Dr.D.Y.

Patil Technical Campus

Dr.D.Y.PATIL (Engineering and MCA)
Pune University, Pune)
TECHNICAL CAMPUS (Approved by AlCTE, DTE-Govt of Maharashtra, Affiliated to Savitribai Phule
Sr.No.32/1/A/7, Near Talegaon Railway Station, A/P Varale, Talegaon Dabhade
Tal-Maval, Dist-Pune 410507

NOTES BY :- PROF. ABHIRAJESHINDE

UNIT- y
UNIT V:CHAPTER 1 - MAGNETISM
moment of electron moving
Q1 Explain origin of magnetism in material and hence find magnetic
around nucleus of an atrom [6 Marks]
a) Origin Of Magnetism :
in atom. These
Magnetic properties of solids arise due to electrons undergoing different motions
motions give rise to magnetic dipolemoments.
sources:
In general, the magnetic dipole moment of the atom arises because of three
i) Orbital motion of electrons: L

Inside an atom, electrons mnove around a nucleus in specific orbits. Each

electron orbit is equivalent to a tiny current loop. It behaves as an
elementary magnet having a magnetic dipole moment. The sum of orbital
magnetic moments of individual electrons generates the total orbital
magnetic moment of an atom. eh
It can be shown that elementary electron magnetic moment is given by 41me
Bohr Magneton
ii) The electron spin :
Each electron is spinning about itself and this gives rise to a magnetic
dipole moment. It can be shown that spin magnetic moment is given by

ges
2m:
=yS
Where y= is called gyromagnetic ratio (g-factor) [For electron g--2.0023]
1
S = m s his angular momentumms =spin qu antum n u mber =t:2

i) The nuclear spin :

-The nucleus spins around itself and it also contributes to magnetic moment of atoms due to magnetic
field produced by protons.
-It can be shown that elementary nuclear magnetic moment is given by
-The magnetic moment of the nucleus is about 1/1837 of the magnetic moment of the electron.
Therefore, in studying magneticproperties of solids, the magnetic moment due to nuclear spin is
neglected. eh

4tmp
b) magnetic moment of electron moving around nucleus of an atrom
i. Origin of magnetism in material:
a. Magnetism has its origín in the circulating charges in an atom.
b. Círculating electron is equivalent to acurrent loop and has a magneticdipole moment.
C. Anatom of any substance consists of a small massive positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively
charged electrons revolving in a circular orbit around the nucleus.
d. The magneticmoment is associated with the motion of an electron in its orbit and is termed an orbital
magnetic moment.
 dipole moment: radius r
ii. Expression for magnetic and charge e revolving
in acircular orbit of around the positive
electron of mass me
a. Consider an anticlockwise current.
direction, leading to an
nucleus in the clockwise
mo

U.C.M of an electron around the nucleus

b. If the electron travels a distance 2rur in time Tthen, its orbital speed v = Zru/1
c. The magnitude of circulating current is given by.

-)
But, T=
2rr

ev

d. The orbital magnetic moment associated with the orbital

ev
current loop is given by,
morb = IA = X r [: Area of current loop, A = Tue
2ar
evr

2
....(1)
e. The angular momentum of an
electron due to its orbital motion is given by, L= mevr
f. Multiplying and dividing the R.H.S of
equation (1) by me.
morb = X me VI
2me
eL
.. Morb
2me
el
.. Morb

g. This equation shows that orbital magnetic moment is

proportional to the angular momentum. But as the
electron bears negative charge, the orbital magnetic moment and orbital
angular momentum are in opposite
directions and perpendicular to the plane of the orbit.
Using vector notation, motb

Q.2 Classify magnetic material on the basis of permeability [ Any 5

What is Magnetic Permeability? Point] 6 Mark
Permeability is the measure of the ability of a material to support the formation of a
field within itself. magnetic
o It is the degree of magnetization that a
material obtains in response to an applied magnetic field.
It is a constant of proportionality that exists
between magnetic flux density and magnetic field
intensity.
H
The best way to introduce the different types of
magnetic fields. This may be surprising to some, but magnetism
is to describe how materials respond to
are much more magnetic than others. all matter is magnetic. It's just that some materials

