Physics of Medical

Imaging II

RAD 302
Lecture 4

Mr. Nashaat Ghaith Radiologic Sciences

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Basic Physics

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1924 - Pauli suggests that
nuclear particles may have
angular momentum (spin).
History - Timeline of MR Imaging
1972 – Damadian patents 1985 – Insurance
idea for large NMR scanner reimbursements for
to detect malignant tissue. MRI exams begin.
1973 – Lauterbur publishes MRI scanners become
1937 – Rabi measures method for generating clinically prevalent.
magnetic moment of nucleus. images using NMR gradients.
Coins “magnetic resonance”. NMR renamed MRI

1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

1990 – Ogawa and
1946 – Purcell shows that 1973 – Mansfield
colleagues create functional
matter absorbs energy at independently
a resonant frequency. 1959 – Singer publishes gradient images using endogenous,
measures blood flow blood-oxygenation contrast.
approach to MR.
using NMR (in mice).
1946 – Bloch demonstrates that 1975 – Ernst develops 2D-
nuclear precession can be Fourier transform for MR.
measured in detector coils.

Nobel Prizes for Magnetic Resonance:

1944: Rabi: Physics (Measured magnetic moment of nucleus)
1952: Felix Bloch & Edward Mills Purcell: Physics (Basic science of NMR)
1991: Richard Ernst: Chemistry (High-resolution pulsed FT-NMR)
2002: Kurt Wüthrich: Chemistry (3D molecular structure in solution by NMR)
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2003: Paul Lauterbur & Peter Mansfield: Physiology or Medicine (MRI technology)
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 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
NMR: spectroscopic study of the magnetic properties of the nucleus
• protons and neutrons of the nucleus have a magnetic field associated with
their nuclear spin and charge distribution.

Resonance:energy coupling that causes the individual nuclei, when

placed in a strong external magnetic field, to selectively absorb, and
later release, energy unique to those nuclei & their surrounding
environment.

Magnetic susceptibility: describes the extent to which a material

becomes magnetized when placed in a magnetic field.

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 Magnetic Fields
• Magnetic fields exist as dipoles, where the north pole is the origin of the magnetic
field lines & the south pole is the return
• “Like” magnetic poles repel and “opposite” poles attract
• The magnetic field strength, B, can be thought of as the nb of magnetic lines of
force per unit area
• SI unit for B is the Tesla (T); an alternate unit is the gauss (G), where 1 T = 10,000 G

A: The magnetic field has 2 poles, with magnetic field lines emerging from the north pole & returning to the south pole.
B: A coiled wire carrying an electric current produces a magnetic field with characteristics similar to those of a bar
magnet. Magnetic field strength and field density depend on the magnitude of the current and the nb of coil turns.
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 Magnetic characteristics of nucleus
The nucleus exhibits magnetic characteristics on a much smaller scale.
The nucleus is comprised of protons and neutrons with the characteristics
listed.
Characteristic Neutron Proton

Mass (kg) 1.67410-27 1.67410-27

Charge (coulomb) 0 1.602 10-19

Spin quantum number ½ ½

Magnetic moment (joule/tesla) -9.66 10-27 1.41 10-26

Magnetic moment (nuclear magnetron) -1.91 2.79

A 1.5 T(15,000 gauss) MRI, is 30,000times stronger than earth’s magnetic field (1/20,000 T) .

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 Magnetic characteristics of nucleus
Magnetic properties are influenced by the spin and charge distributions
intrinsic to the proton and neutron.
• For the proton, which has a unit positive charge (equal to the electron charge
but of opposite sign), the nuclear “spin” produces a magnetic dipole. Even
though the neutron is electrically uncharged, charge inhomogeneities on the
subnuclear scale result in a magnetic field of opposite direction and of
approximately the same strength as the proton.

