

◦ Global CO2 trends will conform to northern hemisphere patterns as it contains more of the planet’s land
mass (i.e. more trees)

◦ CO2 levels are steadily increasing year on year since the industrial revolution (due to increased burning of
fossil fuels)

◦ Atmospheric CO2 levels are currently at the highest levels recorded since measurements began
Carbon data can be plotted and analyzed using the online database at CDIAC (Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis
Centre)

Climate change

THE NATURAL GREENHOUSE EFFECT

● The earth is warmed by incoming solar radiation that is then either reflected directly back to space or absorbed and
then returned as long-wave thermal radiation (infrared)

● If this occurred as a simple exchange then the Earth’s average temperature would be around 25oC lower than the
global average of 15oC.
GREENHOUSE gasses IN GENERAL

● The reason for the higher than expected average global temperature is the existence of greenhouse gasses in the
atmosphere.

● Nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O2 ) form around 99% of the atmospheric cocktail yet neither gas can absorb or radiate
thermal radiation.

However some gasses in the remaining 1% can. These include

carbon dioxide (CO2 ), water vapor (H2O), methane (CH4 ), nitrous oxides (N2O) and CFCs in the troposphere and
ozone (O3 ) to an extent

70-85% of longer-wavelength radiation is captured by greenhouse gasses and this causes global warming
MAJOR GREENHOUSE gasses

1. Carbon dioxide (CO2 ): released into the air by cell respiration in living organisms and by combustion of fossil fuels
and biomass; removed from air by photosynthesis and dissolving in oceans
2. Water vapor (H2O): formed by evaporation from oceans and transpiration of plants; removed by rainfall and snow

3. Methane (CH4 ): emitted from bacteria that live in waterlogged habitats, animal waste and waste dumped in
landfills; also released during fossil fuel extraction and melting ice from polar areas

4. Nitrous oxide (N2O): naturally released from bacteria in some habitats but also agriculture and vehicle exhausts

Two factors determine the warming impact of a greenhouse gas: a) how readily the gas absorbs long-wave radiation,
and b) how much (concentration) of this gas there is in the atmosphere
HUMAN-CAUSED GREENHOUSE EFFECT?
- Atmospheric CO2 concentrations have started rising significantly since 1950 when the industrial revolution
had a main impact on most countries
- This caused an increase in combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas)
- Strong correlation between rising atmospheric CO2 concentration since the start of industrial revolution and
average global temperatures
GLOBAL GREENHOUSE EMISSIONS IN USA

- Quantity of greenhouse gasses emitted by any country depends on its economy, level of development and
societal expectations
- Burning of fossil fuels is the largest % in US and this reflects its high-energy demands due to transport,
lifestyle with air-conditioning, high-energy domestic use
- However, methane emissions are lower due to absence of rice growing and large-scale cattle ranching,
reflecting again the culture and environment of the US
GREENHOUSE gasses & CLIMATE CHANGE

- Cause increase in greenhouse gasses; human enhanced greenhouse effect. This may contribute to global
warming
- Burning fossil fuels
- Deforestation
- Increased cattle ranching
- Rice farming
- Overuse of fertilizers

- IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) supported the anthropogenic greenhouse effect
- Some claim that global warming is mainly due to natural causes and human activities have not or little
contribution to it
GREENHOUSE GASSES AND WEATHER
- Increase in global average temperatures
- More frequent and intense heat waves and drought periods
- More frequent and protracted periods of rain due to increase in water evaporation
- More intense thunderstorms, tropical storms and hurricanes which may cause flooding
CORRELATION BETWEEN CO2 & TEMPERATURE
- The link between global temperatures and carbon dioxide concentrations was established by analyzing data
over a long time period
- Ice cores taken from the Vostok station in Antarctica provide evidence of the environmental conditions at
the time of freezing
- The Vostok ice core is one of the longest drilled, reaching back 420,000 years and covering the past four
glacial cycles
- By analyzing the gas bubbles trapped in ice, historical CO2 levels and air temperatures (via oxygen
isotopes) can be deduced

VOSTOK ICE CORE DATA

- There is a strong positive correlation between carbon dioxide concentrations and temperature (↑ CO2 levels
∝ ↑ temperature)
- There have been fluctuating cycles of CO2 concentrations which appear to correlate with global warm ages
and ice ages
- Current concentrations of CO2 are higher than at any time recorded in the last 400,000 years

CORRELATION BETWEEN CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS, ATMOSPHERIC CONCENTRATIONS & GLOBAL

AVERAGE TEMPERATURES

- The industrial revolution introduced new manufacturing processes which significantly increased mankind’s
use of fossil fuels
- The burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide as a by-product, leading to a steady increase in its
atmospheric concentration
- When fuel emissions, atmospheric CO2 concentrations and global temperatures are compared, the
following trends are revealed:
- There is a strong positive correlation between increasing fossil fuel emissions and rising atmospheric
concentrations of CO2
- Atmospheric CO2 concentrations have increased ~38% since pre-industrial times (1800: ~ 280 ppm ; 2010:
~ 380 ppm)
- About 40% of CO2 emissions have remained in the atmosphere, the rest has been absorbed by carbon
sinks (mainly oceans)
- This increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration correlates with an increase in average global
temperature
- While correlation does not equal causation, there is mounting evidence to suggest that CO2 emissions are
linked to global temperature changes (although other factors likely also contribute)

ACIDIFICATION OF OCEAN
- The oceans are a major carbon sink and absorb roughly a third of all human produced (anthropomorphic)
CO2 emissions; over 500 billion tonnes of CO2 have been released in the ocean since the start of the
industrial revolution
- CO2 solubility is temperature dependent (more soluble when cooler), so less CO2 will be absorbed as
temperatures rise
- The pH of water continuously drops making it more acidic and it has now reached a 30% acidification due to
increasing levels of dissolved CO2 (forms carbonate ions HCO3
EFFECTS

- An increase in the concentration of H+ ions means there are less free carbonate ions available for
calcification
- Shells and coral exoskeletons are also likely to begin to dissolve when ocean conditions are more acidic
- Experiments have shown that increasing water acidity correlates with the significant thinning of shells over
several weeks
- Corals, sea urchins and shelled molluscs do not exist in regions with high levels of dissolved CO2 (e.g. near
hydrothermal vents)

EFFECTS OF OCEAN ACIDIFICATION

- The disappearance of coral reefs could result in a loss of shoreline protection and habitat, altering coastal
ecosystems
- The loss in revenue from tourism and food industries is predicted to cost economies upwards of $1 trillion
by 2100
- Increasing the dissolved CO2 levels in oceans would cause invasive species of algae to flourish (more
photosynthesis)