EARTH SCIENCE Hydrogen, helium, and lithium are the three

VOCABULARY most abundant elements.

1. BARYONIC MATTER - "ordinary matter
consisting of protons, electrons, and neutrons
that comprises atoms, planets, stars, galaxies,
and other bodies.
2. DARK ENERGY - a source of anti-gravity; a
force that counteracts gravity and causes the
universe to land.
3. DARK MATTER - matter that has gravity but
does not emit light.
4. PROTOSTAR - an early stage in the formation
of a star resulting from the gravitational
collapse of gases.
5. THERMONUCLEAR REACTION - a nuclear
fusion reaction responsible for the energy
produced by stars.
6. MAIN SEQUENCE STARS - stars that fuse
hydrogen atoms to form helium atoms in their
cores.
7. HELIOCENTRIC MODEL - Sun is at the
center and planets, including Earth, orbit
around it.
8. GEOCENTRIC MODEL - Earth is the center of
the Solar system
UNIVERSE
WHAT IS THE UNIVERSE?
UNIVERSE - derived from an old French word
“Univers” which comes from the Latin word
UNIVERSUS which means to combined into one.
Any explanation of the origin of the Universe
should be consistent with all information about its
composition, structure, acceferating expansion,
cosmic microwave background radiation among
others.
The universe as we currently know it comprises
all space and time, and all matter & energy. It is
made of
Stars are the building block of galaxies born out
of clouds of gas and dust.
Protostar - the core of a future star as
thermonuclear reactions set in. It is the early
stage of the star.
ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION OF THE UNIVERSE
The exact percentage of hydrogen and helium in
the observable universe is approximately as
follows:
• Hydrogen: About 74% (by mass)
• Helium: About 24% (by mass)
Other elements, such as oxygen, carbon,
nitrogen, and heavier elements, make up the
remaining small fraction of the universe's
elemental composition.
Building block –basic components
Milky way-100billion stars
Universe-100billion galaxies
Hydrogen and Helium as the most abundant
elements in the universe. Having the lowest
mass, these are the first elements to be formed in
the Big Bang Model of the Origin of the Universe.
A star's energy comes from combining light
elements into heavier elements by fusion, or
“nucler burning” (nucleosynthesis).
• In small stars like the sun, H burning is the
fusion of 4 H nuclei (protons) into a He
nucleus (2 protons + 2 neutrons).
• Forming He from H gives off lots of
energy(i.e. a natural hydrogen bomb).
• Nucleosynthesis requires very high T. The
minimum T for H fusion is 5x106oC.
STARS