"The magneticbehavior of materials can be classified into the

following five major groups:
 1. Diamagnetism
2. Paramagnetism
3. Ferromagnetism
4. Ferrimagnetism
5.Antiferromagnetism
1. Diamagnetism :
Ihese materials are barely magnetised when placed in a magnetic field.applied fíeld. In effect,
Magnetic dipoles in these substances tend to align in opposition to the
the applied field and the substance tends to
they produce an internal magnetic field that opposes
repel the external field around it. magnetic moments (ie., all
Diamagnetic substances are composed of atoms which have no net
the orbital shells are filled and there are no unpaired electrons).
is removed.
This opposing field disappears as soon as the external field
Their pemeability is slightly less than one.
string magnetic field and act in the
They are slightly magnetized when placed in a very
direction opposite to that of applied magnetic field.
Ex: Gold, water, mercury and even animals!
produced
However, when exposed toa field, a negative magnetization is
the susceptibility is negative. independent.
For diamagnetic materials the susceptibility is temperature
If weplot M vs H,we see:
M
M=xH
X<0
T

H X=constant

slope=X

2. Paramagnetism: attraction to a magnetic

Paramagnetic materials have unpaired electrons, leading to a weak
field.
moments with the external field,
The unpaired electrons tend to align their magnetic
materials tend to align along the
In these materials,the magnetic dipoles in the magneticmagnetic field.
applied magnetic field and thus reinforcing the applied sufficiently strong field.
a
Such substances are attracted by a magnet if it appliesfield
external is removed.
The magnetisation disappears as soon as the the magnetizing field.
Paramagnetic substances develop feeble magnetization in the direction of
weaker to stronger parts
Such substances are feebly attracted by magnets and tend to move from
of a magnetic field.
Magnetic susceptibility is small and positive i.e. 0 <X
Example: Manganese, aluminium, chromium, platinum, etc.
and is dependent on
Themagnetisation (M))of such materials was discovered by Madam Curie
the external magnetic field (B) and temperature T as:
M=c
Where C= Curie Constant
Ex: Liquid oxygen, sodium, platinum, salts of iron and nickel.
In thepresence ofa field, there is now a partial alignment of the atomic magnetic moments in
the directionof the field, resulting in a net positive magnetization and positive susceptibility.
 M
slopex
H
T
M=xH
X>0

Paramagnetism
3. Ferromagnetism :
The materials which are strongly attracted by a magnetic field or magnet is known as
ferromagnetic material for eg: iron,steel, nickel, cobalt ete.
Ihe permeability off these materials is very very high(ranging up to several hundred or
thousand).
Ferromagnetic substances develop strong magnetization in the direction of the magnetizing
field.
the magnetic field of the magnetic materials persists even when the external field disappears.
This property is used to produce Permanent magnets that we use every day.
They are strongly attracted by a magnet and tend to move from the weaker to the stronger part
of a magnetic field.
Magnetic susceptibility is very large and positive i.e. x> 1000
Example: Iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium, and alloys like alnico.

Tc T C
X= T-Te

Q.3 Difference between Diamagnetism, Paramagnetism , Ferromagnetism

No. Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
1. Themagnetic field lines The magnetic field lines are The magnetic field lines
are repelled or expelled by attracted into the are strongly attracted into
diamagnetic materials paramagneticmaterials the ferromagnetic
when placed in a magnetic when placed in a magnetic materials when placed in a
field. field. magnetic field.

