SYLLABUS roundation Engineering - (401001) Credits Examination Scheme 03. | End semester exam: 70 Marks Unit 3: Immediate and Consolidation Settlement mediate Settlement ; introduction, causes of settlement, pressure bulb, contact «ure, significant depth of foundation, allowable settlement, differential settlement criteria, components of settlement, use of plate load test and SPT in settlement In pes B.S. analysis and allowable soil pressure. Consolidation Settlement : introduction, spring analogy, Terzaghi’s consolidation ory, laboratory consolidation test, determination of coefficient of consolidation se root of time fitting method and logarithm of time fitting method, time factor, ra of settlement and its applications in shallow foundations, introduction of normal solidation, over consolidation and pre consolidation pressure. (Chapter - 3) theo 8 60 Unit4: Pile Foundations Introduction : pile classification according to different criteria, pile installation - Cast in-situ, driven and bored pile, load carrying capacity of pile by static method, dynamic Methods : Engineering news formula, modified ENR formula and modified Hiley Ja, pile load test and cyclic pile load test, group action : field rule, rigid block settlement of pile group in cohesive soil by (Chapter - 4) method, negative skin friction, approximate method, uplift capacity of piles, micro piles. Unit 5; Shallow foundations, Piers and Caissons Shallow Foundations : types and applications, location and depth of footing, Principles of design of footing, steps involved in proportioning of footing, Proportioning of combined footings - rectangular, trapezoidal and strap footing, raft floating raft, design of raft foundation - method (only design principles and foundation - types, bearing capacity, Sonventional (rigid) method and elastic (flexible) Sieps, no numerical). Scanned with CamScannerPiers and Caissons : definitions, types ae uses, well A ee 7 compe ents, sq island method, shapes of wells, tilts and ae : Eee and remedial m bearing capacity and depth of well foundation, forces acting on well fo und lateral stability of well foundation - Terzaghi’s method, IRC method, ultims resistance method (only numerical on lateral stability analysis, no deri methods). (Chapter - 5) Unit 6: Cofferdams and Foundation on Black Cotton Soils Cofferdams : types and applications, contiguous pile walls, RC Di method. Foundation on Black Cotton Soils : characteristics of black swelling potential and its evaluation methods, engineering problems, pressure measurement, foundations on black cotton soil : design p construction techniques, under reamed piles: design principles and its techniques, stone columns, pre loading with prefabricated vertical drains/ (Chapter - 6) Scanned with CamScannerTABLE OF CONTENTS Thapter-3 Immediate and Consolidation Settlement (3 - 1) to (3 - 30) Immediate Settlement... 3.2 Pressure Bulb... 3.3 Contact Pressure. 3.4 Significant Depth of Foundation... 35 Allowable and Differential Settlement... 3.6 Component of Settlement 3.7 Settlement Analysis ... 3.8 Consolidation Settlement .. 39 Spring Analogy .. 3.10 Terzaghi’s Consolidation Theory. 3.11 Coefficient of Consolidation . 3.12 Time Facto} 3.13. Time Rate of Settlement... 3.14 Solved Examples . ee wv) Scanned with CamScannerChapter - 4 Pile Foundations 4.1 _ Introduction... 4.2 _ Pile Installation .... 4,3 Load Carrying Capacity of Piles..... 4.4 Pile Load Test and Cyclic Pile Load Test... 4.5 Group Action... 4.6 Negative Skin Friction...... 4.7 Settlement of Pile Group .... 48° Uplift Capacity of Pile.. 49 Micro Piles..... 4.10 Solved Examples... Ba Shallow Foundations... 5.2. Principles of Design... 5.3 Proportioning of Footing. 5.4 Raft Foundation ... 5.5 5.6 pe F aring Capacity of Raft Foundation Floating Raft. Scanned with CamScannerDesign of Raft Foundation . Piers and Caissons.. Well Foundation. sand Island Method... Shape of Wells .... Tilts and Shift .. Bearing Capacity of Well Foundation .... 5-30 Forces Acting on Well Foundation... Chapter - 6 Cofferdams and Foundation on Black Cotton Soils (6 - 1) to (6 - 25) 1 Cofferdams.. 62. Contiguous Pile Walls. 63 RC Diaphragm Wall Method ... 64 Foundation on Black Cotton Soil. 65 Swelling Potential of Soil... 66 Swelling Pressure Measurement... 67 Under Reamed Piles... 68 Solved Examples OES Solved Model Question Paper (M - 1) to (M- 2) (vi) Scanned with CamScannerScanned with CamScannerTime : NB. Qu Q3 Q4 2i SOLVED MODEL QUESTION PAPER (End Sem) Foundation Engin 1 2 Hours) BEE. (Civil) Semester - VII [As Per 2019 Pattern] eering [Maximum Marks ; 79 : i) Attempt Q.1 or Q.2, Q.3 or 0.4, 0.5 or Q.6, Q.7 or 0.8, ii) Neat diagrams must be drawn wherever necessary. iii) Figures to the right side indicate full marks. iv) Assume suitable data, if necessary. a) b) a) b) a) b) a) db) °) What is foundation settlement ? State its Causes. (Refer Q.1 and Q.2 of Chapter - 3) ae Explain consolidation mechanism through spring analogy. (Refer Q.18 of Chapter - 3) OR “110) "Explain Terzaghi’s 1-D consolidation theory, (Refer Q.19 of Chapter - 3) [10] Explain the ‘square - root time fitting method’ for determination of the consolidation. (Refer Q.20 of Chapter - 3) [8] Discuss the necessity of pile foundation. (Refer Q.1 of Chapter - 4) 6) Explain bored method to construct pile foundations. (Refer Q.3 of Chapter - 4) OR Explain the following : Feld's rule. (Refer Q.7 of Chapter - 4) Explain methods of determining (Refer Q.5 of Chapter - 4) Write note on "Pile load test and in (Refer Q.6 of Chapter = 4) (12) Bl bearing capacity of piles. iterpretation of test results". (6) Scanned with CamScannerM-2 Solved Modet Question wn Engineering ; rune ‘hat is shallow foundation and explain their bypes. What . ) -5 [4] sia (Refer Q.1 of Chapter - 5) . b) How to determine bearing