 4.6% baryonic matter (“ordinary” matter

consisting of protons, electrons, and
neutrons: atoms, planets, stars, galaxies,
nebulae, and other bodies)
 24% cold dark matter (matter that has
gravity but does not emit light),
 71.4% dark energy (a source of anti-
gravity)
Protostar: early stage of star
Main Sequence: Stars spend most of their lives
in this phase, including our Sun. Main sequence
stars are a well-defined group of stars that are in
the most stable and longest phase of their lives.
Red Giant or Red Supergiant: When a main
sequence star exhausts its hydrogen fuel, it starts
to evolve. For smaller stars like our Sun, this
means it will expand into a red giant. Larger stars,
several times the mass of the Sun, become red
supergiant. During this phase, they burn helium
and other heavier elements in their cores.
Planetary Nebula or Supernova: For stars like
our Sun, after the red giant phase, they shed their
outer layers into space, creating a beautiful cloud
of gas and dust called a planetary nebula. If a star
is more massive, it may end its life in a
catastrophic explosion called a supernova, which
disperses elements into space.
White Dwarf or Neutron Star or Black Hole:
The remaining core of a star depends on its
mass. If the core is less than about 1.4 times the
mass of the Sun , it becomes a white dwarf,
which is a dense, Earth-sized remnant. If it's
between 1.4 and about 3 times the Sun's mass, it
may become a neutron star, which is incredibly
dense.
Stars more massive than about 3 solar masses
may collapse into a black hole, a region of space
where gravity is so strong that not even light can
escape.
Most stars such as the Sun belong to the so-
called “main sequence stars.” In the cores of such
stars, hydrogen atoms are fused through
thermonuclear reactions to make helium atoms
Massive main sequence stars burn up their
hydrogen faster than smaller stars. Stars like our
Sun burnup hydrogen in about 10 billion years.
The remaining dust and gas may end up as they
are or as planets, asteroids, or other bodies in the
accompanying planetary system.
GALAXY
A galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars and
clusters of galaxies form superclusters. In
between the clusters is practically an empty
space. when we look at the universe on relatively
small scales, we see that matter is not evenly
distributed. Instead, it forms clumps or clusters of
galaxies, stars, and other structures. But at a
large scale, it appears to be uniform
(homogeneous) and similar in all directions
(isotropic).
 Isotropic - having physical properties
that are the same when measured in
different directions
UNIVERSE
Based on recent data, the universe is 13.8 billion
years old. The diameter of the universe is
possibly infinite but should be at least 91 billion
light-years.
Two ways by which astronomers estimate the age
of the universe:
1) By estimating the age of the looking oldest
stars; and
2) By measuring the rate of expansion of the
universe and extrapolating back to the Big Bang.
A light-year is a unit of distance, not a unit of time.
It represents the distance that light travels in one
year in the vacuum of space, at a constant speed
of approximately 186,282 miles per second
(299,792,458 meters per second).
So, in one year, light travels a distance of about
5.88 trillion miles (9.46 trillion kilometers). This
is the equivalent of one light-year. It's important to
note that a light-year is a measure of distance,
not time, and it helps us express vast cosmic
distances in a more understandable way.
Universe is believed to be 91 billion light years
in diameter
(1 light-year = 9.4607 × 1012 km). Its density is
4.5 x 10-31 g/cm3.
ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE
COSMOLOGY – the body of science that studies
the origin, evolution and eventual fate of the
universe.
RELIGIOUS COSMOLOGY
 Religious or mythological cosmology
explains the origin of universe and life
based on religious beliefs of a specific
tradition.
 The concept of creation ex nihilo
 God creating the universe as written in the
book of Genesis.
 DIVINE CREATION THEORY
NON-SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT
• Ancient Egyptians believed in many
gods and myths which narrate that the
 world arose from an infinite sea at the first
rising of the sun.
• The Kuba people of Central Africa tell
the story of a creator god Mbombo (or
Bumba) who, alone in a dark and water-
covered Earth, felt an intense stomach
pain and then vomited the stars, sun, and
moon.
• In India, there is the narrative that gods
sacrificed Purusha, the primal man whose
head, feet, eyes, and mind became the
sky, earth, sun, and moon respectively.
• The monotheistic religions of Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam claim that a
supreme being created the universe,
including man and other living organisms.
Unlike hypotheses in the sciences, religious
beliefs cannot be subjected to tests using the
scientific method. For this reason, they cannot
be considered valid topic of scientific inquiry.
PHYSICAL COSMOLOGY
• Explains the origin of universe based on
scientific insights, studies and
experiments.
• Nicolaus Copernicus and the heliocentric
nature of the universe.
• The expanding universe through Albert
Einstein's theory of relativity, the big bang
theory.
STEADY STATE THEORY
The Universe has always been the same since
the beginning and it remain that way forever!
BIG BANG THEORY
As the currently accepted theory of the origin and
evolution of the universe, the Big Bang Theory
postulates that 13.8 billion years ago, the
universe expanded from a tiny, dense and hot
mass to its present size and much cooler state.
The Big Bang Theory has withstood the tests for
expansion:
1) The redshift
2) Abundance of hydrogen, helium, and
lithium, and
3) The uniformly pervasive cosmic
microwave background radiation-the
remnant heat from the bang.
EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE ACCORDING TO
THE BIG BANG THEORY
• From time zero (13.8 billion years ago) until
10^43 second later, all matter and energy in the