2. Relative permeability is Relative permeability is Relative permeability is

slightly less than unity.
3. Magnctic susceptibility is
negative.
4. Susceptibility is nearly
temperature independent.
greater than unity.
Magnetic susceptibility is
positive and small.
Susceptibility is inversely
proportional to temperature.
large.
Magnetic susceptibility is
positive and large.
Susceptibility is inversely
proportional to
temperature.
 5. Ex. zinc. mercury, lead, Ex. aluminium, tin
sulfur, copper, silver, wood Ex. iron, steel , nickel,
etc magnesium etc cobalt etc

Q4. Explain application of Magnetie Material in the

1. TransformerCore : following | 3 Mark Each |
Magnetie cores play a vital role in the functionality of various electromagnetic devices,
including transformers, inductors, and solenoids.
Comprising ferronmagnetic materials, these cores help to increase the efficiency and
pertormance of such devices byproviding aconcentrated path for magnetic flux.
Thecfficicncy of a magnetic core is determined by itsmaterial, which directly affects its
magnetic properties, such as permeability, coercivity, and saturation.
Themost traditional transformers include windings that are classified as primary, secondary and
tertiary
the current that flows between these windings has to depend on the fluidity.
that
The passage of current through these wires is guided by the influence of magnetic cores
serve as the free passage of power within the transformer.
The magnetic field in the magnetic core attracts flux in the 1-Shape
transformer to the point of circulation because the core has
high magnetic permeability and it serves as a permanent
magnet with a substantial amount of ferromagnetic field
present. Let us Primary Secondary
-Magnetic cores are made of such different materials. winding winding
discuss some other types of elements which do compose U-Shape
magnetic properties just like their ferromagnetic metals.
Material used for transformer Core :
Hard Iron, Silicon Steel , Carbonyl Iron, Amorphous Steel
Ferrite Ceramics, Laminated Magnetic Cores
2. Memory Storage : medium.
Magnetic memory is the main way how data is being stored on magnetic people use to store
It is how data is stored on devices like hard drive which is the device
documents audios and videos in their computers.
medias like CD and
Due to way of memorization, hard drive has a lot of advantage over optical
DVD for its longer life span, larger capacity and ability of rewriting.
a platter, the
Theidea behind this method of memorization is that by having multiple regions ontranslated
are further
different magnetization on the region represent different signals which
into data that users can understand.
record audio,
Magnetic storage is the manipulation of magnetic fields on a medium in order to
video or other data.
the
Read and write heads (either combined or separate) are used to align the magnetic fields on
recording medium
by
Magnetic storage refers to magnetized media, such as hard disk drives, that are used
computer systems to store data.
Magnetictape is one of the older types of magnetic storage media. The magnetic tape recorder
was invented in 1928 and was primarily used for analog audio recordings. Before music CDs
were introduced in the 1980s, portable music devices used magnetic tape in the form of
music cassettes.
and solid
The smallest magnetic storage devices known are magnetic hard disk drives (HDDs)
state drives (SSDs). Both HDDs and SSDs are widely used in various applications for data
storage and retrieval

3. Magnet Optical Recording -

Basic arrangement
i) Magneto-optical recording is amethod of storing and retrieving data using a laser and amagnet.
ii) A thin film of magnetic material , magnetic film is coated on the substrate overwhich the data is
 written.
Recording the data Lunss

-The disk is coated with film that initially is Hoating lusr

uniformly magnetized. The magnetic layer side heam
facestowards the laser beam. Mediu magtiation
-A laser beam is used to demagnetize a smallspot 44444
on the film by heating it above a critical Disk Label side
temperature (the Curie point) by disordering the Fast apvung
magnetic domains. Alocal magnetic field Magetic ield
determines the direction in which the spot is
magnetized when it cools.
-A relatively weak magnetic field is applied to
this region to modify its magnetization. The tiny
region that is magnetized is treated as 1 while the
un-magnetized region is treated as 0.
Reading the data
Toread the information, the disk is scanned bypolarized light from a low-power laser. 1he
laserlight is reflected from the surface of the media. Its plane of polarization is rotated slightly
according to the direction of the magnetic field (Kerr effect) of the media.
When the laser beam is reflected from the regions that are magnetized it has certain
polarization. When it is reflected from the regions that are un-magnetized, its polarization
isreversed due to Kerr effect.
Thus, the change in direction of magnetization could be associated with numbers 0or 1.
Thustheses technique useful for storage of binary data.
Erasing the data
To erase the data, magnetic field is applied to the material in the opposite direction. The focused
laser pulse heats the disk above Curie temperature and causes local heating to demagnetize the
surface. The disk is again de-magnetized and data written on in the form of magnetization is
erased,

