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Formation of Heavy Elements
The Creation of the Universe
◆The current and most popular theory of the
creation of our universe is called the “Big Bang
Theory.
◆The Big Bang Theory states that the universe
formed about 14 billion years ago and has been
expanding ever since.
◆All theories show that matter was formed at a
very early stage in the history of our universe
In the Beginning - Gas
The first elements to form in our universe were
hydrogen and deuterium, both gases.
◆Hydrogen has one proton and one electron:
◆Deuterium is an isotope of hydrogen. It has one
proton, one electron, and one neutron:
How is Deuterium Formed?
Deuterium is formed when hydrogen
atoms disintegrate into protons, which break
down into a neutron and a positron, a positively
charged electron:
(Protons, neutrons and electrons are the basic
parts of atoms that are used to create all the
other elements in the periodic table.)
Protons fuse with neutrons and add
electrons to form deuterium
The gases combine to form stars
◆Gravity caused the gases to condense into
clumps of atoms at very high pressures that
formed the first stars. These stars were hundreds
of times larger than our Sun.
◆Deep within the center of these gigantic stars
the temperature reached hundreds of thousands
or even millions of degrees Celsius.
◆These high temperatures and pressures caused
the hydrogen and deuterium to form helium in a
process called nuclear fusion, which is sometimes
unfortunately called “burning” although it is not
combustion.
Nuclear Fusion – the First Steps
- Two deuterium atoms can fuse to form
helium
Nuclear Fusion Continues
- Gamma rays, electrons and photons as
well as sub-atomic particles called
neutrinos and positrons are produced
under the extreme conditions in stars.
Nuclear Fusion Inside the Stars
- The extremely high temperatures and
pressures generated by nuclear fusion
causes helium nuclei, also known as alpha
particles, to be converted into elements
with larger and larger masses.
- The so-called Triple Alpha Process shows
how helium is converted into beryllium
and carbon during this burning process.
Nuclear Fusion – The Elements of Life
- Once carbon, the first key element of life,
is formed, the other life supporting
elements, oxygen and nitrogen, are
formed in what is called the CNO Cycle.
Evolution of Stars
◆Stage 1 - When the star is first formed only
helium (He) is formed at the core.
Stage 2 - After the hydrogen is used up in the
core, the helium begins fusing into carbon (C) at
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its core, but hydrogen continues to form helium
in a thin layer farther out.
◆Stage 3 – The star swells to become a “red
giant” and the smaller elements fuse to former
larger and larger elements.
◆ Neutrons are captured by atoms to form more
massive elements.
◆ When an atom captures a neutron, it becomes
a heavier isotope of the same atom.
◆ In unstable isotopes, a neutron decays into a
proton, electron and neutrino, converting the
atoms into the next element in the periodic table.
◆ The process continues until all the heavier
elements are produced.

How did the elements reach Earth?

◆When stars and supernova explode, they send
burning pieces of mass in all directions.
◆These hot masses, which contain the elements,
◆Stage 4 – Elements such as sodium (Na), neon spread throughout the universe to eventually
(Ne), magnesium (Mg), oxygen (O), sulfur (S), and form other stars and planets.
silicon (Si) are formed in the outer layers. The
◆Our solar system was created in this way over a
heavier elements are formed closer to the core
period of many billions of years.
and eventually fuse in the core of the star to form
iron (Fe), the most massive element found in
stars.

Forming Heavier Elements in Supernova

◆After a star reaches its maximum stage in
several billion years, a massive explosion called a
“Supernova” will blow the star apart.
◆The extreme temperatures that occur during
this explosion, are estimated to be more than 100
million degrees Celsius. This enables atoms and
neutrons to be released at an enormous rate.

