Session 1

MIC212
2024
 Mastery of Concepts in Genetics
1. Allele 16. Generation
2. Trait 17. Homozygous
3. Meiosis 18. Monohybrid
4. Mitosis 19. Probability/chance
5. Dominant 20. Crossing-over
6. Recessive 21. Locus
7. Heterozygous 22. Chromosome
8. Diploid 23. Mendel’s law of segregation
9. Genotype 24. Mendel’s second law
10. Phenotype 25. Two trait cross
11. Gamete 26. Pure-bred
12. Hybrid 27. Replication
13. Linkage groups 28. Nucleic acid
14. Haploid 29. Germ cell
15. Particulate model 30. Heredity
31. Any other?

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Principles of gene inheritance
 Mendel's four postulates and laws of inheritance are: (1)
Principles of Paired Factors (2) Principle of Dominance(3)
Law of Segregation or Law of Purity of Gametes (Mendel's
First Law of Inheritance) and (4) Law of Independent
Assortment (Mendel's Second Law of Inheritance).

 The means in which traits are passed from one generation

to the next-and sometimes skip generations, was first
explained by Gregor Mendel. By experimenting with pea
plant breeding, Mendel developed three principles of
inheritance that described the transmission of genetic
traits, before anyone knew genes existed.
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Mendel heredity investigations
1. Assumed genes are
sections of
chromosomes
2. Letters stands for
genes that control a
trait such as colour of
hair, type of fingers,
length or shape of
nose,
3. Gene have a definite
sequence, loci and
remain that way
before and after
replication of the
chromosomes
Fig 1 ‘Draw own’
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 Mendel’s Law
1. In Figure 1: above is G an allele of g visa versa as
R is to r, but g is not an allele of R because they
are a different loci.
2. The model above is called a particulate model,
because it only provide an easy way to
determine the probability of an off-spring
inheriting a particular characteristic. It does
not address chemical nature of genes i.e. DNA
level.
3. Gregory Mendel in 1860 develop certain laws of
heredity after doing crosses between garden pea
plants
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.
1. Mendel said, an individual has 2 factors for every
trait, such as stem length. He observed that one of
the factors controlling the same trait can be
dominant over the other which is recessive.
2. Mendel’s experiments led him to conclude that it is
possible for such a tall plant to pass a factor for
shortness. Therefore he reasoned that while the
individual plant has two factors for each trait, the
gametes (sperm and egg) contain only one factors
for each trait. This is known as Mendel’s law of
segregation.
3. Mendel’s law of segregation states: Each individual
has factors for each trait. The factors segregate
during the formation of the gametes, each gamete
contain only one factor from each pair of factors:
Fertilization gives each new individual 2 factors for
each trait.
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Mendel’s Experiments: First Exp.
1. He used garden pea plants ~ easy to cultivate ~
can self pollinate ~ have short generation time
2. He selected certain traits to study from true bred
plants (i.e. when these plants self pollinate , the
off-springs resembled one another and look like
the parent plants.
3. Mendel pollinated the plants by dusting the
pollen of the parent plants with yellow seeds
((‘male’)on the stigma of parent plants with
green seeds whose own anthers has been
removed (‘female’) visa versa.
4. Either way, the off-springs (F1 – First filial
generation) resembled parents with yellow
seeds.

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.
5. When he allowed the F1 plants to self-pollinate
to obtain F2 generation
~ He counted 8000 plants, and found that F1
plants exhibited only the dominant trait
~ F2 exhibited both the dominant and the
recessive traits in a 3.1 ratio (3 plants with yellow
seeds for every plant with green seed.

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Summary

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Mendel’s Second Experiment
6. He crossed true breeding plants that differed in
2 traits e.g. Yellow and round peas (seeds) with
plants with green wrinkled peas (seeds). NB F1
generation usually has both dominant
characteristics, next he allowed the F1 plants to
self-pollinate to produce a F2 generation:
Results, he obtained a ratio of 9:3:3:1
7. Explanation of Results: Mendel’s Second law ~ If
a pair of factors separate independently from
one another when gametes are formed allowing
all possible combinations of factors to occur in
the gametes.