capacity of raft foundation ? (Refer Q.8 of Chapter - 5) [8] ) What is a floating foundation ? (Refer Q.9 of Chapter - 5) [6] i OR Qs a) Discuss about shape of wells. (Refer Q.19 of Chapter - 5) (8) b) Explain different parts of well foundation with a neat sketch, (Refer Q.17 of Chapter - 5) [6] ©) What is shifting and tilting of well | foundations ? (Refer Q.20 of Chapter - §) [4] Q7 a) What is cofferdam ? Discuss the Opes of coffer dam. Explain any one in detail. (Refer Qi of Chapter - 6) [6] ») Write a note on contiguous pile walls, (Refer Q.3 of Chapter - 6) Ig) °) Explain "Differential Free Swell Index Test” (Refer Q.10 of Chapter - 6) [5] OR Q8 a) Explain in details about the R.C. diaphragm wall method. Refer Q.4 of Chapter - 6) On >) Explain design principle of undreamed pile. Refer Q.14 of Chapter - 6) 9 Calewlate the fac tor of safety ofa Cantilever sheet pile with the Peliowing details : ) Length of sheet Pile = 8 m. ii) D embedment = 5 m, Hii) Angle of internal friction of Refer Q.18 of Chapter - 6) Scanned with CamScanner[ a immedioeseiement | 2.1 What is foundation settlement ? Ans. «s Inevitably, soils deform under the load of foundation structures, « The total vertical displacement that occur at foundation level i termed as settlement. © The cause of foundation settlement is the reduction of volume void ratio in the soil ‘© Moreover, the magnitude of foundation settlement is controlled ‘many factors type of soil and foundation structure. «Foundations on bedrock settle a negligible amount. + In contrary, Foundations in other types of soil such as clay may settle much more. ‘© However, building foundation settlement is normally limiteé amounts measured in millimetre or fractions of an inch. specifically when the sertlement oceur in quick manner. Q.2 What are the foundation settlement causes ? Ans. : Direct causes * The direct cause of foundation settlement is the weight of including dead load and live load, Foundatio 3-2 Immediate and Consolidation Serdement Indirect causes : «Failure of collapsible soil underground infiltration. ‘Yielding of excavation done adjacent to foundation. Failure of underground tunnels and mines. «Collapse of cavities of limestone. ‘© Undermining of foundation while flood. Earthquake induced settlement. «Finally, due to extraction of ground water and oi 3.2 Pressure Bulb Q.3 What is pressure bulb concept ? Ans. ‘+ An isobar or pressure bulb is a stress contour or a line which connects all points below the ground surface at which the vertical pressure is the same. * In fact, an isobar is a spatial curved surface and resembles a bulb in shape; this is because the vertical pressure at all points in a horizontal plane at equal radial distances from the load is the same. * Thus, the stress isobar is also called the ‘bulb of pressure” or simply the ‘pressure bulb’. ‘The vertical pressure at each point on the pressure bulb is the same. ‘+ Pressure at points inside the bulb are greater than that at a point on the surface of the bulb; and pressures at points outside the bulb are smaller than that value, * Any number of pressure bulbs may be drawn for any applied load, since each one corresponds to an arbitrarily chosen value of stress. * A system of isobars indicates the decrease in stress intensity from the inner to the outer ones and reminds one of an ‘Onion bulb’. es “A Gilde for Engineering Students Scanned with CamScanner5 Immediate and Consldtion Settement Foundation Enginering 5-4 Immediate and Consolidation Setement 2 om «enc he tr presse bal An i clayey soll. EE [SPPU: April-15 (In Sem), Marks 3] aystem ofisbars appears some OR Draw contact pressure distribution of rigid footing on sandy and clayey soll strata. SH [SPPU: Feb.-16 (In Sem), Marks 3] Ams. i) The contact pressure distribution for flexible footing is uniform for both day and sand. ii) The contact pressure for rigid footing is maximum at the edges for footing on clay, but for rigid footing on sand, itis minimum at edges. iii) The contact pressure for flexible footing is maximum at the centre on clayey soil, but for flexible footing on sand it is minimum at the center than edges. [33 comact Pressure | i nae Soo | ote 2.4 What is contact pressure ? Gu Gi ISPPU : Dec-14, April-5, (In Sem), Mark 1, ai Feb.-16, (In Sem), Marks 2] ‘Ans. : Contact pressur j ‘= On the underside of the ‘footing, the soil reaction produce an upward pressure «This pressure is called as contact pressute. In other words transmission of pressure from the base Bowel shapea—— settioment profile (2) Flexible footing on C-toll___(b) Rigid footing on C-soi Fig. Q.6.1 : Contact pressure distribution for cohesive soli e foundation to the soil i called as contact pressure. i i Upload + Since the soil cannot support the concentrated from above it coum necessary that the foundation distribute the load on to the soil. au. 5 What are the factors on which contact pressure depends ? AF (SPPU : Dec 14, Aprlas (In Sem), ‘Ans. + The factors on which contact pressure depends are : Settiement rote 1) Nature of soil ie. whether C - soil or @ - soil 2) Nature of foundation ie, whether flexible or rigid. (2) Flexible footing on soll 3) Foundation depth Fi a oe ea et Scanned with CamScannerImmediate and Consolation Selement Foundation Engineering 3-6 Immediate and Consolidation Sentement Depth of Foundation | an Egcing 3S [oa sigineant ——_——| Ans. Differential Settlement : + When a structure settles in more than one part then it is called as ton? non-uniform settlement and the difference between the two settlements is called as differential settlement, at te the slgniticant depth of founda 7 What is a ce, the intensit ae 0 96 or 10 96 of the surface load intensity rnduced beyond this contour could ty of stress becomes too It describes the situation where as building's