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Big Bang Theory
• The existence of all matter is believed to have
started with the birth of the universe.
• The most widely accepted explanation of the
origin of the universe
Edwin Hubble (early 1900s)
• Explained the expanding universe.
• He observed that many stars and galaxies
shine with light shifted toward the red end
of the visible spectrum called the Redshift
• Hubble Law - also known as the
Hubble–Lemaître law, is the
observation in physical cosmology that
galaxies are moving away from Earth
at speeds proportional to their
distance.
*The positions of the absorptions lines for helium
for light coming from the Sun (A) are shifted
towards the red end as compared with those for a
distant star (B).
VIDEO
• The red shift is similar to the Doppler effect for
sound waves: to a stationary observer, the
frequency or pitch of a receding source decreases
as it moves away.
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Hubble law
• It suggests that the size of the red shift is
proportional to the distance and speed of the star
moving away from the earth.
• With Hubble’s data, cosmologists have traced
the expansion back to a time which the entire
universe was smaller than an atom.
Big Bang Theory
• 1. It postulates that approximately 11
billion years ago, about one centimeter in
diameter experienced a huge explosion,
spreading its products as a fast moving
cloud of gas.
• 2. The event was accompanied by an
emmision of a huge amount of light.
• 3. Within the first second after the
explosion, subatomic particles such as
protons, neutrons and electrons were
formed.
• 4. As the expanding universe cooled, the
protons and neutrons started to fuse
(combine) to form heavier nuclei of
Deuterium (an isotope of Hydrogen with
one neutron and one proton) and some
into Helium.
• 5. Subsequent nuclear fusion happens, in
which two atomic nuclei join to form a
new type of nuclei resulted in the
production of other light elements and
their isotopes.
ISOTOPES
- These are atoms that have the same
number of protons but different numbers
of neutrons.
- How to write isotopes?
o We use the following:
• Element symbol
• Atomic mass (A)
QUARTER 3- PHYSICAL SCIENCE REVIEWER
• Atomic Number (Z) • Iron
Star’s onion skin structure

Astronomers believe that after a few minutes - Layering increases the density of the stars.
after the Big bang…approximately
Younger yellow star
• 75% Hydrogen
• Which is made up of Hydrogen is fueled
• 25% Helium by the energy releases from the fusion of
hydrogen nuclei to form Helium.
• Trace amt. of Lithium
• The outer layer of the star is composed of
burning Hydrogen from the nuclear
Big bang nucleosynthesis fusions which produce Helium.

- The process through which these light • Once enough He-4 is produced, these
elements are formed nuclei become concentrated at the core of
the star, thus making the temperature
Nucleosynthesis
hotter at the core.
• From this, two isotopes of Helium were
• Hydrogen fusion continues, but in a
formed: He-3 and He-4
“shell” surrounding the helium core.
• Also H-3 (tritium), an isotope of Hydrogen
• When the core reaches the temperature
was formed.
enough for Helium fusion to occur, Helium
Stellar formation and evolution burning begins.

The universe continuously expanded for several • The outer temperature the becomes
years and the cloud of hydrogen and helium gases colder than the core, which causes the
condensed to form stars, including the SUN. star to become red.
• From this fusion, Beryllium -8 is formed.
Another Helium-4 nucleus fuses with Be-8
Over millions of years,
to form Carbon-12.
• The stars made up of hydrogen became
• These reactions happen in the Helium
hotter and denser.
fusion shell, beneath the hydrogen fusion
• During this stellar evolution, nuclear shell.
reactions continued which produced
• The Carbon nuclei produced become
elements heavier than Lithium.
more concentrated at the center, as
• Light elements combined to form heavier helium was earlier.
elements.
• This produces a carbon core, that when it
Heavier Elements reaches a certain temperature to allow
carbon fusion, it produces neon within the
• Carbon
carbon fusion shell.
• Neon
• Nuclear reaction occur in this shell.
• Oxygen
• Silicon
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• More nuclear fusion happen between Polarity of Molecules
different nuclei to form the other
Atom
elements.
- Protons
• However, the production of elements stop
- Neutrons
when iron is formed.
- Electrons
• Since iron is the most stable nuclei, it is
Protons (P+)
unable to undergo fusion.
- Positively charged particle inside the
• Neon then becomes concentrated at the
nucleus
core.
Neutrons
• When oxygen becomes concentrated at
the core, fusion continues, producing - they have no charge - electrically neutral
silicon. inside the nucleus.
• Lastly, the fusion of silicon 28produces Electrons (E-)
radioactive nickel 56, which will decay to
- Negatively charged particles found outside
Iron.
the nucleus
• In all of the previous reactions, a great
Molecule
amount of energy is produced, enough to
fuel more nuclear reactions. - A group of atoms. It’s the tiniest unit that
may participate during a chemical
• However, in order to produce elements
reaction.
heavier than iron, energy input is
necessary. Polarity
• At this point, the star has already - The combined molecules having dipoles
exhausted its nuclear fuel. with a positive and a negative end.
Dipole
- This refers to “two poles,” meaning there
is a positive and a negative pole within a
molecule.
Chemical Bond
- these are formed when atoms lose,
accept, or share electrons to another
atoms
2 TYPES OF CHEMICAL BOND
• Ionic Bond
• Covalent Bond
Ionic Bond