universe existed as a hot, dense, tiny state. It
then underwent extremely rapid, exponential
inflation until 10^-32 second later after which and
until 10 seconds from time zero, conditions
allowed the existence of only quarks, hadrons,
and leptons.
• Then, Big Bang nucleosynthesis took place and
produced protons, neutrons, atomic nuclei, and
then hydrogen, helium, and lithium until 20
minutes after time zero when sufficient cooling did
not allow further nucleosynthesis.
• From then on until 380,000 years, the cooling
universe entered a matter-dominated period when
photons decoupled from matter and light could
travel freelyas still observed today in the form of
cosmic microwave background radiation.
• As the universe continued to cool down, matter
collected into clouds giving rise to only stars after
380,000 years and eventually galaxies would
form after 100 million years from time zero during
which, through nucleosynthesis in stars, carbon
and elements heavier than carbon were
produced.
• From 9.8 billion years until the present, the
universe became dark-energy dominated and
underwent accelerating expansion. At about 9.8
billion years after the big bang, the solar system
was formed.
BIG BANG THEORY
• The universe began as a singularity or a
point containing all space, time, matter
and energy
• It expanded rapidly in nothingness through
a rapid yet peaceful process called
inflation
• The universe cooled down as it expanded
• A soup of matter in the form of subatomic
particles was formed and nuclei of light
atoms were created via nucleosynthesis
 or nuclear fusion between protons and
neutrons
• Electrons interacted with these nuclei to
form actual, primordial atoms via the
process of recombination
• Vesto Slipher and Carl Wilhelm Wirtz
(1910) - Measurement of redshift
Observed that most spiral galaxies were
moving away from the earth
• Georges Lemaître (1927) - Proposed
alternative idea that the universe is
expanding
• Edwin Hubble (1929) - Calculated
distances between the earth and several
galaxies using redshift of light
o Observed distant galaxies were
moving away from the Earth and
one another
• Robert Wilson and Arno Penzias (1965)
- Discovered cosmic microwave
background radiation (CMBR)-a low,
steady humming noise believed to be
energy remains
• Modern astronomy (2014) - Universe is
estimated to be 13.8 billion years old with
5% of its composition existing as ordinary
matter.
EDWIN HUBBLE (1930)
Expanding Universe
• In 1929, Edwin Hubble announced his
significant discovery of the "redshift" and its
interpretation that galaxies are moving away from
each other, hence as evidence for an expanding
universe, just as predicted by Einstein's Theory
of General Relativity.
• He observed that spectral lines of starlight made
to pass through a prism are shifted toward the red
part of the electromagnetic spectrum, i.e., toward
the band of lower frequency; thus, the inference
that the star or galaxy must be moving away from
us.
• Red shift as evidence for an expanding
universe. The positions of the absorptions
lines for helium for light coming from the
Sun are shifted towards the red end as
compared with those for a distant star.
This evidence for expansion contradicted
the previously held view of a static and
unchanging universe.
COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND
• The Cosmic Microwave Background
radiation, or CMB for short, is a faint glow
of light that fills the universe, falling on
Earth from every direction with nearly
uniform intensity.
• When this cosmic background light was
released, billions of years ago, it was as
hot and bright as the surface of a star.
• The expansion of the universe, however,
has stretched space by a factor of a
thousand.
• Since then the wavelength of the light has
stretched with it into the microwave part of
the electromagnetic spectrum.
ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
SOLAR SYSTEM
 SUN - The Sun is the star at the center of
the Solar System. It is a massive, hot ball
of plasma, inflated and heated by nuclear
fusion reactions at its core. Part of this
internal energy is emitted from its surface
as light, ultraviolet, and infrared radiation,
providing most of the energy for life on
Earth.
 MERCURY - It is the closest to the Sun
and also the smallest. It is a planet without
satellites in its orbit. Its surface, covered
with rock and craters, resembles that of
the Moon
 VENUS - It is the one that most resembles
the Earth. It is covered with very thick
clouds that reflect sunlight, so that at night
it looks bright and we can distinguish it
with the naked eye.
 EARTH - Earth is the third planet from the
Sun and the only astronomical object
known to harbor life. This is enabled by
Earth being a water world, the only one in
the Solar System sustaining liquid surface
water.
 MARS - Mars is often called the 'Red
Planet', logically because of its reddish
appearance. It has the largest volcano of
the eight planets in the solar system. One
of the great scientific discoveries of recent
years has been the finding of subway
water on Mars. It has two satellites called
Phobos and Deimos.
 JUPITER - It is a gigantic planet: its size is
1,300 times larger than the Earth. It has
many natural satellites, the most important
of which are Io, Europa, Ganymede and
Callisto. Galielo Galilei first observed the
satellites of Jupiter.
 SATURN - Saturn is a yellowish planet
and, next to Jupiter, the hottest planet.
The most special thing about Saturn is its
famous rings composed of rocks and
 water ice. Some of its natural satellites are
Hyperion and Iapetus.
 URANUS - Uranus is characterized by
being a very cold planet because it is far
from the Sun. Its axis of rotation is very
tilted, and it looks bluish in color because
of the gases that form its surface. Uranus
also has a ring system and a few natural
satellites including Titania, Oberon and
Miranda.
 NEPTUNE - It is the farthest from the Sun
and this makes it the coldest planet in the
Solar System. Also, because of the gas in
its atmosphere, it appears blue. It has a
system of four rings formed by dust