foundation settles ‘unequally in different areas after construction. contour of 2 An arbitrary cont It induces heavy stresses in structures leading to cracks in ged such that strains i may be select superstructure rgligibly small. eee emer ly the soil enclosed within in isobar Teeted magniwude undergoes all the possible deformation sai deformation of the soil ouside tis isobar is aly = cereal delimited by such arbitrarily chosen isobar jg) tomas igi eth ‘© This depth can be assumed to be 1.5 to the londed are. + Usually, differential settlement is about 50 to 75 % of total Teil then be assumed that settlement. If the total settlement is controled then the differential settlement is indirectly under control, Q.10 What is angular distortion ? aE [SPPU : May-16, Marks 2) Ans. : Angular distortion : 2 times the base width *+ When two foundations supporting columns /walls settle unequally, the structure will be subjected to angular distortion, Iris expressed as, _ Allowable settlement 28 Explain the term : Allo EF [SPPU : May-15, Where as, ‘Ans, Allowable sttloment © = Angular distortion 5 = Differential sertlement * L = Distance between two columns * Hangular distortion exceeds certain limits, the structure may fail G11 Explain causes and technique to reduce differential Settlement, 5B [SPPU: May-16, Marks 6] ‘OR What are the harmful effects of differential settlement on + Such settlement may cause cracks in exterior as well as walls of buildings + A strveture may tilt and can be noticeable in high-rise leading to its failure There may be uniform or differential settlement. ‘© Permissible average settlements range from 20 mm to 300: Q9 Explain the term : Differential settlement. jetracturea!e) RF [SPU : Dec.-14, Marks 2] SG [SPPU : May-12, Nov.-12, May-45, Ans. : Causes of Differential Settlement : ‘OR Define differential settlement. 1) _The unequal intensity of loading on footing and therefore subsoil “Gul for Eiccig Sena Scanned with CamScannerpases bearing capacity Sueh 48 clay, egy has ii) Soft sil which ie matter. i aan ling and softening of sll EIOW ground ey Oe ie y lead to differential settlement, E cof sub-soil ma} iv) Exoess drying cantly es overlap all adjoining structur vy) Sometimes, settlement Mothods to reduce differential settloment Use of deep foundation such as piles will minimize the speg settlement. a 4 J) Soil reinforcement and other soil stabilization techniques, ii) Prior compaction and loading should be done to rey ‘compressibility jv) Particularly in sandy soils the depth of foundation should bes 112 Explain the term : Elastic settlement. a 1@ [SPPU: May-15, OR What is immediate settlement ? Explain, how it is ‘53 [SPU : Dec.-15, ‘Ans. Immediate settlement i) Itis also referred as elastic settlement, clays), ii) This type of settlement depends on the elastic soil m poisson's ratio and contact pressure. iv) The size and. shape of foundation changes drastically result in total settlement. ¥) Itean be found out by, ‘ 4) Carrying our field test, ) Laboratory test and ©) Relations and equations based theory of elasticity. 4 = Contact pressure intensity, B = Least lateral dimension of footing E, = Modulus of elasticity of soil ly Influence factor value as suggested IS code. Itis the time independent ‘compression. compression. Settlement is fast. Settlement is slow. Tt mainly occurs in It mainly occurs in saturated cohesionless soils and | fine clays, unsaturated clays. Shape and size of Shape and size of foundation foundation may affect the | does not affect the settlement settlement, It depends on contact It depends on thickness of Pressure, poisson's ratio | soil void ratio, overburden and the elastic modulus of | pressure. soil, "A Gude or Engncring Sens Scanned with CamScannerFoun sue component of Settlement stlement ? the component of #4 : 114 What ore is of element of @ foundation are ; compone Ans. The comp Immediate settlement consolidation Setement, and 1 q jon (creep) 3, Secondary compressio ze ‘AH = H,+U AH, + 4H, ‘Where, ‘AH = Total settlement, AH, = Consolidation settlement, AH = Secondary compression, U = Average degree of consolidation, is considered equal t 1 (i.e. 100 % consolidation) 1, Immediate settlement : ‘© Immediate settlement takes place as the load is within atime period of about 7 days. ‘* Predominates in cohesion less soils and unsaturated clay. + Immediate setlement analysis are used for all fine-gr including silts and clays with a degree of ~< 90 % and forall coarse grained soils with large co-efl Permeability (say above 10.2 m/s) 2. Consolidation settlement (AH) * Consolidation settlements are time dependent and to years to develop. * The lean is caused by consolidation settlement being (one side. This, however, is an extreme case. Foundation Enginceris Immetite and Consolidation «The principal settlements for most projects occur in 3 to 10 years. ‘+ Dominates in saturated/nearly saturated fine grained soils where consolidation theory applies. 