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- this occurs when there is a transfer of one covalent bond is not
or more valence electrons from one atom equal.
to another.
• Non – polar
- It exists between metal and nonmetal
atoms where metal loses electron/s while • When the two
nonmetal accepts the electron/s donated atoms having
by metal. similar
electronegativity
will share electrons
equally.
• is symmetric. If a
molecule is
symmetric meaning
all electrons are
equally shared or
bonded.
Both types of molecules go by “like dissolves like”
Covalent Bond principle, which means that polar molecules can
- when two nonmetal atoms combine, dissolve into other polar molecules and nonpolar
neither of them loses or gains electrons into other non- polar molecules. Polar cannot
Instead, electron pairs are being shared by dissolve into non-polar molecules and vice versa.
both atoms
- An arrow indicates direction of shared
electrons are pulled. ELECTRONEGATIVITY

2 types of Covalent Bond - the relative tendency of an atom to attract

electrons to itself when chemically
• Polar combined with another atom. The higher
• when electrons of the value of electronegativity, the more it
two bonded atoms tends to attract electrons toward itself.
are not equally
distributed, one
atom is more
electronegative
than the other
atom, this bond is
polarized, meaning Non polar 0-0.4
one atom is partially Polar 0.5-1.8
positive and the
other atom is Ionic 1.9-4.0
partially negative
• is asymmetric,
meaning the
distribution of
electrons in a
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Polarity of Molecules Based on its Polarity
The polarity of molecules is determined by the
two factors:
- the polarity of bonds based on the
electronegativity difference of the atoms
involved
- the geometrical shape of the molecules
which can be predicted via valence shell
electron pair repulsion (VSEPR)
A. Polarity of Bonds and Electronegativity
•Electronegativity (EN) measures the
relative tendency of an atom to attract
electrons to itself when chemically
combined with another atom
• A polar covalent bond is formed when
electrons are shared unequally by two
atoms in a compound. •The bonded pair
of atoms form an electric dipole
(represented by ).
• Dipole means “two poles” which means
that a molecule has one positive end and
one negative end.
• In this type of bond, the atom with the
higher EN value becomes the partial
negative pole (symbolized as ẟ-) while the
atom with the lower EN value becomes
the partially positive (symbolized as ẟ+)
pole.
• Always bear in mind that the direction of
the arrow is always pointing from a more
electropositive pole to the more
electronegative pole.
Polar bond between H and Cl
• a nonpolar covalent bond develops if
both atoms equally share a pair of
electrons between them. • This occurs
when the bonding atoms have
approximately equal EN value or equal
ability to attract electrons to each side. •
Nonpolar covalent bond is an example of
bond formed when two chlorine atoms
combine.
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Nonpolar bond between two Cl atoms
B. Polarity of Molecules and Molecular
Geometry
• What is Linear Molecular Geometry?
Linear molecules are molecules that are
straight and have a bond angle of 180
degrees. These molecules are made up of
a central atom that is bonded to two other
atoms via single or double bonds
(sometimes there can be triple bonds as
well).
• Bent molecular geometry
is a kind of molecular geometry in which
the central atom has two lone pairs of
electrons and is associated with two bond
pairs. It is also known as angular or V-
shaped.
• A trigonal planar molecular geometry model
has one atom in the centre and three
atoms at the corners of an equilateral
triangle, known as peripheral atoms, all in
the same plane. All three ligands in an
ideal trigonal planar species are identical,
and all bond angles are 120°.
•Tetrahedral
is a molecular shape that occurs when
there are four bonds and no lone pairs in
the molecule's central atom. The atoms
bonded to the central atom are located at
the four corners of a tetrahedron, with
109.5° angles between them.
•Trigonal bipyramidal
Three orbitals are arranged around the
equator of the molecule with bond angles
of 120o . Two orbitals are arranged along
the vertical axis at 90o from the equatorial
orbitals.
• octahedral molecular geometry
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also called square bipyramidal, describes
the shape of compounds with six atoms or
groups of atoms or ligands symmetrically
arranged around a central atom, defining
the vertices of an octahedron. The
octahedron has eight faces, hence the
prefix octa.
Guidelines to determine the VSEPR shape of a
molecule:
1. Determine the central atom of a molecule. The
central atom is the least electronegative element.
2. Count how many valence electrons the central
atom has.
3. Count how many valence electrons the side
atoms have.
4. Create the appropriate Lewis structure of the
molecule.
5. Using the Lewis structure as a guide, determine
the appropriate VSEPR shape for the molecule.
6. Note how many electrons are shared and
unshared. This will help determine the
appropriate VSEPR shape.
Emphasize the difference between bond polarity
and molecular polarity. The presence of polar
bonds does not automatically make a molecule
polar. The geometry of the molecule also plays an
important role. This can be seen in CO2 wherein
the electronegativity difference of C and O is 1.0
which makes the bond between them polar.
However, carbon is placed in the middle of two
oxygen atoms making the molecular structure
linear. This equal distribution of polar bonds make
the molecule non-polar.
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GENERAL TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
• Intermolecular forces are forces of
attraction or repulsion that act between
neighboring particles (atoms, molecules,
or ions).
THREE GENERAL TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR
FORCES (IMF)
- Van Der Waals Forces
- Ion-dipole Interaction
- H-bonding
VAN DER WAALS FORCES
• These are intermolecular forces of attraction
between neutral molecules.
• The Nobel prize in physics 1910 (Johannes Van
Der Waals)
•"For his work on the equation of state for gases
and liquids”
• Consist of dipole-dipole interaction,
dipoleinduced dipole interaction, and dispersion
forces.
1. Dipole-dipole Interaction
• Dipole-dipole attraction is
present among polar molecules.
Through constant movement, the
charges of the molecules align in
such a way that the positive (+)
end of one molecule is attracted to
the negative (-) end of the other
molecule.
• This happens due to the shift of
electron density towards the more
electronegative element in the
molecule resulting to (+) and (-)
ends. The measure of this electron
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shift is known as dipole moment,
represented by crossed arrow,
.
2. Dipole-induced Dipole Interaction
• Dipole-induced dipole
interaction, just like the dipole-
dipole forces, depends on the
presence of polar molecules. The
other molecule needs not be a
polar one.
• The partial charges present in
the dipole cause the polarization
or distortion of the electron
distribution of the other molecule.
This gives rise to regions of partial
(+) and (-) poles.
ioninduced dipole and induced
dipole-induced dipole interactions.
ION-DIPOLE INTERACTION
•Ion-dipole interaction results from the attraction
between either a cation (+) or an anion (-) with
permanent polar molecules.
•The ions will be attracted to the opposite
charges present in the dipole resulting to this
type of attraction.
H-bonding
• H-bonding is a special type of dipole-dipole
interaction between the h-atoms in a polar bond.
It requires that the h-atoms in the molecules be
bonded with more electronegative atoms such as
O, N, or F to form h-bonds with other molecules.