particles
LARGE SCALE FEATURES OF THE SOLAR
SYSTEM
The term "large-scale features of the solar
system" refers to significant and prominent
structures or characteristics that exist on a grand
scale within our solar system. These features are
typically observable across vast distances and
often define the overall structure and organization
of the solar system. Examples of large-scale
features in the solar system include
Large-scale features of the solar system refer to
prominent and sizable components or aspects of
the solar system that are easily observable and
play a significant role in its organization and
function. These features are often essential for
understanding the overall structure and behavior
of our solar system.
1. Much of the mass (99.85%) of the Solar
System is concentrated at the center
(Sun) while angular momentum is held
by the other planets.
- Angular momentum is a fundamental
physical quantity that describes the
rotational motion of an object.
2. Orbits of the planets are on the same
plane and elliptical.
- “Elliptical” refers to the shape of their
orbits. An elliptical orbit is an
elongated, oval-shaped path that a
planet or other object follows as it
revolves around a central body, such
as a star like the Sun.
3. All plants revolve around the sun.
- When we say that the orbits of the
planets are on the same plane, we are
referring to the idea that the planets in
our solar system tend to move around
the Sun in roughly the same flat,
disk-like path. This plane is often
referred to as the “ecliptic plane”.
4. The periods of revolution of the planets
increase with increasing distance.
- This means that planets move faster in
their orbits when they are closer to the
Sun (perihelion) and slower when they
are farther away (aphelion).
5. All planets are located at regular
intervals from the Sun.
Small Scale Features of the Solar System
"Small-scale features of the solar system" refer to
relatively minor or localized characteristics,
structures, or phenomena within our solar system
that are on a smaller or more detailed level
compared to the large-scale features. These
features are typically observable in closer
proximity or at finer spatial resolutions.
1. Most planets rotate prograde.
- Prograde rotation of planets refers to
their rotation in the same direction as
their orbit around the Sun, typically
from west to east. In our solar system,
the majority of planets exhibit prograde
rotation, which means they rotate
counterclockwise when viewed from
above their north poles. Prograde
rotation is the norm for planets but,
interestingly, there are exceptions like
Venus, which experiences retrograde
(east-to-west) rotation, rotating very
slowly and in the opposite direction to
most other planets. Understanding the
rotation of planets is essential for
studying their geology, climate, and
various physical characteristics, as it
influences factors like day-night cycles
and the distribution of landforms and
atmospheric patterns.
2. Terrestrial planets have:
 High densities
 Thin or no atmospheres
 Rotate slowly
 Rocky materials such as silicates,
iron, and nickel of high melting
points
 Poor in ices (H2O, NH3, CH4) and
lower contents of H, He, and noble
gases. (Water, Ammonia,
Methane)
 The terrestrial planets, also known
as rocky planets, are the innermost
planets in our solar system and
 include Mercury, Venus, Earth,
and Mars. They are called
"terrestrial" because they share
some common characteristics with
Earth, primarily a solid, rocky
surface.
 These planets are characterized
by their relatively high densities,
composed mainly of rock and
metal, and they have distinct, well-
defined surfaces with features
such as mountains, valleys, and
impact craters. Unlike the gas
giants farther from the Sun,
NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
 Terrestrial planets have thin or no
Proposed by Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel
atmospheres compared to their
Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1700s.
size, making them fundamentally
different in terms of their - “A rotating cloud of gas and dust that
composition and environmental cools and contracts in the middle to
conditions. They are also the form the sun and the rest into a disc
planets most likely to support liquid that become the planets”
water, a key ingredient for the
development of life as we know it,
with Earth being the prime
example.
 A planet with high density has a Evidence to support the nebular hypotheses:
relatively large amount of mass 1. Planets and moons revolve in a
packed into a relatively small counterclockwise direction
space. This is often an indication
that the planet is composed 2. Almost all planets and moons rotate on
primarily of heavy materials, such their axis in a counterclockwise direction
as rocks and metals, which have a
3. Planetary orbits are aligned along the
higher density compared to lighter
sun’s equatorial plane
materials like gases.
3. Jovian Worlds have: ENCOUNTER HYPOTHESIS
 Low densities Proposed by chamberlain and Moulton
 Thick atmospheres
- “The planets formed from debris torn off the sun
 Rotate rapidly
by a close encounter with another star”
 Many natural satellites
 Fluid interiors, rich in ices, H/He - “That our planets, moons, and sun all spun off
4. Most of outer Solar System objects are from a collision between stars”
ice-rich.
- According to this hypothesis a collision
HYPOTHESIS ON THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR happened and huge amount of gas explode out of
SYSTEM it from the sun
The Sun is the main protagonist of this system, There are a lot of theories about encounter
which is why it is called the Solar System. It is hypothesis. These theories are the following:
located in the center and everything revolves
around it. The Sun is an immense star that emits 1. One of the earliest theory for the formation
light and heat. It is the closest star to the Earth of the planets
and on which all life on Earth depends
2. In this scenario, a rogue star passes close
Many theories have been proposed since about to the sun about 5 billion years ago