3. Secondary settlement / creep (AH) : © It occurs under constant effective stress due to continuous rearrangement of clay particles into a more stable configuration. ‘+ Predominates in highly plastic clays and organic clays. ene 3.7 Settlement Analysis 2.15 State the equations of plate load test for settlement analysis. Ans.: Equations for Foundation Settlement Calculation from Plate Load Test : ‘+ The following equations can be used for foundation settlement calculation, Foundation Settlement Calculation for Clayey Soll: Settlement of the foundation = Settlement of plate x Size of Plate Foundation Settlement Calculation for Sandy Soll: Settlement of the foundation = Settlement of plate x ith of Pit x (Size of Plate + 0.3) ae Size of Plate x (Width of Pit + 0.3) 3.8 Consolidation Settlement Q.16 Define consolidation settlement. ‘Ans. : © Consolidation settlement may be defined as the type of settlement in which the increase in vertical effective stress causes the individual particles of the soil to rearrange into a tighter packing, is known as consolidation settlement, I is also known as primary consolidation settlement. “A Gud or Enger Sens Scanned with CamScanneriss «When the sol nly ifsome oft fot eomeess I) index sin me compress ‘consolidation. Oe srr: bec, oie (In Sem), Feb-36 (In Sem) 1), Coeficen i) Compress i) Coeficie in) Degree Ans: ce of ject rience som Ot f settlement j decrease in volume of Voids, Ifthe reduction in volume Of Voids cay he water querzed out ofthe sol. Pressure (@)—= Fig.0.17.4 |) Coefficient of compressibity (,) {tis the ratio of reduced void ratio (Ae) to increase in pre by amount (4p), ‘When void ratio is decreased per unit increase in effective itis termed as ‘oeffic This expressed as, ent of compressibility’ i) 4 to increase in vertical effective soldation, and this is Usually he Foundation Engin iB Immediate and Consolidation Setlement Effective stress (@) = Prossure {105 scale) (p) —= Fig.0472 11) Compression index: # tis denoted as °C,’ + It simply is a slope of straight ine portion of effective stress versus pressure (log scale), ‘+ When void ratio is decreased per unit logarithmic increase of stress itis termed as compression index. # Itis expressed as, 1) Coefficient of volume comprossibily : «Iti denoted by ‘m,’ ‘+ It is the ratio coefficient of compression per unit volume. It is expressed "775 7 apse) 'v) Degree of consolidation : * Tris denoted by U. * Itis expressed in percentage Scanned with CamScanner‘d Immediate and Consolidation 1 on Engineering Foundation Eng the consolidation at a op of i0 0 amount he final consolidation under ag, Immediate and Consolidation Settement ie "nasa condition Es [es] = Settlement after time ‘s As the water filling the soil voids is incompressible, it will not allow the deformation of the soil grains. As the soil solids cannot deform, they cannot take any additional siress and thus the entire additional stress applied is borne by the pore water filling the voids. ‘The stress equation at this initial stage is as follows : Ao = Ao’ + Au -(Q18.1) ‘Where, ‘Ac = Additional stress applied on the soil-water system, Additional stress in the soil grains, known as effective stress increment equal to 0, ‘Am = Additional stress in the water in the voids equal to Ac. ‘Now, the additional stress in the pore water, Au, known as excess hydrostatic pressure or pore water pressure, causes a stress gradient between the pore water within (stress zone) and outside the pressure bulb causing a little amount of water (which is under stress) to flow out of the voids. '» This facilitates the partial deformation of the soil grains and part of additional stress applied is transferred from the water to the soil solids. © The stress equation at this intermediate stage is as follows : Ao = Ao’ + Au so Q18.2) Where Final settlement uy = Initial pore-water ore-water pressure after time" OR With the help of Terzaghis spring analogy concept, explain the phenomenon of consolidation, Ans : Spring Analogy * Terzaghi compared the spring-dashpot model to the soil voids filed with water - to explain the mechanism of consoli ‘* Here, the spring is compared to the soil grains and the dash ‘compared to the soil voids filled with water under stress, * Theale represents the drainage face (pervious sol). * Let the initial stress inthe soil be Where, Ac = Additional stress applied on the soil-water system, ‘Ao’ = Effective stress inerement having a value of 0 under its own weight ‘more than zero but less than Ao, Soils deformed due to this stress 7 ‘Au = Pore water pressure having a value less than Ao * Suppose an additional load is applied on the soil-water syst but more than zero. cause an addtional stress of Ao, * Ifthe soil grains have to ‘undergo deformation, * Now, after lapse of sufficient time, the pore water in the voids of the stressed zone flows out ofthe pressure bulb until the remaining ‘water in the pressure bulb is completely relieved of the additional stress, Share this additional load, they bi "A Gude for Enginering Sten, Scanned with CamScannerFoundation gino. cates sul rid particles and the addtional sy {erred tothe soil solids, ee st deformation of the outflow of water facili nt of ol Total seas An * This through earrangemen completely trans the water is completly : Tre taken forte complet transfer of stress from the a vt the sol solids depends on the rte of the flow of: wich is permeability ofthe soil and the availability of gy yee fee that, pervious sand or gravel) strat, 0% “04 * Balance of etlectve svess increment tobe gained 9) = Effective sess incrementin me Arainage face, that is, 4 1fsand or gravel layer exists at both the top and the bottom compressible sol layer (Cay), expulsion of pore water will faster, bth in the upward and downward direction. Tre Fig, 0.184 (0) one direction (ether upward or downward) and takes more time ‘© This depends on the geological formation of the soil atthe sit, + The stress equation at the final stage is as follows : Ao = Ao’ +Au Where, Ao do? Up Degree of consolidation yet to be completed U,= Degree of consolation completed at time t Additional stress applied on the soil-water Additional stress in the soil solids equal to Ag, u = Pore water pressure equal to 0. Tre ‘+ The stress system at the inital stage, intermediate stage, and Fig. 0.18.1 (c) stage ofthe consolidation process is shown in Fig, Q.18.1. Fig. 0.18.1 : Process of consolidation with time a) Pore pressure ‘dissipation, b) Effective stress gained, c) Consolidation progress: mn brief, since water is incompressible, stresses applied to saturated clayey soils are initially taken by the pore water in the form of ‘excess hydrostatic pressure or pore water pressure. x | The resulting stress gradient in the water within and outside the Stress zone causes expulsion of the pore water, further causing transfer of stress from pore water to soil solids, thus increasing the effective stress in soils which undergo compression. 