The magnetic moment, represented as a vector indicating magnitude and

direction, describes the magnetic field characteristics of the nucleus.
• A phenomenon known as pairing occurs within the nucleus of the atom,
where the constituent protons and neutrons determine the nuclear
magnetic moment.
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 Magnetic characteristics of nucleus
A single atom does not generate a large enough nuclear magnetic moment
to be observable:
Signal measured by MRI = conglomerate signal of billions of atoms

Magnetic resonance properties of medically useful nuclei

Key features:  strength of the magnetic moment

 physiologic concentration 9
 isotopic abundance
• So, hydrogen having the largest magnetic moment and greatest
abundance (in water and fat), is the best element for general clinical
utility.
• Electromagnetism (Faraday’s law): Motion; Electric Charge;
magnetism: combine any 2 and you will have the third.
• The spinning charge of a hydrogen proton causes a magnetic field to
be induced around it. The spinning proton or “spin” is classically
considered to be like a bar magnet with north and south poles. The
movement of the net magnetization vector (NMV) across the area of
a receiver coil induces an electrical charge in the coil.
• A vector representation (amplitude and direction) is useful in
considering the additive effects of many protons.

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•Protons and neutrons spin about their own axes within the nucleus. The
direction of spin is random so that some particles spin clockwise, and others
anticlockwise.
•When a nucleus has an even mass number the spins cancel each other out
so the nucleus has no net spin.
•When a nucleus has an odd mass number, the spins do not cancel each
other out and the nucleus spins.
•Nuclei with an odd number of protons are said to be MR active. They act like
tiny bar magnets. There are many types of elements that are MR active. They
all have odd mass numbers.

•They are: •Phosphorous 31

•Hydrogen 1 •Nitrogen 15
•Carbon 13 •Oxygen 17
•Fluorine 19 •Sodium 23

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 Effects of external magnetic field
Under the influence of a strong external magnetic field (MRI magnet), B0,
the spins are distributed into two energy states
• Alignment with (parallel to) the applied field at a low-energy level
• Alignment against (antiparallel to) the applied field at a slightly higher
energy level

Without an external magnetic field, a group of

protons assumes a random orientation of
magnetic moments, producing an overall
magnetic moment of zero.

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 Effects of external magnetic field

Under the influence of an applied external magnetic field, B0, the

protons assume a nonrandom alignment in 2 possible
orientations: // & anti-// to the applied magnetic field. A slightly
greater nb of protons exist in the // direction (lower-energy state is
preferred), resulting in a measurable sample magnetic moment in
the direction of B0.
For higher applied magnetic field strength, energy separation of low & high
energy levels is greater, as is the nb of excess protons in the low-energy state.
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The number of excess protons in the low-energy state at 1.0 T is about 7
spins per million (7 x 10-6) at physiologic temperatures and is proportional to
the external magnetic field.
Precession: Every MR active nucleus is spinning on its own axis. Due to the
influence of the external magnetic field these nuclei produce a secondary
spin or spin wobble. This wobble is called precession and causes the magnetic
moments of MR active nuclei to describe a circular path around B0. The
speed at which the magnetic moments wobble around the external magnetic
field is called the precessional frequency.

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 Larmor Frequency
The Larmor or precession frequency is the rate at which spins wobble when placed in
a magnetic field.
The Larmor equation describes the dependence between the magnetic field, B0, and the
precessional angular frequency, ω0

0  0
∆E, between the parallel and anti
parallel spins is proportional to
the
precessional frequency. and as
magnetic fields ↗ precessional
frequency ↗
• With respect to linear frequency:
•  the gyromagnetic ratio unique to each element, f   0
0
• B0 is the magnetic field strength in tesla,
2
• f is the linear frequency in MHz (where ω= 2  f: linear and angular
frequency are related by a 2 rotation about a circular path), and
 /2 is the gyromagnetic ratio expressed in MHz/T.
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 Introducing the coordinate system
• illustrate the protons as vectors (little arrow)

• Certain force (by its size) that acts in

a certain direction (direction of the
arrow)

z-axis runs in the direction

of the magnetic field lines 16
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 for every proton pointing
down, there is one pointing
up, cancelling its magnetic
effects.

Precession freq hydrogen =

~ 42 MHz @ 1T But as we know that
there-are more protons
pointing up than down,
and the magnetic forces
of these protons are not
cancelled by others.
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 What we end up with in effect is a magnetic vector in the
direction of the external magnetic field and this vector is a sum
vector made up by adding the magnetic vectors of the protons
pointing upwards.