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Mendel’s second experiment

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Dihybrid cross

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 Inheriting a single trait
8. Mendel used letters factors now called alleles the
genes.
9. Capital letters or upper cased letter (e.g. E) = signify a
Dominant allele; which is a factor that is expressed
(appear), it is said to be dominant: The one that is
expressed in the absence of the dominant allele (E) is
called a recessive allele, and is indicated by a lower
cased letter (e).
10. Mendel’s Laws and procedures are not only applicable
to peas but diploid individuals (bacteria, other
microorganisms including humans). In this study we
shall use human examples. Example, let W = widows
peak hair line (Dominant): w = straight hair line.
11. These letters indicate genes of each trait of an
individual we shall call them genotypes or phenotypes

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 One trait crosses
Genotypes Genotype Phenotype
12. In single trait such as hairline,
there are 3 possible
combinations of the two
Homozygous Widows peak alleles: WW, Ww & ww
WW (possible genotypes for this
dominant
trait)
Ww Heterozygous Widows peak
13. If 2 members of the allelic pairs
dominant
are similar = WW (dominant) &
ww Homozygous Straight hair ww (recessive) = (homo), the
recessive
organism is said to be
homozygous. The organism is
heterozygous (Ww)
14. In case of phenotype, W (mask
w)exhibits the dominant
phenotype whether the other
allele in W or w
15. Table 2 summarise genotypes &
phenotypes of the hairline trait
crosses

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Practice problems
a. Let us cross WW x ww =  NB: It is possible to tell
?? by inspecting the
b. What about Ww x Ww individual expressing
c. If WW x Ww the dominant allele if
the individual is
d. Or ww x Ww homozygous dominant
e. What are the ratios of or heterozygous
occurrence
(offsprings) in a, b, c &
d?
f. What are the chances
(probability) of the
offsprings in a.b,c,&d?
g. During meiosis, what
are the chances of W or
w to occur from Ww.
h. For both?
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Inheriting two traits
16. Genotypes of parents 19. F1 genotypes all =
require 4-letters WwSs
representing all (2) 20. Mating F1 offsprings
allelic pairs F1 Gametes: WwSs x
17. When all possible WwSs
matings allowed;
WwSs WwSs
Punnett square best
present results WS WS
18. Lets cross a
white(WW) person Ws Ws
with short
fingers(ss) & a black wS wS
(ww) person with
ws ws
long fingers (SS)
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Homologous pairs of chromosomes during
meiosis
21. Refer to figure 23.6 26. A gamete can receive
(next slide) and see either an S or s, a W or
meiosis. Attention to w in any combination.
Box: Allele key ‘Toggle’ 27. Although Mendel did
22. Two homologues are not know about
distinguished by meiosis, but realized
length that results could be
23. Colour signifies attainable only if the
paternal or maternal sperm & egg cells
24. Homologues separate contain every
during meiosis, each combination of
gamete receives one factors. This caused
pair independently. him to formulate the
law of independent
25. A gamete receive 1 long assortment
and one short
chromosome of either
colour
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Fig 23.6

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Fig 23.7
 Reconsider the
Dihybrid crosses of
WWSS x wwss: instead
of using Punnett
square, use product rule
and the sum rule of
probabilities to predict
the results of dihybrid
crosses when the
phenotypic ratio is e.g.
9:3:3:1
 e.g. ¾ for widows peak,
¾ x ¾ = 9/16 probability
for widows peak & short
fingers.
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Meiosis Overview

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Crossing over & independent assortment

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Importance of Meiosis
28. Meiosis is important
a. Keeps chromosome
number constant,
generation after
generation
b. Gives daughter cell a
copy of each
chromosome
c. Ensure genetic
recombination
 Allow all possible
combination
(independent
assortment)
 Allow crossing over
 Allow recombination
after fertilization

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 Two trait crosses
30. Mendel’s second law:
The law of independent
assortment states the
following: Each pair of
factors separates
independently. All
possible combinations
of factors can occur in
the gametes
31. Pedigrees: A chart of a
family ‘s history chart
with regards to
particular genetic trait
(fig 23.8)
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 Beyond simple Mendelian patterns
1. Incomplete dominance:
heterozygotes is intermediate
between 2 homozygotes, e.g. a
curl-haired Caucasians
reproduces with a straight-
haired Caucasian, their
children have wavy hair
(intermediate). Neither
straight or curly hair is
dominant = blending of traits
(non visible)
2. Two wavy-haired persons
reproduce and produce one
curly-haired child (25%): two
wavy-haired (50%) :one
straight-haired (50%) =
phenotypic ratio of 1:2:1.
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 Beyond simple Mendelian patterns: Blood types
3. Co-dominance: alleles are Genotype Antigen
equally expressed in a
IA A antigen on
heterozygote, e.g. Human
RBCs
blood types AB, in which red
blood cells (RBCs) have IB B antigen on
characteristics of both type A RBCs
& B (Both are phenotypically
expressed or both product i Neither A or B on
are present on RBCs) RBCs
4. Blood type inheritance is is
also said to be controlled by Phenotype Genotype
multiple alleles: Three alleles A IAIA, IAi
for the same genes are
control the inheritance of B IBIB, IB Ii
ABO blood types. These
alleles determine the AB IAIB
presence or absence of
antigens on RBCs O ii