1, = Pore pressure dissipated at time t |= Balance pore pressure at time t Excess pore prosaure Scanned with CamScannersnneti nd Consent oon mn Ph Foundation. =: Immediate and Consolidation Settlement oe ison of pore water, the dissipation op Tae ee of Oe ene eee re, i He gepends on he pest of the clayey e avalblt + The continuity equation for one - dimensional flow in vertical direction is, water presst vater oY 5 Ba dxdydz = 5 (ndxdy-dz) x, factor. eam «© This time-dependent pore water, is known as consolidation «The end ofthe consolidation process is signified by the comp mn of pore water pressure 10 2€F0. | 3.10 Terzaghi’s Consolidation Theory 2.49 Explain Terzaghi's 1-D consolidation theory. ‘Ans. : Assumption : 1) Soil is homogenous and isotropic. 2) Soils fully saturated and flow is laminar i.e. Darcy law is compression of sil, involving expulsion dissipatior 3) Soil remains saturated during the process of consolidation, Fig. 19:1 ‘+ Only the excess head (h) causes consolidation, and it is related to the excess pote water pressure (u) by, h= Ww. ‘+ The Darey equation can be writen as, bh bu V5 Kgs “yy fz * The Darey equation can be substituted in the continuity equation ‘and the porosity (n) can be expressed in terms of void ratio (e), to 4) The strain produced due to stress applied is small. cross-sectional occurs, ‘Torzagh!'s Theory computing the rate of consolidation. * Consider a saturated soil element of sides dx, dy and de, ‘obtain the flow equation as, * The intial volume of soil element = dx-dy.dz de dy 2 8 * If m is the porosity, the volume of water in the ww ag ee alae] mn dedydz com Cae for Engen Se Scanned with CamScanner ‘A Gale for EngincringImmediate and Consolidation a undaton Engines " : canbe represented schematically as + Thesoil elemento Y t 1, water | c v oe ‘Sold Vs iets Fig. 0.192 +I; is the initial void ratio ofthe consolidating layer, thei volume of solids in the element is (ddy-€2)/(1 + @,), remains constant °D,’ in the current void ratio ‘e’. + The flow equation can be writen om * This is the hydrodynamic equation of one — consolidation. * If a, = Coefficient of compressibility the change in void be expressed as, * D.=a(-D,)=a,-(D,) since any increase in effective stress the decrease in excess pore water pressure. Thus, * The flow equation can be expressed as, whys by wi Tre, ht Foundation Engineering 3-20 fa +e) Su _ by a yw be” & ‘+ By introducing a parameter called the coefficient of consolidation. Immediate and Consolidation Settement c -ilte) Saar a eel m0 ¢ The flow equation, then becomes, a oe This is Terzaghi’s one - dimensional consolidation equation. 3.11 Coefficient of Consolidation 2.20 Explain the ‘square - root time fitting method’ for determination of the consolidation, Ans. : * C, isnot a constant parameter but isa function of stress increment. ‘+ It also depends on the type of soil and its value decreases with increase in liquid limit if value can be given by following relation indirectly a +6, 8) + mis or miday . compte 1) The square root of time fitting method 2) The logarithm of time fitting method 1) Square root of the time fting method : * Itis given by Taylor and also called Taylor's method. * Ifa graph is plotted between u and «/T,, then it is found straight when u < 0.6 but thereafter graph is asymptotic. >> Qu pile is called end bearing pile. * If Qu, BNC 1OON, and hence is usually neglected © In deep for <> foundation, the term 0 y BN, is quite small com Pile Foundations 4, = 500 kN Hence OK 0.15 A group of piles consists of 15 and five coloumns. Compute the ples among tee roe _ SE [SPPU :bec-16, Maks 5} Scanned with CamScannerEfficiency, 164 2 = 29% 100 = 68.33% The efficiency of pile group by felds rule is 68.33 %. =e 2 at caine dag x Shallow Foundations, Piers and Caissons |___5:1 Shallow Foundations 0.1 What is shallow foundation and explain their types. Ans shallow foundations are constructed where soil layer at shallow depth (upto 1.5 m) is able to support the structural loads. The depth of shallow foundations are generally less than its width. Types of Shallow Foundations ‘© The different types of shallow foundation are : 1. Strip footing 2. Spread or isolated footing Combined footing strap or cantilever footing 4. Mat or raft foundation 1. Strip footing : ‘+ A strip footing is provided fora load-bearing wall. ‘+ A strip footing is also provided for a row of columns which are so closely spaced that their spread footings overlap or nearly touch each other. + In such a case, it is more economical to provide a strip footing than to provide a number of spread footings in one line. ‘© A strip footing is also known as continuous footing. oD Scanned with CamScannerering J 1, Combined footing : «A combined footing suppor two columns, Stelow Foundations, Pers and Calssons ELEVATION their individual footings would overap + A combined footing is also provided when the property line is so close to one. column that a spread footing would be eccentrically loaded when kept entirely within the property line. + By combining it with that of an interior column, the load is PLAN evenly distributed. A combined footing may be rectangular ot 2 ‘trapezoidal in plan, 2. Spread or Isolated footing or Individual footing : ‘+ A spread footing also called as isolated footing, pad footing, an individual footing is provided to support an individual colum, 7) pa © A spread footing is circular, square or rectangular slah uniform thickness Sareea ‘© Sometimes, it is stepped or haunched