four centuries ago. Each has weaknesses in PLANETISMAL HYPOTHESIS (1904)
explaining all characteristics of the solar system.
T. C Chamberlain and F.R Moulton’s theory
A few are discussed below.
(1904).
- Planetismal hypothesis involving a star much
bigger than the sun passing by the sun and draws
gaseous filaments from both out which
planetisimals.
BUFFON’S THEORY (1745)
A “near miss” encounter occurs between the sun
and a passing star
- Sun-comet encounter that sent matter to
form planet.
OTTO SCHMIDT’S ACCRETION THEORY
The sun passed through a dense interstellar
cloud and emerged with a dusty, gaseous
envelope that eventually became the planets.
- The time required to form the planets
exceeds the age of the solar system.
M.M. WOOLFSON’S - CAPTURE THEORY
A variation of James Jean’s near collision
hypothesis
- A collision between proto-planets close to
the sun produced the terrestrial planers;
condensation in the filament produced the
giant planets and their satellites.
THE PROTOPLANET HYPOTHESIS
Developed by Carl von Weizsacker and Gerard
Kuiper
“The solar system begins to form, as a rotating
cloud, or nebula collapses. But instavilities
develop in the nebula causing dust particles ton
pull together. Then the dust particles merge into
billions of planetesimals then collide and form
protoplanets. At the center of the nebular disk the
protosun increases in mass and becomes a star
by the process of hydrogen fusion
EARTH AS A UNIQUE PLANET
Earth is the third planet from the sun and the fifth
largest planet with a radius of 3,959 miles. The
name Earth is a Germanic word which means
“the ground”. Earth revolves around the sun once
every 365.25 days and rotates in its axis every 24
hours. Among all these facts, one stands out. It is
the only planet that can support life which makes
earth unique among all the planets in the solar
system. But what are these characteristics that
made Earth capable of harboring life?
 Among the three planet, Venus is the
nearest and Mars is the farthest from the
Sun.
 Rotational speed of Earth and Mars are
very similar. Rotational speed of Venus is
extremely slow.
 Abundance of liquid water on Earth, hence
the blue color.
 The Earth is a habitable planet.
 Venus, Earth, and Mars are part of the
inner terrestrial or "rocky" planets. Their
composition and densities are not too
different from each other.
 Venus is considered to be the Earth's twin
planet. It has a very similar size and mass
with the Earth.
 Mars is about half the Earth's size.
 Orbital period and velocity are related to
the planet's distance from the sun.
SIX THINGS THAT MAKE LIFE ON EARTH
POSSIBLE
1. Our Location is far from many hazards
- The solar system sits far from the
galactic core (almost 30,000 light
years between two major spiral
arms. More so, the solar system’s
circular orbit helps it avoid that
dangerous part of the galaxy. The
galactic core likely contains a
massive black hole and releases
consistent bursts of radiation.
There are also relatively few stars
near the sun, reducing risks to
earth from gravitational tugs or
collapsing stars called supernova.
2. We are just the right distance from the
sun
- Earth is at an average distance of
93 million miles or 150 million km
away from the sun. It orbits in the
so-called Goldilocks Zone – where
planet receives enough energy to
allow water to exist as a liquid o its
surface. Earth is the only planet
with huge bodies of water -70% of
its surface are consists oceans,
lakes and seas Water is unique
because it absorbs large amounts
of heat without much alteration in
its temperature. Its absorption
speed is extremely rapid- about
ten times as fast as steel
3. We have the right stuff to host a
dynamic core
 - The interstellar cloud of gas and
dust that gave rise to earth
contained enough radioactive
elements(potassium, uranium and
thorium) to power a churning core
for billions of years. This creates a
magnetic field which is crucial to
life on our planet because it
protects the planet from dangers
like solar flares and solar wind.
The earths magnetic field serves to
deflect most of the solar wind,
whose charged particles would
otherwise strip away the ozone
layer that protects the earth and
the life on it from harmful ultraviolet
radiation.,
4. We have a big moon to stabilize our
axial wobble
- The earth has a slight tilt and
teeters like a top as it spins, which
can, cause drastic shifts in climate
over the course of thousands of
years. But because of the moon’s
stabilizing effect on our orbit, our
climate is a lot steadier.
- the moon causes the tides, so if
the Moon were much nearer to the
earth it would exert a gravitational
force 400 times greater than what
we are used to. It would result to
huge tides which would overflow
onto the lowlands ,causing great
flooding.
5. We have an ozone layer to block
harmful ray
- Ozone (o3) is a gas in the
atmosphere that protects
everything living on the Earth from
harmful UV rays from the sun.
Without the layer of ozone in the
atmosphere, it would be very
difficult for anything to survive on
the surface. The ozone layer acts
as a shield to absorbs the u rays
and keep them from doing damage
at the earths surface. The mixture
of gases found in the atmosphere
without man’s pollution is perfect
for life. Nitrogen accounts 78% of
the atmosphere , oxygen 21% and
argon .9% Greenhouse gases like
carbon dioxide,nitrous oxide and
methane are trace gases that
accounts for about tenth of one
percent of the atmosphere. These
gases trap the suns heat to keep
the planet warm.
6. We are just the right distance from the
sun
- Our sun is a yellow dwarf , a
relatively rare type of star that is
both small and stable. It also has a
long life and probably would not
start to fizzle out for another five
billion years or so. Stars more
massive than the sun burn hotter
and usually do not live long
enough for planets to develop life.
Less massive, younger stars are
often unstable and are prone to
blasting their planets with bursts of
radiation.The sun radiated light
and heat , or solar energy , whch