Q.5 Explain following basics terms in magnetism | Any for 2 Marks ]

a) Magnetic dipole
-Magnetic dipole is generally a tiny magnet of microscopic to
subatomic dimensions generated due to current loop.
-Electrons circulating around atomic nuclei, electrons spinning
around their axes, and rotating positively charged atomic nuclei all
are magnetic dipoles.
-Magnetic dipole is referred to smallest magnetic unit having two
poles (north and south) that produces magnetic field and are
inseparable from each other.
b) Magnetic Dipole Moment :
-The strength of a magnetic dipole is represented by magnetic
dipole moment. It is a measure of a dipole's ability to align itself A= area
according todirection of external magnetic field.
-The magneticmoment can be considered to be a vector quantity
with direction perpendicular to the current loop in the right-hand
rule direction.
-Magnetic dipole moment is defined as the maximum amount of
torque caused by magnetic force on a dipole that arises per unit
valueof surrounding magnetic field in vacuum. This torque is
given by
r=ux B

c) Magnetic flux ():

Magnetic flux is a mcasurement of the total magnetic ficld which passes
lines of induction are through a given area. Ine
The SIunit of magnetic collectively called as flux.
flux is the Weber (Wb).
d) Magnetic Induction or magnetic flux density (B) angle between
-A magnetic field is schematically represented by lines of magnetic vectos BandÃ
induction or magnetic flux density).
-The magnetic flux per unit area is defined as magnetic flux
density. ITTT
-Magnetic induction is the number of lines of force through a unit
area of cross section perpendicularly.
-Thus, B = f/A. =BAcosf y= BAcas90
-The SI unitof B is Weber per square meter (Wb/m) and CGS unit
is Tesla (T) =BA

e) Magnetic field strength (H)

The strength(or intensity) of magnetic field at any point in magnetic field is force experienced by a
unitnorth pole placed at that point.
It is denoted by H and The unit of H is ampere-turns per meter (A/m) in Sl system
f) Magnetization (M)
Magnetization (or intensity of magnetization) is the measure of magnetism of magnetic materials. It
is defined as magnetic moment per unit volume and denoted by M.
The unit of magnetization in SI system is amperes per meter (A/m).
As magnetization is induced by magnetic field, M is proportional to H.
Thus, M=x H or M=% H
Where,x is called as magnetic susceptibility
g) Magnetic Susceptibility ()
The magnetic susceptibility of a material is a measure of the ease with which the material can be
magnetized. It is defined as magnetization (M) produced in the material per unit applied magnetic
field (H).
Hence, M/H , Materials having high susceptibility are easily magnetized.
h) Absolute permeability (m)
When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic field lines are redistributed and
tend to pass through the material. The absolute permeability of the material is ameasure of the
degree of which the field lines penetrate (or permeate) the material.
It is defined as the ratio of magnetic induction Bin the medium to the magnetizing field H.
B

i) Relative Permeability ()
The relative permeability of a material is defined as the ratio of absolute permeability of the material
to the permcability of free space.

j) Relation between B and H

When a material is kept in a magnetic field, two types of induction arise - one due to magnetizing
field Hand other due tomagnetization Mof the material itself. The magnetic induction Bproduced
inside the material is given by
B=Lo(H + M) on dividing by H on bothside
B M.
HHo(l +) i.c. lo(l +x)
 4X10 henry per meter (H/m.
Where, uo is known as permeability of the free space. It is equal to