to spread the load ce : TITAS) PR ry 4. Strap or Cantilever footing : * A strap (or cantilever) footing consists of two isolated footings connected with a structural strap or @ lever, ' ‘+ The strap connects the two footings such that they behave as ‘one unit, The strap is designed as a rigid beam, * The individual footings are so designed that their combined Line cf action passes through the resultant ofthe total load * A strap footing is more economical than « combined footing, ‘when the allowable soil pressure is relatively high and the distance between the columns is large. = Scanned with CamScanner| TRTRTTRTRTRR) RTA, L Foundation Engineering _ | PLAN 5. Mat or Raft foundations : © A mat or raft foundation isa large slab supporting a number columns and walls under the entre structure or a large pan the structure. # A mat is required when the allowable soil pressure is low g Where the columns and walls are so close that individad footings would overlap or nearly touch each other. © Mat foundations are useful in reducing the different settlements on non-homogeneous soils or where there is alae Variation in the loads on individual columns. | 52 Princpies of Design | 22 Explain in short various criteria for choice of foundation. ‘OR Discuss the selection criteria of a foundation. ‘Ans. + The choice of foundation to be used in given situation depend ‘mainly on following factors 1) Soil profile 2) Bearing capacity 3) Type of structure 4) Type of load “4 Gide for Engen foundation Er Stalow Foundations, lrs and Casons 5) Permissible differentia settement 6) Environmental condition 7) Economy peciding depth of footing: «Footing should be taken below the top si, miscellaneous debris of muck. «Depth of foundation should always be greater than depth of first action irrespective of bearing capacity of sil, «Footing should be taken below the posible depth of erosion due to natural causes like surface water runoff «The minimum depth of footing on this coun is usualy taken as 30 cm for single and two storey constructions. While itis taken as 60 cm for heavier construction. ‘« Footing on sloping ground be constructed with a sufficient edge distance for protection against erosion. | 5.3 Proportioning of Footing Q.3 Explain proportioning of footing. Ans. : Proportion of footings : +A structure is usually supported ona numberof column. + These column usually camry a different load depending on their location with respect to structure. ferential settlements are minimized by proportioning the footing, for the various. columns so as to equalize the everage bearing pressure under all columns. * But each column load consists of dead load (DL) + Live load(LL).The full LL does not act all the time(wind toad) * Hence DL + fall LL is not a realist erterion for producing equal settlement. nig + For ordinary building the actual load expected on the building is DL+50%LL. =r Scanned with CamScannerForentosion Engimorring__"-~ dure: ae i. DL inclusive selfweight of 0 footing is noted for each column footing ii. LL foreach column is calculated (1S code) 4 iii. The ratio of LL to DL is calculated for each column footing ang the maximum value of ratio is noted iv. The allowable bearing pressure is calculated by Terazagh mn and estimated Value fo, equation. 2 v. For the footing with largest LL to DL ratio the area of footing required is calculated by total load by allowable bearing pressure, Q Allowable pressure Vi. The service load for the column is calculated by adding appropriate fraction LL to DL Vi. The design bearing capacity (q,) is obtained by dividing the service load of maximum LL to DL ratio by the area of footing, Service load 4 A Vili. This pressure is less than the pressure computed in(iv) ‘x. The area of footing for each of the column is obtained by dividing the corresponding service load by the allowable bearing pressure, ‘a = Setvice load for that column dy G4 Enliet steps involved in proportioning of rectangular footing. iS. ‘Consider dead load + Reduced live load Step 1 : To find column load Q=Q+Q Q, = Load in exterior column Q = Load in interior column A Guide for Engineering Soden 4 Staton Foundations, Pl and Colony 5 Shatow Foundations, ES and Colony oa = Allowable bearing press step 3 + Locate the line of action ofthe column loads measured from the centre of the exterior column, X= Centre to centre distance between the column Step 4: Define the total length ofthe footing L=Xx+e) 5 € = Projection of footing Step 5: Find the width of the footing ot Step 6 : Find the actual area provided (A,) Step 7 : Find the actual pressure Consider dead load + full live load Step 8 : Check the Pressure Actual pressure < allowable pressure Q5 Enliss Involved in proportioning of strap footing. Ans. : Proportioning of strap footing : Step 1: Assume eccentricity ‘e” Step 2: Determine the length of footing of exterior column L, = 2(e+ 0.564) Consider DL + Reduced LL “ou for ae Scanned with CamScannergcn__Sheten Fosndatns, Plrs and Ce action RI by taking mo! Foundaron Engineer rion Ene ment about the line gp Step 3 : Compute the r action of the reaction. R Step 6 : Calculate width of footing Ay B= ier Step 7: Caleulate pressure intensity |_5e Raft Foundati 6 What is the raft foundation ? Ans. vr © Itisa very commonly used type of foundation system, ** Tt is also known as Mat foundation * Rafi foundation is actually a thick concrete slab resting on a large area of soil reinforced with steel, supporting columns or walls and transfer loads from the structure to the soil. Usually, mat foundation is spread over the entire area of the structure it is supporting. SO (Guide for Engineering Sader working Principle: «Raft foundation transmits the total load from entire ground floor area, + Stess distribution mechanism of raft foundation is very simple, « Total