PHYSCI Edwin Hubble,

LESSON 1 -American astronomer,

▪Big Bang or primordial Nucleosynthesis- the origin of the - understanding of the universe and the development of the
“light” elements Big Bang theory.

▪Stellar Nucleosynthesis- the origin and production of ➢Edwin Hubble

“heavy” elements
- twice changed our understanding of the universe in the
THE BIG BANG THEORY AND THE FORMATION OF LIGHT course of five years.
ELEMENTS
-he demonstrated that the universe was much larger than
BIG BANG THEORY previously thought.

- The universe was formed about 14 billion years ago as a -Then, he proved that the universe is expanding
result of giant explosion of very dense and hot matter.in the
➢ In 1929, Hubble made a significant discovery known as
formation of materials in space such as star, clouds of dust
Hubble's Law. He found that the more distant a galaxy is
and gases are gathered together by gravity by pulling the
from Earth, the faster it appears to move away. This discovery
interstellar dust inwardly to form nebulae which are term for
provided the foundation for the Big Bang theory, which
clouds of dust and gasses.
suggests that the universe began with a massive cosmic
-The continuous fusion of this interstellar media can result to explosion and has been expanding ever since.
increase the internal energy of the system thus increase in
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
temperature is expected.
- Is the process of making new atomic nuclei by nuclear fusion -not yet a star
of two or more nucleons.
-birthplace of star
Nucleons
2. Protostar
- protons+ neutrons= isotopes or new elements
- is the first stage ball of gas and dust that is
Light elements in the Big Bang Theory
pulled together by gravity
-Hydrogen, Deutrium, Helium (with two isotopes),
Nuclear fusion- hydrogen atoms
Lithium and small amount of Beryllium were basically
produced as a result of Big Bang nucleosynthesis. fuse into helium

-The isotopes produced during the big bang nucleosynthesis 3. Main sequence-
were 1H(protium), 2H(Ddeuterium, 3He(Helium-3),
-starts to form when nuclear fusion occurs at the core of the
4He(Helium-4), 7Li and 7B
star, it begins to contract, glow and become stable.
Star life cycle
-hydrogen is converted into Helium
1. Nebula (Giant gas

cloud)

-Stars are born within massive clouds of gas

and dust called nebulae

4. Red Giant
-the star is unable to generate heat when it runs out of - The core continues to collapse creating a smaller than Earth.
hydrogen in its core leading to its contraction and expansion.
- It is believed that a neutron star is formed from supernova
It cools down and glows red. The helium fused into carbon.
explosion.
5. White Dwarf
- This is also the smallest star
-red giant star becomes exhausted of nuclear fuel, the outer
9. Black Hole
material is blown off into space leaving the inert carbon.
- Is a region in space where gravity is too strong
-The remnant is known as white dwarf
that no matter can escape escape from it.
6. Black Dwarf
- Final stage for high mass stars
-this is said to be the remain of the white dwarf that cooled
NUCLEAR FUSION
down and no longer emits light and heat.
1. Proton-proton chain reaction
Massive Star
–main sequence star
7. Supernova
-in this process, the average star gets its energy and convert
-explosion of star or supernova releases large amount of
Hydrogen into Helium.
energy. Because of that, elements are dispersed into the
space. -it starts with a proton and a neutron which fuse together to
form Deutrium.
8. Neutron Star
1. Proton-proton chain reaction
- When another proton collides with deuterium, Helium-3 is - Nitrogen-15 fused with proton gives off Helium to generate
formed. the stable atom of Carbon-12.

- Collision between the Helium-3 atom with another Helium-3 3. Tri alpha process
forms Helium 4.
-happens in Red giant star.
2. CNO (Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen) Cycle
- Alpha particle fusion happens at its core and creates more
- Massive stars heavy elements until Iron.

- Convert Hydrogen into Helium. ATOMS

- Carbon-12 fused with proton (H) and form Nitrogen 13 Democritus

CNO (Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen) Cycle - who lived from about 460 BC to 370 BC.

- Nitrogen-13 undergoes beta decay to form Carbon-13. -a Greek philosopher

- Carbon 13 captures proton (H) and Nitrogen14 is formed.
2. CNO (Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen) Cycle
- Nitrogen-14 captures proton to produce
-the universe was made of empty space and tiny bits of stuff.
He believed that the bits of stuff were so small they could no
longer be divided into smaller pieces. He called these tiny
pieces atoms.

Oxygen-15, and - Oxygen-15 undergoes beta decay that

forms Nitrogen-15
Lavoisier’s contribution

-French chemist who lived about 2000 year after Democritus.

-Law of Conservation of Matter which states that matter is

not created or destroyed-it only changes form.

J.J. Thompson

-an English scientist.

- using cathode ray tube, which is a glass tube sealed at both

ends out of which most of the air has been pump.