NOTES BY :- PROF. ABHIRAJE SHINDE

UNIT- VI
UNIT V:CHAPTER 2- SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

Q.1. Explain Superconductivity &State its properties.[4 Marks] Non-superconductve

Superconductivity :- The some metal and alloys shows Metal
remarkable bchavior when they are cooled to a sufficiently low Resistance
temperature ncar absolute zero. when their temp. is reduced their
electrical resistivity decreases but reaching temperature a few Superconductor
degree above absolute zero then Electrical resistivity falls and
become zero . then they are said to be have passed into
superconducting state.
Tc Temperature
Defination :The phenomenon of sudden disappearance of of electrical resistivity at very low
temperature near absolute zero is called Superconductivity."
Material that exhibit this property in superconducting state is called superconducting materials. The
transition from normal state to superconducting state occur at very low temperature which is characteristic
of material is called critical temperature.
PROPERTIES OF SUPERCONDUCTOR
i) Current in superconductor persist for iong time
ii) Magnetic field does not penetraie ir. superconductor body.
ii) When current through superconductor is increased beyond the critical value (Ic) then
Superconductor become nornal conductor.
iv) When field strength of Magnetic fieldexceeds the value of field (Hc) called critical field then
superconductor become normal conductor.
v) Superconductivity occurs in material having normal registivity.
Q2. Explain Following properties of Super Conductor.[2 Marks]
a) Zero Electrical Resistance [p=0] :
Superconducting state of material occurs when at certain temperature near to absolute zero tenp. at that
temperature the registivity suddenly drops toresistance.
the zero . means that matrial passed into Superconducting
state. Superconductor having zero electrical
p-0

b)Critical Temperature |T]: resistivity

Electrical
The some metal and alloys shows remarkable behavior
when they are cooled to a sufficiently low temperature near
absolute zero. when their temperature is reduced their electrical Superconductor
resistivity decreases but reaching temperature a few degree
above absolute zero then Electrical resistivity falls and become
zero . then they are said to be have passed into superconducting Nomalmetal
state. The transition from normal state to superconducting state
occur at very low temperalure which is characteristic of material
is called critical temperature
Temperature (K)
Defination :- The temperature at which material undergoes into superconducting state in absence of
Magnetic field i.e. Fron1 normal conductor to Superconductor is called Critical temperature (T)"
Critical Temperature is characteristic of superconductor.
 ,Critical Field[HJ:
he existence of superconducting state of material in magnetic field Megndic
held Normal con
Beo tate
depends on strength of the magnctic ficld in which it is placed and also on
teimperature
Super conducing
Superconducting state exist in metal is duc to some combination of state
temperature andficld strength should less than critical value if this value
exceeds then superconductor become normal conductor. Temper ebure

Defination :-" The minimum value of applied Efect ofMagnetic Field

magnetic field when the material losses its Critical Tagnctic ficld (EL, -- Elemen
superconductivity is called Criticle field" .It is 2MinimKLIS IYEAgnetic ficld
Given by noquinoi to destroy thhe
supcrconducting prapcrty
at any temperature
H:- Criticle field at temp.=T
H(0)- Max.field strength at absolute zero H, Citicak field a 0K 4

T-Critical Temparature T-Tcnperakure below :