makes it possible for life to exist on
earth. The sun provides the earth
with energy estimated at over 239
trillion horsepower, about 35,000
horsepower for each current
resident. Plants need sunlight to
grow. Animals need plants for food
and oxygen they produce.Without
heat from the sun, earth would
freeze.
UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF EARTH
EARTH’S FEATURES
1. Earth’s axis
- The Earth's axis is tilted at an
angle of about 23.5 degrees
relative to the plane of its orbit
around the sun.
- This tilt is responsible for the
Earth's seasons and the variation
in daylight hours throughout the
year in different parts of the world.
2. Orbital Plane
- Earth's orbital plane is the flat path
that it follows as it travels around
the sun.
3. Equator
- The equator is an imaginary line
that circles the Earth at 0 degrees
 latitude, and it divides the planet
into two hemispheres
Earth’s Structure
- Earth's structure is made up of four
different layers. Each layer has its distinct
characteristics and composition.
The Earth’s Moon
- Diameter: Approx. 3,476 kilometers
- Mass: Approx. 81 quintillion pounds
- Distance (Earth): Approx. 384,400 kms.
- Orbital Period: Approximately 27.3 Earth
days
- Gravity: Approximately one-sixth of Earth's
gravity
 Escape velocity is the minimum speed an
object needs to escape a planet's pull of
gravity
 Surface pressure is the atmospheric
pressure at a location on the surface of
the planet. It is proportional to the mass of
air above the location
 Temperature if no greenhouse gases are
present’ indicates the temperature of the
planet without the warming effect of
greenhouse gases.
 A planet's temperature is a function of its
distance from the Sun. However, this
factor can be modified by the intensity of
greenhouse warming.
 Length of day is a function of rotational
speed.
EARTH’S SUBSYTEM
The EARTH SYSTEM is a set of all matter both
living and non-living, energy and processes within
Earth’s boundary. Is powered by energy from two
major sources: SUN & PLANETS INTERNAL
HEAT.
This enables numerous processes and cycles to
take place. Scientists break down Earth’s major
system into four subsystems (also called spheres)
such as GEOSPHERE/LITOSPHERE(land),
HYDROSPHERE(water), BIOSPHERE (life) and
ATMOSPHERE(AIR).
1. GEOSPHERE
- also know as LITOSPHERE
- solid portion of the Earth
- Includes the rocks and minerals of the
crust and mantle , the metallic liquid outer
core and the solid metallic inner core
- includes the different landforms
- allows the occurrence of geologic events
that shape the earth and generate
materials needed by living organisms
2. HYDROSPHERE
- about 70% of the Earth is covered with
liquid water and 97% of it is in the form of
ocean water
- freshwater accounts for just 3% which
includes those in lakes, rivers,
groundwater ice and snow
- heat is absorbed and redistributed on the
surface of the earth through ocean
circulation
3.BIOSPHERE
- is the set of all life forms on Earth
- it extends as far as 12,500 meters from
the surface that includes the depths of the
ocean
- It covers all the ecosystem- from the soils
to the rainforest, from mangroves to coral
reefs
- the biosphere maintains the ecosystem
4. ATMOSPHERE
- the thin gaseous layer
- it contains water vapor and other gases
which help to moderate our daily
temperature
- the present atmosphere is composed of
78% nitrogen(N), 21% oxygen (O), 0.9%
argon
- it also serves as our protection from
meteors by burning it up before hitting the
Earth’s surface
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSTSPHERE
1. Troposphere: The troposphere is the lowest
layer of the atmosphere, where weather events,
including clouds, rain, and winds, occur. It
extends from the Earth's surface up to an average
altitude of about 8-15 kilometers (5-9 miles)
depending on the location. This layer contains
most of the Earth's air mass and is where humans
and other Earthly life forms exist.
2.Stratosphere: Above the troposphere is the
stratosphere, which extends from the tropopause
(the boundary between the troposphere and
stratosphere) to approximately 50 kilometers (31
miles) above the Earth's surface. The
stratosphere is where the ozone layer is located,
which absorbs and scatters the solar ultraviolet
(UV) radiation. Commercial jet aircraft generally Forest Fire- Forest fires may destroy all the
fly within the lower stratosphere. plants in the area and could lead to increase in
erosion. Increased amount of soil entering the
3.Mesosphere: Above the stratosphere is the
streams can lead to increased turbidity or
mesosphere, extending from about 50 to 85
muddiness of the water which will affect the
kilometers (31 to 53 miles) above the Earth's
plants and animals that live in it.
surface.
ROCKS
Meteors or "shooting stars" burn up in this layer
upon entering the Earth's Atmosphere. ROCKS
 It is a naturally occurring solid aggregate
4. Thermosphere: The thermosphere begins of one or more minerals.
around 85 kilometers (53 miles) above the Earth  The aggregate minerals forming the rocks
and extends to the exosphere. This layer
are held together by chemical bonds.
experiences a significant increase in temperature
with altitude due to the absorption of high-energy TYPES OF ROCKS
solar radiation. However, the density of particles 1.IGNEOUS - Form when magma or lava/ liquid
in the thermosphere is so low. The auroras rock cools and solidifies.
(Northern and Southern Lights) occur in the
thermosphere. 2.SEDIMENTARY - Rocks that form when
sediments (sand, silt etc.) are lithified.
5.Exosphere: The exosphere is the outermost
layer of the Earth's atmosphere, starting at the 3.METAMORPHIC - Rocks that are changed due
thermopause, which is located at an average to extreme heat and/or pressure.
altitude of about 700 kilometers (440 miles) above IGNEOUS ROCKS
the Earth's surface. In the exosphere, the few
particles that exist are so far apart that they can
travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding
with one another. This layer gradually transitions
into outer space.
INTERACTIONS IN EARTH’S SPHERES