weight of the structure and self-weight of the mat is calculated and is divided by the total area of the foundation itis covering to calculate the stress on the sol, the building to the «As in case of raft foundation the contact area ofthe foundation with soil is much more than any other type of foundation, so the load is distributed over a larger area and thus the stress on soil is lesser and the possibility of shear failure of soil is also reduced. Q.7 What are the types raft foundation ? Ans. : Types of raft foundation : 1. Flat plate mat: © This is the simplest form of raft foundation. © This type of mat is used when the columns and walls are uniformly spaced at small intervals and the subjected loads are relatively small. © Reinforcement is placed in both directions and more reinforcement is required at the column locations and load- bearing walls. © The thickness of this types of raft foundation is generally restricted within 300mm for economic reason. * A thicker slab would not be economical. 2. Plate thickened under columns : *, When the columns and load bearing walls are subjected to heavier Loads, the slab is thickened under the columns and walls and extra reinforcement is provided to resist against shear and negative reinforcement. u a ‘Scanned with CamScanner1) __Shaow Foundations, Pers and c ine a! Foundation Engine® tran, beans recast monolithiclly With hep « Inthis type 0! ‘ ata the columns and walls sae arate i suitable when the COIUMNS AFe placed + ae te OM AE ail, = 4, Plates with Pedestals ¢ 7 In this type of mat, a pedestal is columns «+ Purpose of this type of foundation is same as flat pig thickened under columns. provided at the base of Piled raft: © This type of raft foundation is supported on piles. A piled raft is used when the soil ata shallow depth is highly compressible and the water table is high «Piles under raft help in reducing settlement and provides resistance agains buoyancy 6. Rigid frame mat /Cellular raft foundation : * Inthis type ofraf, the foundation walls act as a deep beam. + Rigid frame mat is referred when columns carry extremely heavy loads and the connecting beams exceeds 90 cm depth, * Here two concrete slabs are placed, one on top of another and connected with foundation walls in both directions and ths forms a cellular raft foundation, 5: * This type of raft is very rigid and is economical when quired slab thickness very high 5.5 Bearing Capacity of Raft Foundation undation Engineer Ts Eo allow Foundations, Pars and Catsons ‘om shear failure criteria, ty a MRE net safe bearing capacity is given = 0.02N'BI a Rvi +006(000+ 8} DR, (@81) «From setlement criteria of 25 mm the safe Gua = 17S N-3)Ry, bearing pressure is, + (Q.8.2) Where, B = Smaller dimension ofthe footing D, = Depth of foundation 'N = Corrected SPT Value Ry Rwz = Water table correction factors Where, Gps td gg are in ton/m™ « It has been found that the Teng’s equation for bearing capacity based on allowable settlement is conservative and hence it is suggested to use the relation suggested by Peck et al (1974). + The relation is na = 22RyN ‘+ The above equation is applicable for SN < 50. © If the value of N after proper correction is less than 5 the raft would not be feasible. * The sand is either compacted or a deep foundation is provided. * For N values greater than 50, the above equation gives conservative = (Q83) + The value of q,, is for $0 mm allowable setlement, for other values of allowable settlement a linear interpolation isto be done. Scanned with CamScanner| spatow Foundations, Pres and Casson, Feats Fgirerng ae $212 5.6 Floating Raft | Q.9 What is a floating foundation ? Ans. : © A floating foundation is a type of foundation constructed py excavating the soil in such a way that the weight of structure buily (on the soil is nearly equal to the total weight of the soil excavate from the ground including the weight water in the soil before the construction of structure. ‘© A Floating Foundation, also known as Balancing Raft is a type of foundation where the weight of the building is approximately equal to the full weight ofthe soil and water removed from the site ofthe building prior to construction. Problems during inthe design ofa floating foundation Excavation : ‘The excavation for the foundation has to be done with care * The sides of the excavation should suitably be supported by sheet piling, soldier piles and timber or some other standard method, Dewatering : 4 ‘ It is better to examine the water table level prior to the excavation, * If the depth of the excavation is below the water table then dewatering is essen * Care has to be taken to see that the adjoining structures are not affected due tothe lowering ofthe water table. Critical Depth : * Ifthe shear strength of the soil is low and there isa theoretical limit to the depth to which an excavation can be made Bottom Heave: srt Engincerin S13 pe Shallow Foundations, Pers and Cations 1 he formed REA BUSS Stlement 6 theses ee we cannot prevent the fomnation of hey, spethods 10 minimize the formation of heave ‘here are WO possible causes ofheave, + ¢ Plastic inward movement ofthe surcunding soi o Elastic movement of the soil as the existing overburden pressure is removed. 