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As the magnetization is longitudinal to the external magnetic field its also called
longitudinal magnetization.
This new vector is important because it is the one that may be used to get a
signal. Unfortunately, we cannot measure this magnetic force (// to the external
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magnetic field).
 Geometric orientation
By convention, the applied magnetic field B0 is directed parallel to the z axis
Two frames of reference are used:
• Laboratory frame is a stationary reference frame from the observer’s point of view
• Rotating frame is a spinning axis system with angular freq = precessional freq of protons

The laboratory frame of reference uses stationary
3D Cartesian coordinates. The magnetic moment
precesses around the z-axis at the Larmor
frequency (spiraling motion)
The rotating frame of reference uses Cartesian coordinate
axes that rotate about the z-axis at the Larmor
precessional frequency, and the other axes are denoted
x' and y'. When precessing at the Larmor frequency, the
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sample magnetic moment appears stationary.
Magnetization longitudinal to the
external magnetic field cannot be
measured directly

Magnetization that is transversal to

external magnetic field

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• So since this Longitudinal magnitaztion can’t be measured,we shift it
away from external magnetic field or z’axis by sending a radio wave,
electromagnetic wave or so called radio frequency pulse (RF) or
known as (B1).
• For RF pulse to disturb protons that are peacefully aligned with
external magnetic field, we need a special RF pulse which can
exchange energy with the protons.
• Exchange of energy only can happen when RF pulse and proton
have same frequency (Larmor frequency).This exchange of energy is
called resonance.

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After resonance, atoms that have picked up energy from RF pulse will go from lower energy level to
higher energy level or
From parallel to anti-parallel. In this example 2 protons have gained energy and went to higher energy
level.
And since opposite protons cancel their magnetic forces we will finally have 2 protons pointing up (4
protons pointing up and
2 pointing down: they net result is 2 up). In effect then, the longitudinal magnetization (yellow arrow)
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decreases from 6 to 2.
In addition, RF has another effect. Rather than spinning randomly, RF pulse make protons spin in
synch or in phase. They get synchronized.
They now point in same direction at the same time and thus there magnetic vectors add up in this
direction. This results in a magnetic vector pointing to the side which the precessing protons point, and
this is in transverse direction. This is called transversal magnetization (horizontal yellow arrow).
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Before RF pulse: Out of phase Spinning protons. After RF pulse: In phase Spinning protons or
phase coherence.

So: Radio wave has two effects on the protons: it lifts some protons to a higher level of
energy (they point down), and it also causes the protons to precess in step, in phase
(longitudinal magnetization decreased & new transversal magnetization established).

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 Magnetization vectors
• Longitudinal magnetization, Mz, is the vector component of the magnetic
moment in the z direction.
• Transverse magnetization, Mxy, is the vector component of the magnetic
moment in the x-y plane
• Equilibrium magnetization, M0, is the maximum longitudinal magnetization of
the sample.(At equilibrium Mo = MZ with the amplitude determined by the
excess number of protons that are in the low-energy state)

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• Application of radiofrequency (RF) pulse (commonly in the 1-100
megahertz range) energy synchronized to the precessional frequency of
the protons causes displacement of the magnetic moment from
equilibrium conditions.
• Return to equilibrium results in emission of MR signals proportional to the
nb of excited protons in the sample, with a rate that depends on the
characteristics of the tissues.

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As the transversal magnetic vector moves around with the precessing
protons, it moves with the precessing frequency. The resulting MR
signal therefore also has the precession frequency.

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 Flip angles
• Flip angles describe the rotation through which the longitudinal magnetization is
displaced to generate the transverse magnetization
• Common angles are 90° (/2) and 180° ()
• A 90° pulse provides the greatest possible transverse magnetization

Flip angles describe the angular displacement

of the longitudinal magnetization vector from
the equilibrium position. The rotation angle of
the magnetic moment vector depends on the
duration & amplitude of the B1 field at the
Larmor frequency.
Small flip angles (~30°) and large flip angles
(~90°) produce small and large transverse
magnetization.

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 Flip angles
• Common flip angles are 90°, which produces the maximum transverse
magnetization, and 180°, which inverts the existing longitudinal
magnetization Mz to -Mz.
• With fast MR imaging techniques, 30° & smaller flip angles are
often used to reduce the time needed to displace the longitudinal
magnetization & generate the transverse magnetization
• A 45° flip takes half the time of a 90° flip yet creates 70% of the signal.

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 Effect of RF pulses
z z

B0

90o degree x’ x’
pulse
B1 (rf)

y’ y’
z z

B0

180o pulse x’ x’
(inverting pulse) B1 (rf)

y’ y’ 32