• This induced dipole will then be

attracted to the original polar
molecules, resulting to dipole-
induced dipole attraction
3. Dispersion Forces (London Dispersion
Forces)
• Dispersion forces (London
dispersion forces), were named
after the German Physicist Fritz
London (1900-1954).
• The electron cloud of a neutral
substance can be normally
distributed around the nucleus. At
any given time, the electron
distribution may be uneven
resulting to an instantaneous
dipole.
• This temporary dipole will then
influence the neighboring atoms
through attractive and repulsive
forces. • Eventually, the substances
will gain instantaneous dipoles,
too. Attraction between opposite
charges will happen among the
species present. These are true for

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Biological Macromolecules
What’s an organic molecule?
- Compounds made up of hydrocarbons
- Carbon and Hydrogen atoms
- Living/once living
Macromolecules are essential to the functioning
of the human body.

✓ Carbohydrates are the body’s main source of

energy.

✓ Lipids provide stored energy reserves. This

allows us to survive when carbohydrates are not Poly – many
being supplied to the body.
Monomers – polymers made up of many single
✓ Protein helps us stay strong, by forming new units
bones and muscles, and helping us fight diseases.

✓ Nucleic acids are responsible for making each Carbohydrates

person functional and unique; they are the
blueprint for our genetic structure. - Are the main energy source of the body
- Carbohydrates are formed of carbon,
There are four classes of biological hydrogen, and oxygen atoms with a ratio
macromolecules we will be looking at: of 1:2:1.
o Proteins - The two categories of carbohydrates
o Lipids include sugar and starch.
o Carbohydrates o SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATES
o Nucleic acids ▪ They are the main source
of energy for the body
Biological Macromolecule ▪ Simple sugars→
- All biological macro-molecule are organic, Monosaccharide
meaning they all contain ▪ Glucose, for example
hydrocarbons…Carbon atoms (with (monomer), is the main
attached Hydrogens) product of photosynthesis
- Other elements may include Oxygen,
Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Sulfur
o COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES
▪ Long-term storage for
energy
▪ Polysaccharides → made
up of glucose polymers
Starch Continued
- Found in: Grains (wheat, rice, corn, oats,
barley) Tubers such as potatoes are rich in
starch.
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Cellulose
- ALSO a glucose polymer
- Offers the plant support
- Energy storage
- Makes up cell wall
- Food source for seeds and plant bulbs
Complex Carbs and Energy
- Starches, Cellulose and Glycogen are
broken down by proteins called enzymes
(remember digestion in lysosomes)
- Broken down into their monomers →
Glucose
- Glucose is further broken down during
cellular respiration in the mitochondria for
energy
- About 36 ATP molecules of energy per
each glucose molecule
Lipids
- Mostly C,H and some O
✓STORED ENERGY → Broken down for energy
✓They INSULATE the body to help maintain
normal body temperature and they
✓CUSHION the internal organs for protection.
✓Include waxes, Oils
✓include steroids such as cholesterol and the sex
hormones estrogen and testosterone
✓Anabolic steroids build muscle
✓They waterproof surfaces of animals, plants,
and fruits- these are waxes! THINK: Waterproof,
insulate, steroids, energy, cushion
Remember the cell membrane?
❖ PhosphoLIPID bilayer of the cell membrane?
The fatty acid tails are lipids
❖ It’s semi-permeable, allowing only certain
molecules to diffuse across the membrane to
enter or exit the cell.
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Fat→ Made up of fatty acid monomers –
Glycerides that have a Glycerol Backbone
(Circled) and a Fatty Acid Tail(s)