Te.-Truzisitiem
Teniperature

d) Meissner Effect :
that Superconductor are Dianmagnetic in In
Q.3. State & Explain Meissner Effect and show
Superconducting state. [ 6 Marks]
Meissner Effect : Magnetic Field then above the transition temperature ,
Meissner found that if superconductor is cooled in push out of
flux pass through the specimen but below the critical temperature magnetic fluxdiamagnetic.
magnetic superconducting state material become perfect
specimen in superconducting state. i.e. in B
Defination :- «The phenomenon of exclusion Supercanductor disk
Bae Eaith Magnet
or ejection of magnetic flux from interior of
below
bulk of superconductor when they cooled Liquid Nitogen
Meissner
the transition temperature is called
Effect transition
If we cooled specimen below
field
temperature and then placed in magnetic The Meissner Etfect
observed means T
then also Meissner effect is
satisfied.
converse of Meissner effect also
We know that,
..B=u0(M+H)
material Mag. Field = 0 ie. B=0
But in superconducting state inside .:. M=-H
..u0(M+H)=0 M but .. M=-H
Magnetic Succeptibility z= H
.. z=-1 diamagnetic.
Thus in superconducting state is perfect
Contradiction of Meissner Effect :
According to Ohm's law
Conductivity, E- Srength of Electric ficld.
.. J-oE wherc, J- Current Density, G-
-.E=p J wherc p- Resistivity of Material
material p-0
As in superconducting state i.e. resistivity of
According to Maxwells Equation
Means .. B= Constant
OB
at
=-CurlE dB0 superconductor can not change when cooling at or
Its means that magnetic flux density in the interior of
certain below transition temperature
 e) Critical Current|Ie] :
Ihe minimum current that can be flowing through in supcrconductor in superconducting state without
destroying its supcconducting state is called Critical Current (le).
I1 current Cxcecds critical current valuc then superconductor become normal conductor.
) Persistence Current :
The current in superconductor persist for long time mean electric current set
up in aperfect superconductor. It can persist for very long time without any
applicationof e.m.f
A current can be induced in superconductor material by cooling it in a
magnetic ficld below transition temperature. When field is switched off the
magnetic field outside the material is disappear but inside ring some magnetic
field trapped. Collapse of magnetic field outside the ring induces a
current inside the ring itself and maintain the trap flux. persistant
HURE 13L Rstatúmt
Once thecurrent is setup it will persist for long time that is more than 10*
years.
g) Isotope Effect:
Effect :- "Thetransition temperature(T) of superconductor is varies with the isotopic mass(M) of
superconductor."
. T a M; i.e. .:. T. M) = Constant
Thus larger the isotopic mass, lower the transition temperature.
Now we know that, mean square amplitude of atomic lattice vibration at low temperature is proportional to
and Debyetemperature(0a)
Which indicate that,lattice vibration are involved in causing supercounductivity i.e. electron phonon
reaction might be playing an important role for occurance of superconductivity.
Q. 4.Explain BCStheory of Superconductor. [6 Marks ]
BCS THEORY :
Superconductivity was explained by Bardin,cooper and Schrieffer on the basis of quantum theory.
The superconducting state of metal may be considered as cooperative bahavier of electron. such a
cooperation takes place when number of electron occupy same quantum state.basicaly electron occupy
quantum state singly and other repulsive force among them takes electron away from each other.
According to BCS theory both this difficulties are overcome under some circumstances, in such a case
electron attract each other and forms pair and occupy the same quantum state.so coherence or cooperation
takes place among the electrons
1) Electron Phonon interaction:
a.Electrons could attracts each other via distortion of lattice.
b.When electron move through a crystal, it produce lattice
distortion of the lattice.During this it produce lattice vibration
and sets the heavier ions into slowforce oscillation.since
electron are fast moving,they leaves this region much before
the oscillation can die off.
c.If another clectron passed through this region it experience a force of attraction.This attractive force
lower the energy of 2"" electron.
d. Repulsive force between electron is too small so, the attraction caused by cven weak lattice distortion
canovercome a strong columbic force of repulsion.
e. Thus net effect is the attraction of two electron via lattice distortion (or phonon) to form a pair of
electron called as cooper pair.
 Cooperpair :
Superconducting State
a.
The 1s
electron of wave vector kl create a virtual Area at distortion
ahonon 'q' and loSSes momentum while 2n clcctron Virtual Phonon
Cooper pair
of wave vector k2 acquire this ol electrons
momentum
collision with virtual phonon so, that ovcrallduring
its
100nm Dkeovn2
momentum remains cOnstant. Polurtzation Atractiou
b. This electron interaction depends on elative
magnitude of the electron encrgy and phonon latice The two electrens caled Cooge pairs.
energy. lf phonon energy exceeds the electronic spacing become lochadtogether srd wl travel
through the lattice
energy then interaction is attractive. Also its stronger Ik'-g
when twvo electron have equal and opposite
momentum and spin kl=-k2 and sl=-s2. Such pair
ohorIon
of electron is called as cooper pair. olacron