10 Explain conventional method for design of raft foundation. + As per IS : 2850 (Part!) +1981 igid foundation (Conventional method) : « This is based on the assumptions of linear distribution of contact pressure. «The basic assumptions of this method are : ‘© The foundation is rigid relative to the supporting soil and the ‘compressible soil layer is relatively shallow. © The contact pressure variation is assumed as planar, such that the centroid of the contact pressure coincides with the line of action of the resultant force of all loads acting on the foundation. * This method may be used when either of the following conditions is satisfied: 4) The structure behaves as rigid (due to the combined action of to be superstructure and the foundation) with a relative stiffness factor K > 0.5 a ) The column spacing is less than 1.7: © The raft is analysed as a whole in each of the two perpendicular directions. . * Further analysis i . © but there are some Scanned with CamScannerae 1¢__ShatoFoundtons, Plt and cy Foundation Engineering Bs Se In cases of uniform conditions when the variations in agg, dacs and otunn spacings €0 0% eX 20 Peay . ie be divided into ioe eae “ Of width, equal tothe distance between midspan and each strip may analysed as an independent beam with known column Toads gy, known contact pressures. ‘© Such beams will not normally satisfy statics due to transfer between adjacent strips and the design may be baseg gy suitable moment coefficients, or on moment distribution, 11 Explain elastic method for design of raft foundation, ‘Ans. : As per'S : 2960 Part!) 1981 1, Simplified method : ‘In this method, it is assumed that the subgrade consists of aq infinite array of individual elastic springs each of which is not affected by others. The spring constant is equal to the modulus of subgrade reaction (k), The comtact pressure at any point under the raft is, therefore, linearly proportional to the settlement at the point. This method may be used when the following conditions ae satisfied : © The structure (combined action of superstructure and raft) may be considered as flexible (relative stifthess facto. K=05). © Variation in adjacent column load does not 20 percent of the higher value, 2. General method : ° For the general case of a flexible foundation not requirements of method 1. Engineer 5-15 ha ol ee Feundons, Pers nd Caton ‘The method based on closed fon theory may he used . Solution of elastic plate This method is based on the theory of pites on wink foundation which takes into account the restraint on ae of, «point provided Ey costo lott eraaaem orthogonal foundation, «The distribution of defletion and contact pressure on the raft due toa column lad i determined by the pate theory, «Since the effect of a column load on an elastic foundation is damped out rapidly, itis possible to determine the total effect at a point of all column loads within the zone of influence by the ‘method of super imposition, + The computation of the effect at any point may be restricted to. columns of two adjoining bays in all directions. lers and Caissons Q.12 What is pler ? Explain different methods of installation of pier. 1 (SPPU Mayt5, Mars 5] Ans. Pere: i) These are a large diameter concrete cylinder built in the ground. i) In other words, they are single unit supporters which camry heavy loads and transfer them to sub-soil or rock. Method of installation of Pier: * The instalation methods used are primarily dependent upon the soil conditions. Geo-eehica investigation wil allaw development of the most cost effective design and installation solution. Some the methods are as follows : |) Upon hole drilling 2) Lined or eased holes 3) Sluny drilling Scanned with CamScannerlow Foundations, folee Peers ong cundton Engi 2 ees A Sa indation. + Dee, comparieon of pile found! 5, \ sf piers Ans, : Advantages of ; nd sides is possible in construction op he construction of piles. s while j) Inspection of base & wwheras not possible i ii Ground vibration and shaking occurs ving ; oes not occurs in pies. Where iy or ied pes Hier equipments are required than pile yg jv) Drilled piers canbe enlarged t0 achieve more bearing capaci ») Piers oes higher resistance to lateral loads as Compared to ia Disadvantages of pers : §)_Ierequites strict and expert supervision during drilling process, ii) Load tests are difficult to conduct. ii) When compared to piles, more sub-surface investigation is nee for piers iv) As compared to precast piles, concreting may be of infty quality. .14 Write a short note on caisson desease. SB [SPU May-10,11,14,16, Dect, Ma ‘OR What is catssion desease ? How itis controlled ? EB [SPPU : Decn16, Mas) ‘Ans. : Caisson disease: ay al hhave to work under compressed air in Caisson. "8 jnder compressed air pressure less than 0.35 ®) 4 N/mm’ causes no harm. iil) Exceeding the limit of 0.4 health problems such as fidiness also burst Némm’ workmen may undtion Engineering $17 ; Foundations Plers and Caissons 4) Pains in joints leading to ‘pend disease. vi)_ Paralysis ot heart atack ae the severe effect of Caisson disease sii) One may inhale excess nitrogen with air. ‘oxygen under compressed ‘are the mild effect of Caisson viii) During decompression, the i i : i ee ied al ee aoe {e08 absorbed in ix) These absorbed nitrogen gas i thrown out of blood inthe form of bubbles, x) Bubbles can block the flow of blood in vessels and may cause bursting of vessels. xi) Ifthe bubbles are arrested in the region of spinal cord or heart it can give rise to paralysis or heart attack, resulting even in death. xii) Caisson diseases can be controlled by recompression followed by slow decompression. Q.15 What are the types of piers foundation ? ‘Ans. : Types of pier foundation : Usually two types of pier foundation are used. 1. Masonry or concrete piers : ‘* Masonry or conerete piers depend on the level of the stratum. If a good bearing stratum exists up to Sm, masonry piers are used. _ ‘The size and the shape of the piers depend on the nature of the soil, depth of the bed etc. 2. Drilled caissons : «Drilled caissons usually refer to the cylindrical foundation. : +A drilled eaisson is largely a compressed member subested 10 ‘an axial load atthe top and reaction atthe boom. + There are three types of drilled ealssons: * Conerete caisson with enlarged bottom Caisson of tel pie with concrete file inthe Pe Scanned with CamScanner