Triglycerides→ Glycerol Group with 3 Fatty Acid
Chains
Proteins
- Made up of Mostly C, H, O and N (Some
Sulfur)
They are the major structural molecules in living
things for growth and repair : muscles, ligaments,
tendons, bones, hair, skin, nails…IN FACT ALL CELL
MEMBRANES have protein in them
✓They make up antibodies in the immune system
✓They make up enzymes for helping chemical
reactions
✓They makeup non-steriod hormones which
THINK: Proteins= membranes, enzymes,
antibodies, non-steriod hormones, structural
molecules, “MEANS”
Aside from the protein found in animal
sources…protein can also be found in fruits,
vegetables, grains, and nuts. (it just does not have
as many amino acids)
Made up of Amino Acid Monomers
Protein synthesis
Transcription and translation
A peptide bond bonds amino acids together
Creates a polypeptide
The shapes of Proteins Determines it’s Function
Ribosomes
- are Proteins that are Involved in Creating
Proteins
Insulin
- Chemical signaler protein produced in the
pancreas
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- Causes cells in the liver, muscle, and fat ▪ Nitrogen bases Adenine
tissue to take up glucose from blood and (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine
convert it to glycogen that can be stored (G), Thymine (T)
in the liver and muscles ▪ Remember NO Uracil (U)
o Diabetes is a condition when a ▪ Deoxy-ribose sugar
person has high blood glucose - RNA (RiboNucleic Acid
(blood sugar), either because ▪ Works with DNA to create
insulin production is inadequate, proteins
or because the body's cells do not ▪ Single-Stranded
respond properly to insulin, or ▪ Nitrogen bases Adenine
both. (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine
(G), Uracil (U)
Hemoglobin
▪ Remember NO Thymine
- A protein in red blood cells that carries (T)
oxygen ▪ Ribose sugar

Antibodies are part of the immune system.

When something enters the body that isn’t
supposed to be there, like certain bacteria,
antibodies find the invader and stick themselves
onto it.
White Blood cells destroy the invaders
Enzymes
- Speed up the rate of a chemical reaction
(a catalyst) by lowering the energy needed
to begin the reaction (Below)
- Re-usable  Molecule specific – like a lock
and key
- Example: ONLY Lactase will break down
lactose. It will NEVER break down proteins
- Lactase breaks down lactose sugar
- Pepsin breaks down proteins
- Amylase breaks down amylose
- Enzymes are substratespecific

NUCLEIC ACIDS
The types of Nucleic Acids
- DNA (DeoxyriboNucleic Acid)
▪ genetic makeup
▪ DoubleStranded double
helix
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Energy Resources • Coal can be extracted using two
methods: surface mining and
Different Sources of Energy:
underground mining. Surface
- fossil fuels mining, also known as strip mining,
- biogas involves the removal of the entire
- geothermal layer of rock and soil to access the
- hydrothermal coal deposit beneath the surface.
- batteries Underground mining involves the
- solar cells usage of heavy machinery to cut
- biomass coal from deep underground
deposits.
2. Oil / Crude oil
• Oil / Crude oil or also known as
Petroleum is another type of fossil
fuel that is non- renewable. It is a
liquid type of fossil fuel composed
mostly of hydrocarbons. Like coal,
petroleum originates from the
remains of living organisms.
Fossil Fuel • Petroleum comes from ancient
• Fossil fuels are source of energy derived marine organisms like marine
from the fossilized remains of once living plants plants, algae and bacteria. This can
and animals million years ago. Those remains of be extracted by drilling on land or
dead plants and animals long time ago were at sea. It can also be extracted
buried and fossilized in the earth’s crust, thus this through strip mining in the case of
fuels are found beneath the earth’s surface. tar sands oil and oil shale.