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 Blood types
5. Each person have 2 of the 3
possible allele, and both IA and
IB are dominant over i.
6. There are 2 possible types for
type A blood and 2 possible
types for type B blood.
7. On the other hand, IA and IB are
fully expressed in the presence
of the other. If a person inherit
one of each of these alleles, that
person will have type AB blood.
8. Type O blood can result from
inheriting two i alleles
9. Blood test and paternity suits:
(a)Is a man with blood type AB a
father of child with O blood
type? Y/N? Why?
(b) Is a man with blood type A
(genotype IAi) a father of a child
with blood type O? Y/N? Why?
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 Sex-linked inheritance
10. Normally both males and
females have 23 pairs of
chromosomes; 22 pairs are
called autosomes, and one
pair is the sex chromosomes.
Sex chromosomes are so called
because they differ between
the two sexes. Male (X&Y) and
females (X&X)
11. Traits controlled by the genes
on the sex chromosomes are
said to be sex-linked; an allele
on the X chromosomes in X-
linked, allele on the Y
chromosome is y-linked
12. Most sex linked chromosomes
are on the X chromosomes, Y is
blank on these, small and
have very few alleles
13. Sex linked genetic disorders
are passed from mother to
son, son receives an Y-
linked allele from the father
and sex-linked genetic
disorders are recessive.
Females must receive 2
alleles from each parents
before they have the
condition.
14. Consider color-blindness, an
X–linked trait (or disorder)
*Let X = normal vision
*Let X = color-blindness
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Sex-linked alleles

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 Polygenic inheritance
13. Size, height, shape, weight, skin
colour, metabolic rate & behaviour 19. Let us assume the skin has
are traits controlled by several two pairs of alleles (Aa &Bb)
(poly) sets of alleles and that each capital letter
contributes pigment to the
14. Polygenic inheritance are occurs skin.
when a trait is governed by 2 of
more sets of alleles 20. Let us assume also that
when a very dark person
15. Each individual has a copy (two) reproduces with a very light
of all the pairs person. Their children will
16. These are possibly located on have a .......? skin.
many different pairs of 21. Ans = Medium brown
chromosomes
22. Lets cross the very dark
17. Each dominant allele codes for a with the middle brown
product, it has a quantitative person....and so on. See
(additive or summative) effect on insert below:
the phenotype
18. Variation of the phenotypes results
in distribution of these phenotypes
that resembles a bell shape.
Example, skin Colour. The more
genes involved the more variation
and distribution of phenotypes
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More on beyond Mendelian inheritance

23. When two people with

genotype AaBb
(Medium brown)
reproduce with each
other, the skin colour
of their children may
range from very dark
to very light
24. The range of
phenotype fall between
the two extremes and
follow distribution of
a bell-shaped curve
(Figure 23.12 or 16)

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 More on polygenic inheritance
25. Environmental 27. Linkage groups: If genes
influences: Nutrition,
temperature can also
influence expression of
genes
26. Examples: height and
nutrition, the richer the
higher
-Temperature, primrose
has white flowers when
grown above 32°C and 28. Conclusion: All
red flowers when grown
24°C. Another example
are the presence of
melanin enzymes in
Himalaya rabbits only at
low temperatures
are on the same member
of a homologous pair or
chromos are said to be
linked and tend to be
inherited together.
However, crossing over
enable formation of
dihybrids or
recombinant gametes
behavioral traits are
partly inheritable and
genes exert their
influence by acting
together in complex
combinations
susceptible to the
environment
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 Practice
1. Choice-selection of gender
of a baby
 A bioethical  Do all exercises involving
consideration...What is Mendel’s principles and
your view? beyond Mendel.
2. How might the  Don’t forget to assign keys
environment influence and phenotypic ratios
polygenic trait of taste? when doing genetic
 Ans. Environmental factors crosses.
alters the expression such as `
diet and temperature can
alter the expression of
genetic traits
3. What can we learn from
twins growing in the same or
different environments? Any
similarities or differences?
Why?

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