c.Cooper pair is formed when the phonon mediated

attractive interaction between two electrons letran
k

dominates the repulsive force. The energy of such

pair in bound state is less than two unbound state of
electron.
d. The energy of system is lowest when total momentum of each pair is same and is zero. This is the single
quantum mechanical state into which electron pair condense. The flow of cooper pair constitute the
supercurrents in superconductor.
Q.5. Explain application of superconductor in the following. [ Each 2 Marks]
1.Superconducting Electromagnet:
wire. They must be
A superconducting magnet is an electromagnet made from coils of superconducting can conduct much
superconducting state the wire
cooled to cryogenic temperatures during operation. In its Superconducting magnets can
larger electric currents than ordinary wire, creating intense magnetic fields.
be cheaper to operate
produce greater magnetic fields than all but the strongest electromagnets and canmachines
are used in MRI in hospitals, and
because no energy is dissipated as heat in the windings. They accelerators
and particle
in scientific equipment such as NMR spectrometers, mass spectrometers
2.Bearing : energy. While past
Flywheels have long been used to store energy in the form of rotational kinetic
losses due to friction, the
applications of the conventional mechanical bearings that had relatively high
Superconductors (HTSC) has
development of magnetic bearings constructed using High Temperature
efficiency immensely. While even modern
greatly decreased the losses due to friction and increased
faced at the turn of the century.
application of magnetic bearings face the same safety problems that were
limited environmental harm make flywhecls
the increased efficiency of magnetic bearings as well as their
Further continued developments in HTSC and design
a promising modernenergy storage device. [1]development
improvements in hybrid bearings may see the of economical bearing systems for various
applications in the near future.

3. Magnetic-levitation Train :
well. Transport vehicles
Magnetic-levitation is an application where superconductors perform extremely eliminating friction
magnets, virtually
such as trains can be made to "float" on strong superconductingelectromagnets waste much of the electrical
between the train and its tracks. Not only would conventional
than superconducting magnets. A landmark
energy as heat, they would have to be physically much larger 1990 when it gained the status of a
for the commercial use of MAGLEV technology occurred in (shown above)attaincd an
nationally-funded project in Japan.. In April 2015, the MLXO1test vehicle
incredible speed of 374 mph (603 kph).
of MAGLEV vehicles has been
Although the technology has now been proven, the wider use can create a bio-hazard).
constrained by political and environmental concerns (strong magnetic fields
4. Josephson effect ;
 In the superconducting state , electrons are attracted by each oter and fom bound pairs, called as Coone
pair. The josephson effect occurs when these pair of electrons tunneled through a thin insulating barrier
placed between two superconductors, the whole arrangement being called Josephson Junction and this
phenomenon is called as Josephson Effect.
There are twotypes of Josephson Effect.
1. DC Josephson Effect :
When no voltage is applied across the junction a direct curent flows through the junction upto critical
value lc. due to tunneling of cooper pair through the junction.
Flow of current through the Josephson junction even though there is no any voltage applied
Junction is called as DC Josephson Effect." across the
2. AC Josephson Effect :
When a direct voltage is applied across the junction, a small
fourth through the junction which depends on applied voltage. oscillating current states flowing back and
This phenomenon is known as AC
Josephson Effect
Generation of AC currents by using DC current across Josephson junction is called as AC
Josephson Effect «

superOonductors
taarries