• Since this fuel originated from the
remains of once living organisms, fossil fuels
composed mainly of high content of carbon and
hydrogen, called hydrocarbons.
• Fossil fuels includes coal, oil (includes
petroleum or crude oil) and natural gas.
1. Coal
•Coal is a type of fossil fuel that is
nonrenewable source of energy. It
is a solid rock form of fossil fuel
that originated from the dead
plant and animal matter that piled
up in layers for over million years
ago. Its material is highly
composed of carbon content.
• Once extracted, this oil will be
transported to refineries to
transform oil into usable fuels like
propane, kerosene, gasoline and
other fuel products. Also, it is used
in making plastic and paint
products.
3. Natural gas
• Natural gas is a type of fossil fuel
that is odorless, colorless
hydrocarbon gas. It made up of
hydrocarbon that is mostly
methane (CH4). Natural gas, like
other types of fossil fuels, is
originated from the remains of
plants, animals, microorganisms

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that once lived millions of years
ago.
•If a natural gas is found in porous
and permeable rock beds or mixed
into oil reservoirs which can be
extracted through drilling, this is
called conventional natural gas.
•On the other hand,
unconventional natural gas are
those that are too difficult or
expensive to extract and require a
special stimulation technique like
fracking.
SUMMARY!
1.Fossil fuels are source of energy derived from
the fossilized remains of once living
2.plants and animals million years ago.
3.Fossil Fuels are non-renewable type of energy
resource.
4.Fossil fuels are composed of hydrocarbons.
5.There are three types of fossil fuels: coal, oil and
natural gas.
6. Coal is a solid rock form of fossil fuel that
originated from the dead plant and animal matter
that piled up in layers for over million years ago.
7. Oil also known as petroleum, is a liquid type of
fossil fuel composed mostly of hydrocarbons.
8. Natural gas is a type of fossil fuel that is
odorless, colorless hydrocarbon gas. And is made
mostly of methane (CH4).
9. Fossil fuels are commonly used as energy to
power engines and other materials at home and
industries for these to work.
10. Fossil fuels as non-renewable source of
energy have disadvantages and could impact
negatively to the environment especially during
its combustion since it produces carbon dioxide
and other greenhouse gases.
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1. Which of the following statements provides a
reason for the widespread use of fossil fuels?
a.Fossil fuels are a renewable source of energy.
b.Fossil fuels are not harmful to the environment.
c.Fossil fuels are readily available and
inexpensive. d.All of the above
2. Which of the following forms of renewable
energy uses the sun's energy most directly?
a.biomass fuel b.geothermal energy c.solar
heating d.a hydrogen fuel cell
3. Which is an example of the direct use of fossil
fuels?
a.a nuclear reactor b.a wind generator c.an oil-
fired furnace d.a wood-burning stove
4. Which of the following is a fossil fuel?
a.Wind b.Solar c.Coal d.Biomass
5. What are two advantages of geothermal
energy?
a.cheap and a lot pollution b.cheap and little
pollution c.expensive and a lot of pollution
d.expensive and little pollution
6. _ is the efficient use of resources.
a.Fossil Fuels b.Recycling c.Conservation
d.Natural Resources
7. Oil, natural gas, and coal are called
________resources because they are not easy to
replace.
a.fossil fuels b.natural resources c.Conservation
d.nonrenewable
8. __________uses heat from the interior of the
Earth.
a.Geothermal b.Solar c.Wind d.Natural gas
9. _________is energy generated when moving
water turns turbines.
a.Geothermal b.Biogas c.Wind d.Hydro
QUARTER 3- PHYSICAL SCIENCE REVIEWER
BATTERIES powered by renewables, which includes
electrification of cars (e-mobility),
•A battery is a device that stores energy
buildings, and cities.
and then discharges it by converting chemical
energy into electricity.
•Batteries mainly provide backup power SOLAR CELLS
during a power outage. At home, the
- A photovoltaic (PV) cell, commonly called
batteries are typically connected to
a solar cell, is a non-mechanical device
electrical appliances so that the
that converts sunlight directly into
appliances can still receive power if the
electricity.
power goes down.
- A PV cell is made of semiconductor
WHAT ARE 3 ADVANTAGES OF BATTERIES? material. When photons strike a PV cell,
they may reflect off the cell, pass through
High specific energy, long storage times
the cell, or be absorbed by the
and instant readiness give primary
semiconductor material. Only the
batteries a unique advantage over other
absorbed photons provide energy to
power sources They may be transported
generate electricity.
to remote regions and used immediately,
even after extensive storage; they are also WHAT HAS SOLAR CELLS?
easily accessible and environmentally
Consumer devices such as electronic toys,
benign when discarded.
handheld calculators, and portable radios
IS BATTERY A RENEWABLE OR NON-RENEWABLE? have also employed solar cells. Solar cells
employed in these devices may utilise
•The batteries can be replaced in the
both natural and artificial light (e.g.,
flashlight once they have been recharged.
incandescent and fluorescent bulbs).
Rechargeable batteries can be used
repeatedly. The energy stored in IS SOLAR CELLS RENEWABLE OR NON-
rechargeable batteries is thus renewable. RENEWABLE?
Rechargeable batteries are renewable
Solar energy is that produced by the Sun's
because they can be refilled with energy
light – photovoltaic energy – and its
WHY ARE BATTERIES SO IMPORTANT FOR warmth – solar thermal – for the
RENEWABLE ENERGY? generation of electricity or the production
of heat. Inexhaustible and renewable,
Large-scale storage batteries are critical
since it comes from the Sun, solar energy
for renewable energy because they
is harnessed using panels and mirrors.
increase availability and reliability, making
it more feasible for societies and energy WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOLAR
providers. It’s one way that battery ENERGY AND SOLAR CELL?
technology is part of a smarter, greener
A solar cell is the smallest functional unit
future world.
or building block of an electrical generator
With its ability to maintain a balance that uses solar energy as its input energy
between supply and demand within the and is capable of converting solar energy
power system, batteries are critical in the to electricity, whereas a solar panel is a
global economy transition. The answer to collection of solar cells that generate
combating climate change is electrification