Although the four systems have their unique

identities, they are closely connected. For
example, many birds (biosphere) fly through the
air (atmosphere), while water (hydrosphere) flows
through the soil (geosphere). These close
connections cause changes to take place in
Earth’s spheres. These changes are called
EVENTS. This two-way relationship between
event and sphere is called INTERACTIONS.
Igneous rocks form from the cooling and
SOME EXAMPLES OF EVENTS AND THE hardening of molten magna. These rocks can
INTERACTIONS THAT HAPPEN
form by slowly cooling beneath the surface or
Volcano- volcanoes in the geosphere may cause more quickly at the surface.
profound direct and indirect effects on the
hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. This Two Types of Igneous Rocks:
happens when volcanoes emit large amount of
1.Extrusive/Volcanic Rock - forms when magma
particulate matter into the air.
makes its way to Earth’s surface as lava and then
Acid Rain- Acid rain is any form of liquid cools. The crystals are very small (fine-grained)
precipitation that contains high level of nitric and since the cooling process is fast.
sulfuric acid. Rain brings these acids to the Earth,
acidifying soil, lakes and rivers. Acidic water
leaches nutrients from the soil into the water table
making the soil less fertile for the plants and the
subterranean water not potable for humans.
2. Intrusive/Plutonic Rock - It cools slowly  Sandstone is a sedimentary rock
beneath the Earth surface and are created by composed of sand-sized grains of
magma. The intrusive igneous rocks have very minerals rock or organic material
large crystals (coarse grained).
 Limestone is formed when seashells and
the skeletons of marine animals were
compressed into the sea floors along with
other sediment

 Sedimentary rocks can contain valuable

information about Earth's history.
Geologists study the layers of sedimentary
rocks to understand past environments
and events.