Thompson

- knew that like charges repel each other and opposite

charges attract each other. When he saw that the rays
traveled toward a positively charged plate, he concluded that
the cathode rays were made up of negatively charged
particles. These invisible, negatively charge particles are
called Electrons.
NUCLEUS -Scientist still had questions about how the atom was
arranged and about the presence of positively charge
Ernest Rutherford and His team.
particles.
-In their experiment, they bombarded an extremely thin piece
-He also suggest that electrons were scattered in the mostly
of gold with alpha particles. Alpha particles are tiny, high-
empty space around the nucleus
energy, positively charged particles that he predicted would
pass through the foil. Most of the particles passed straight NEUTRON
through the foil as if it were not there at all. However other
Ernest Rutherford and other scientists thought that there
particles changed direction, and some even bounced back.
must be another type of subatomic particle in the nucleus.
Ernest Rutherford
James Chadwick
-concluded that because so many of the alpha particles
-proved the presence of neutral subatomic particles, which
passed straight through the gold foil, the atoms must be made
named neutron.
of mostly empty space. However, because some of the
positively charged alpha particles bounced off something, the - In his experiment, chadwick bombarded a thin sheet of
gold atoms must contain some positively charged object beryllium with alpha particles that led to the emission of a very
concentrated in the mids of this empty space. high energy radiation that did not deflect upon passing
through a magnetic field and is thus electrically neutral.
-Rutherford called the positively charged, central part of the
atom the nucleus. He named the positively charged particles
in the nucleus protons.
ELEMENTS chemical shorthand that chemists use to save time and
space-on periodic table as well as in written formulas.
 IS A MATTER MADE OF ONLY ONE KIND OF ATOM.
 Chemist have created the periodic table of elements to
 THESE ELEMENTS MAKE UP GASES IN THE AIR,
help them organize and display the elements.
MINERALS IN ROCKS, AND LIQUIDS SUCH AS
WATER.  Each element is represented by a chemical symbol that
contains one to three letters. The symbols are a form of
 110 KNOWN ELEMENTS
chemical shorthand that chemists use to save time and
NATURALLY OCCURING ELEMENT space-on periodic table as well as in written formulas.

-90 Elements naturally occurred on Earth. Example  GROUP 1A

nitrogen, oxygen, iron
-Are called Alkali metals. This group consist of the
SYNTHETIC ELEMENTS elements Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K),
Rubidium (Rb) Cesium (Cs) and Francium (Fr).
-these elements have been made in nuclear reactions by
scientist with machines called particle accelerators. - All of the group 1A elements (except for hydrogen)
are metals and have similar properties.
CHARTING THE ELEMENTS
 GROUP IIA
 Chemist have created the periodic table of elements to
help them organize and display the elements. -Are called Alkaline Earth metals. The group consists
of the elements of Be, Ca, Sr, Ba and Ra. They are all
 Each element is represented by a chemical symbol that
metals but less active than group IA.
contains one to three letters. The symbols are a form of
GROUP IIIA GROUP VIIIA

-Elements B, Al, Ga, In and Ti. All have 3 electrons in their -are called noble gases. They are also called inert gases
outermost energy level. because all have eight electrons in their outermost energy
level.
GROUP IVA
 The periods number tells us the number of energy
- Is called carbon and silicon family.
level. For example in period 1 there are only two
GROUP VA elements, hydrogen and helium. Both of these
elements have an electrons in the first energy level
-Is Nitrogen and Phosphorus family
only. In period 2 and 3 8 elements and all of which
GROUP VIA have one or more electrons in their highest energy
level the 2nd and 3rd energy level.
-oxygen and sulfur family.
 An atoms mass number is the number of protons plus
GROUP VIIA
the number of neutrons it contains.
-Elements are called Halogens. Halogen means “salt former”
this group is composed of F, Cl, Br, I, At. These elements are
nonmetals and all have 7 electrons in the outermost energy
level.

METALS
-generally have shiny or metallic luster and are good
conductors of heat and electricity.
-All metals, except mercury are solid at room temperature.
-Metals are malleable, which means they can be bent and
pounded various shapes
NONMETALS
-Elements that are dull in appearance. Most are poor
conductors of heat and electricity.
-Many are gases at room temperature.
• The solid nonmetals are generally brittle, meaning they
cannot change shape easily without breaking.
METALLOIDS
• Elements that have characteristics of metals and
nonmetals.
• On the periodic table, metalloids are found between
metals and nonmetals.
• All metalloids are solid at room temperature.
LESSON 3
TYPES OF BOND
IONIC BOND OR ELECTROVALENT
- Is formed when one or more electrons are transferred
from one atom to another.
COVALENT BOND
- Formed by sharing electrons between two atoms.
- Bonding between nonmetal and another nonmetal
- Can be either polar or nonpolar
POLARITY

- Separation of the electric charges in molecule caused

by the unequal sharing of electrons between atoms
- Describes the presence of opposite or contrasting
properties or states
- polar molecules have a positive and negative end pole
- non-polar have neutral charge

LINUS PAULING

- original scientist who describe electronegativity

- assigning value to fluorine 4.0 (the most
electronegative element)
- set up relative elements
- determined by its position on the periodic table
- tended to increase as you moved left to right and
bottom to top along the table

IONIC- greater than 1.7

POLAR COVALENT- 0.5-1.6

NON-POLAR COVALENT- less than 0.4