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QUARTER 3- PHYSICAL SCIENCE REVIEWER
electrical energy directly from solar • Biomass is always and widely available as a
energy via the photovoltaic effect. renewable source of energy.
•Is less expensive than fossil fuels.
BIOMASS •Less garbage in landfills.
- Biomass is renewable organic material •Biomass production adds a revenue source for
that comes from plants and animals. manufacturers.
- Biomass sources for energy include: Wood
DISADVANTAGES
and wood processing wastes—firewood,
wood pellets, and wood chips, lumber and •It is not entirely clean
furniture mill sawdust and waste, and
•Can lead to deforestation.
black liquor from pulp and paper mills.
•Biomass plants require a lot of space.
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO USE BIOMASS ENERGY?
Biomass is known for its versatility, given it
can be used to generate heat, electricity,
be used in combined heat and power
units and be used as liquid fuel. In
domestic settings, it tends to be found in
the form of wood-fuelled heating systems.
Currently, biomass technologies used in Geothermal Reservoirs
the Philippines include the use of bagasse
as boiler fuel for cogeneration; rice and - Can be suspected in the areas where we
coconut husks dryers for crop drying; find:
biomass gasifiers for mechanical and o Geyser
electrical applications; fuelwood and o Boiling muf pot
agricultural wastes for oven kilns; and o Volcano
furnaces and cooking stoves for cooking o Hot springs
and heating purposes. Biomass
technology represents the largest
installations in the Philippines in
comparison with the other renewable
energy or energy-efficient and greenhouse
gas abating technologies.
HOW BIOMASS ENERGY IS HARNESSED
Most electricity generated from biomass is
produced by direct combustion. Biomass
is burned in a boiler to produce high-
pressure steam. This steam flows over a
series of turbine blades, causing them to
rotate. The rotation of the turbine drives a
generator, producing electricity.
ADVANTAGES

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QUARTER 3- PHYSICAL SCIENCE REVIEWER

Electricity Generation
There are 3 types of power plants: Hydrothermal energy

- Dry steam power plant - Of, or relating to hot water. (geology) Of or

relating to emanation of hot water that
are rivh in mineral, or to the rocks formed
from them.
- The natural formation of the
- Flash steam power plant hydrothermal resource requires three
principal elements: heat, water, and
permeability. When watered heated in the
earth, hot water or steam is trapped in
- Binary cycle power plant porous and fractured rocks beneath a
layer of relatively impermeable caprock,
resulting in the formation of hydrothermal
reservoir.
- Hydrothermal is a subset of geothermal
and means that the transfer of heat
involves water, either in liquid or vapor
state (hence the “hydro”). Hot springs and
geysers, for example, are hydrothermal
features.