 Relative Dating: Relative dating involves

determining the chronological order of
events without assigning a specific age.
GRANITE- makes up most of the continentals Geologists use principles like
crust- intrusive METAMORPHIC ROCKS
BASALT- makes up most of the ocean floors- Metamorphic rocks form when minerals in an
extrusive existing rock are changed by heat and pressure
below the surface.
- Can come from igneous rocks,
sedimentary rocks or even from other
metamorphic rocks.
- META means CHANGE while, MORPHE
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS means FORM.
 are developed from sediments
Metamorphic rocks become:
 Sediments are tiny grains of dirt, sand,
mud, and clay weathered or worn off  Harder
rocks. these are then washed into  More dense
streams, rivers, lakes and oceans and  Distorted
they settle in the bottom of these bodies of
water DO NOT MELT! (They Recrystallize)
 Sedimentary rocks form by the ROCK CYCLE
compaction and cementing together of Natural processes like erosion change rocks from
sediments. These rocks can be formed one type to another all the time. This process
from erosion and weathering of other typically occurs very slowly. The rock cycle has
rocks. no beginning or end.
 Provide information about surface
conditions that existed in the Earth’s past - is a group of changes that occurs in rocks.
 Sedimentary rocks can contain valuable Igneous rocks can change into sedimentary rock
information about Earth's history. or into metamorphic rock. Sedimentary rock can
Geologists study the layers of sedimentary change into metamorphic rock or into igneous
rocks to understand past environments rock. Metamorphic rock can change into igneous
and events. or sedimentary rock
• Weathering- wears down rocks on
Earth's surface into smaller
pieces .The resulting bits and
pieces are called sediment.
• Erosion – sediment is then
transported by wind and water,
often ending up in new locations
 far from where it started .The
transport due to exposure to the
environment is called erosion
• Deposition-when the transporting
medium loses its energy,
sediments settle and accumulate
in layers on the Earth’s surface.
• Compacting and Cementing -
Overtime sediment accumulates in
oceans, lakes, valleys eventually
building up in layers and weighing
down the material underneath. The
weight of the sediments presses
the sediment particles together ,
compacting them. Water passing
through the spaces in between the
particles helps to cement them
together even more. Common
cementing minerals include calcite,
silica and clay minerals.
• Metamorphism - a rock that is
exposed to extreme heat and
pressure but does not melt
becomes a metamorphic rock.
Minerals dissolved in the pore water begin to
precipitate out of the water and crystallize around
the sediment particles. Common cementing
minerals include calcite, silica (in the form of
quartz), iron oxides, and clay minerals.
These minerals act like natural glues, binding the
sediment particles together.
The elements that make up the rocks are never
destroyed, instead they are constantly being
recycled.
ROCKS AND MINERALS
Nonliving, natural substances that make up rocks
are called MINERALS.
Minerals - it is naturally occurring, usually organic
solid with distinct chemical composition and an
orderly crystalline structure.
There are more than 3,000 kinds of minerals with
different properties. A property is a characteristic
that describes something.
Minerals can be identified by their properties.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS
1. Naturally occurring because they are formed by
natural processes.
2. Inorganic-they aren’t alive. Never were alive
3. All minerals are solid- all solids have definite
shape and volume
4. Structure- atoms in the mineral are arranged in
a pattern
5. Chemical composition- every mineral is an
element or compound with a chemical
composition. All minerals has chemical
compositions unique to that mineral.
MINERAL PROPERTIES
1.COLOR - It is the result of the reflection of
visible light and the various elements composing
the mineral.
If a mineral is composed of elements that reflect
violet light, then a mineral will appear violet.
 Color maybe a unique identifying property
of certain minerals (e.g. malachite –
green, azurite – blue).
 There are also lots of minerals that share
similar or the same color/s. In addition,
some minerals can exhibit a range of
colors.
2. LUSTER - refers to the way light bounces off
the surface of a mineral.
- It is the quality and intensity of reflected lights
exhibited by the mineral.
Minerals may be metallic and non- metallic
Metallic - generally opaque and exhibit a
resplendent shine similar to a polished metal.
Nonmetallic -
 vitreous – shiny like glass
 adamantine- sparkly, brilliant diamond
like
 resinous- like a resin or tree sap
 silky - fibrous and soft looking
 Pearly- milky or like a pearl
 dull – earthy or clay-like
 greasy – oily
3. STREAK - is the color of a mineral in
powdered form. Note that the color of a mineral
could be different from the streak. Streak is a
better diagnostic property as compared to color.
Streak is inherent to almost every mineral. Color
maybe unreliable for identification as impurities
within the minerals may give the minerals a
different color.
4.HARDNESS -it is a measure of the resistance of
a mineral to Abrasion. mHardness refers to a
mineral’s ability to scratch another mineral or be fundamental building block of silicate
scratched by another mineral. Each mineral is minerals
numbered one to ten.
2. Oxide - minerals containing Oxygen anion
(O2-) combined with one or more metal
5.CLEAVAGE - it is a property of some mineral to ions
break along parallel repetitively planet of
weakness to form, smooth, flat surface 3. Sulfite - minerals containing Sulfur and
Oxygen anion (SO4)- combined with other
ions
6.FRACTURE - it is refers to the capacity of
minerals to break along curve surface 4. Sulfide - minerals containing sulfur anion
(S2)- combined with one or more ions.
Some sulfides are sources of
7.CRYSTAL/FORM HABIT - the external shape economically important metals such as
of crystal group of crystal is displayed as these copper, lead and zinc.
crystal grow in an open space
5. Carbonates - minerals containing the
carbonate anion (CO3)2- combined with
8.FLOURESCENE - it is the ability of a mineral to other elements
glow when bombarded with ultraviolet light 6. Halides - minerals containing halogen
elements combined with one or more
9.PHOSPHORESCENCE - it is th ability of a elements
mineral to continuously glow even after ultraviolet 7. Native elements - minerals that form as
light has been turned on. individual elements

10.SPECIFIC GRAVITY - Density describes the

amount of matter present in a certain amount of
space or volume. To get mineral density, the 1. Metals and Inter-metals – minerals with high
mass of a sample is taken using a scale and the thermal and electrical conductivity, typically
volume is determined through the water with metallic luster, low hardness (gold,
displacement method. The density is then lead)b.
calculated by dividing the mass by the volume of
2. Semi-metals – minerals that are more fragile
water displaced. Specific is a measure of a
than metals and have lower conductivity
mineral’s density as compared to water. It is (arsenic, bismuth)c.
calculated by dividing the density of a mineral by
the density of water. A mineral with a specific 3. Nonmetals – nonconductive (sulfur,
gravity of 2 is twice as dense as water. diamond)

ROCK FORMING MINERALS

There are almost 5000 known mineral species,

yet the vast majority of rocks are formed from
combinations of a few common minerals, referred
to as “rock-forming minerals”. The rock-forming
minerals are: feldspars, quartz, amphiboles,
micas, olivine, garnet, calcite, pyroxenes.
Minerals occurring within a rock in small
quantities are referred to as “accessory minerals”.
MINERAL GROUPS
1. Silicate - minerals containing 2 of the
most abundant elements in the Earth’s
crust, namely, silicon and oxygen. When
linked together, these two elements form
the silicon oxygen tetrahedron - the