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QUARTER 3- PHYSICAL SCIENCE REVIEWER
Active Ingredients OF CLEANING products o They can dissolve calcium and
used at home & personal care products metal salts and find use in tub, tile,
sink and toilet bowl cleaners.
All-purpose cleaners can be classified as
abrasive and nonabrasive cleaners. Abrasive ALKALIS
cleaners are designed to remove relatively
o They ensure that pH is maintained
heavy amounts of soil often found in small
at a desirably high level during
areas
cleaning
The abrasive action is provided by a variety of
BAKING SODA
ingredients: small particles of minerals or a
network of fine steel wool, copper, nylon, or o It provides alkalinity at a
metal particles imbedded in a matrix of solid somewhat lower pH. It is useful for
plastic. buffering formulations which will
contact the skin and for other uses
Non-abrasive, all purpose cleaners are
where mildness is important.
marketed in different forms. They are offered
as powders that can be dissolved the proper ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS
strength and as liquids that can be diluted or
o They can destroy bacteria and
used full strength.
viruses by interfering with their
Non-abrasive cleaners can also contain metabolism or destroying their cell
antimicrobial agents to disinfect. The major- walls
ingredients in non-abrasive cleaners are
BLEACHING AGENTS
surfactants and builders.
o They can act as soil and stain
INGREDIENTS IN A HOUSEHOLD CLEANERS.
removers.
SURFACTANTS
COLOURANTS
o These are organic compounds
o They provide a product with an
whose molecules consist of two
individual characteristic and an
parts: a waterhating (hydrophobic)
appealing appearance . Often, they
part and a waterloving
also act as a tracers.
(hydrophilic) part
ENZYMES
BUILDERS
o They break down soils into simpler
o The most basic function of builders
forms that can easily be removed
is to soften water by tying up the
by the cleaner.
hardness minerals in water so they
do not interfere with the cleaning PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS/COSMETICS
action of the surfactants
SOAP
ABRASIVES
o Is a substance that cleans off dirt
o They contribute to the mechanical when used in the presence of
effectiveness of scouring cleaners. water.
In general, they consist of small o Active Ingredients
particles of minerals. ● Sodium Palmate
-Surfactant-cleansing Agent
ACIDS
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QUARTER 3- PHYSICAL SCIENCE REVIEWER
● Titanium Dioxide o Active ingredients/ Action
-It helps prevent sunburn ● Glyceril stearate
and premature aging. -It gives the skin a soft and
● Zinc Pyrithione smooth appearance
-It is an antibacterial and ● Aluminum chlorohydrate
antifungal agent that helps prevent -it temporarily plugs the
skin conditions such as, athlete`s sweat ducts and prevents you from
foot, viltiligo. perspiring
● Isopropyl palmitate
WHITENING SOAP
-It has been used as a
o Skin whitening soap is a product fragrance ingredient in deodorants
which may lighten and brighten
FACIAL CLEANSER
the skin by inhibiting the
production of melanin. o A common benefit of facial
o Active Ingredients /Action cleansing is the removal of dirt, oil
● Glycerin and other unwanted debris.
-it makes the skin healthier o Active Ingredients /Action
and more natural-looking ● Butylene glycol
appearance -This chemical is a
● Glutathione preservative used to keep skincare
-It has anti-melanogenic and beauty products from spoiling
effects that make the ● Tocopheryl acetate
skinlightening agent. -It is a natural skin-
● Kojic Acid conditioning agent and antioxidant
-It is a skin-lightening ● Hydrogeneted castor oil
agent. -It helps water mix with oil
and dirt so that the can be rinsed
TOOTHPASTE
away, leaving skin clean
o Brushing with toothpaste is
CHEMICALS TO AVOID
important in several reason.
o Active Ingredients /Action PESTICIDES
● Sodium Fluoride
o Pesticides are fatsoluble, making
-It prevent cavities and it
them difficult to eliminate from
makes teeth stronger and more
the body once ingested. It often
resistant to decay.
contains carcinogens and
● Hydrated Silica
endocrine disruptors.
-It can help to remove
stains that have formed on teeth ALKYLPHENOL ETHOXYLATE (APE)
● Sorbitol
o APEs are endocrine disruptors
-It is a sugar alcohol used as
a sweetener Formaldehyde
DEODORANT o is commonly known as a
preservative. It is also a germicide,
o People should wear deodorant in
bactericide and fungicide. It can be
order to emit less body odor when
found in household cleaners and
they sweat.
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Kimberly A.
QUARTER 3- PHYSICAL SCIENCE REVIEWER
disinfectants. Formaldehyde is a
carcinogen.
Organochlorine
o results from the combination of
hydrogen and carbon. This are
present in pesticides, detergents,
degreasers and bleaches. It is a
carcinogen and endocrine
disruptor.
Styrene
o It is commonly used in the
manufacture of numerous plastics
including plastic food wrap,
insulated cups ad PVC piping.
Phthalates
o These chemicals are classified as
inert and as such no product-
labeling requirements exist for
phthalates. Use to manufacture
plastics

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Kimberly A.