Earth Science
Formation of the Universe (𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒔)
Origin and Structure of the Earth: The Universe and the Solar System
The Universe
- Defined as all existing matter and space considered as a whole. The
observable universe is believed to be at least 93 billion light years in
diameter and constantly expanding since the big bang 13.8 billion
years ago.
Theory on the Origin of the Universe
- Scientists test ideas through experiments and observation or through
scientific method. They build upon ideas that pass examinations. The
ideas that are not accepted, however, are usually deconstructed,
reformulated, and retested. They followed the evidence where it
leads, and they questioned everything.
Big Bang Theory Model of the Universe (1929)
- It describes the universe as originating in an infinitely tiny, infinitely
dense point or singularity between to 13 to 14 billion years ago. The
essential statement of the theory is usually attributed to the Belgian
Roman catholic priest Georges Henri Joseph Edouard Lemaitre in 1927.
The Big Bang Timeline
A. Inflationary Epoch (𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟓 𝒔 − 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟑 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒔)
- The universe expanded from the size of an atom to 1035 meters in
width
B.
- The universe continues to expand. It became distinct: gravity, strong
nuclear force that held the nuclei together, weak nuclear force and
electromagnetic force. By the first seconds, the universe is made up of
fundamental particles and energy: quarks, electrons, photons, and
neutrinos.
C. Formation of Basic Elements (𝟑 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒔)
- Protons, and neurons combine to form hydrogen nucleic. Then
hydrogen began to combine in pair to form helium nuclei. This process
is called nucleosynthesis.
D. Radiation Era (𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔)
- Most of energy in the universe was in the form of radiation. These
include different wavelengths of light, X-Rays, radio waves and UV
rays. They formed what is called the cosmic wave background
radiation.
E. Matter Domination (𝟑𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔)
- Matter began to dominate and the end of radiation era at this stage,
lithium atom began to formed. Electrons joined with hydrogen and
helium nuclei to make scales neutral atoms.
F. Birth of the Stars and Galaxies (𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒚𝒓𝒔)
- The slightly irregular areas of gas cloud, gravitational attract nearby
matter and became denser. The dense gas clouds collapsed and
eventually gain enough mass to ignite producing light. The huge gas
cloud can be the birthplace of dozens of stars. The group of stars
became the galaxies.
The Solar System The Planets
- Currently, we have 8 official planets present in our solar system. They
There are 2 popular models about the Solar System: Claudius Ptolemy’s are divided into 2 classifications: Terrestrial Planets and Jovian Planets.
geocentric model, which states that the earth is at the center of the Solar
System, and Nicholas Copernicus’ heliocentric model, which states that the Terrestrial Planets
sun is at the center of the solar system. - Also known as the rocky planets. These planets are the first four planets
in our solar system inside the asteroid belt. The following are the
terrestrial planets:
1. Mercury
2. Venus
3. Earth
4. Mars

Jovian Planets
- (Also known as the Gaseous Planets) were the planets outside the
Nebular Hypothesis asteroid belt. These planets were composed mainly of gasses and has
- Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) and Pierre-Simon metallic core. The following planets were the Jovian planets:
Laplace (1749-1827) were the first to propose the 1. Jupiter
earliest theory of how the Solar System originated. The 2. Saturn
Kant-Laplace nebular hypothesis presumes that the 3. Uranus
Solar System began as cloud of the dispersed 4. Neptune
interstellar gas called nebula. The mutual gravitational Trivia:
attraction between particles cause them to start The 3 Criteria of the IAU (International Astronomical Union) for a full sized
moving and colliding, and they were kept together by planet are:
electrostatic forces. The resulting nebular aggregates
became larger than others, grew more rapidly, and - It is in orbit around the Sun.
ultimately became the planets. - It has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic equilibrium (a nearly round
shape)
- It has “cleared the neighborhood” around its orbit

Summary
- The theory that was accepted by most of the people were the Bigbang Theory.
- There are 2 popular models about the Solar System: Claudius Ptolemy’s geocentric
model, which states that the earth is at the center of the Solar System, and Nicholas
Copernicus’ heliocentric model, which states that the sun is at the center of the Solar
System.
- The Kant-Laplace nebular hypothesis presumes that the Solar System began as cloud
of dispersed interstellar gas called nebula.
Earth Science 2. Mantle
- Mostly solid rocks and minerals and marked by malleable semi-solid
Lesson 2: Origin and Structures of the Earth magma. It represents about 85% of the total weight and mass of the
Earth Systems planet.
- It is believed that the first 50 miles is composed of a very hard rigid
Earth rock. The next 150 miles is said to be superheated solid rock.
Compositional Layer Compositional Layer
3. Core
1. Lithosphere - The earth’s core is entirely made up of metal alloy such as iron (Fe)
1. Crust and nickel (Ni). Other elements found in the Earth’s core are
2. Asthenosphere
2. Mantle siderophiles. These are the elements that dissolve in iron and are
3. Mesosphere
3. Core classified as “precious metals”. It is divided into 2: inner core and outer
4. Inner/Outer Core
core.
Earth
- Characterized by its blue waters, rocky brown and green land masses Outer Core
with white grounds set against the black background. - It is the second largest and second to the layer of our planet. It is
- It is made up of erratic, complex and interactive systems that make it about 2,200 km thick and composed of entirely superheated liquid
constantly changing planet. molten lava of liquid iron and nickel. The NiFe alloy of the outer core is
Compositional Layer extremely hot and its temperature range is between 4,500 degrees to
1. Crust 5,500 degrees Celsius. The liquid metal of the outer core has very low
- It is made up of large rocks divided into two forms: oceanic crust and viscosity, which makes it easily deformed and malleable.
continental crust. The former is composed of the elements iron (Fe),
oxygen (O), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al) while the latter granite, Inner Core
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. - The final layer of the Earth is the inner core which is an exceedingly
- Crust is 50-70 km in depth. hot, dense huge of mostly iron 2500 km wide. The temperature of the
inner core ranges from 5,000 degrees Celsius to 6,000 degrees Celsius
which is enough to make metal melt. It has strong pressure around it
making the metal stay solid. With this unusual set of circumstances,
some scientists tend to assume that the inner core is not totally solid
but rather as plasma behaving as solid.

4. Seismic Waves
- Caused by breaking down of rocks or explosions.

5. Lithosphere (Geosphere)
- It is a subsystem that composed of minerals and rocks. It extends from
crust to core.
 - It is subject to motion forming continents and different landforms.
- It produces soil due to uplifting of rocks beneath the earth.
6. Hydrosphere
- The Earth’s hydrosphere can be in a form of liquid, vapor and ice such
as glaciers, ice caps and ice bergs. This frozen part is called
Cryosphere.
- Mostly ninetyseven (97%) percent of the Earth’s water is in the form of
oceans (salty) and the rest is freshwater (non-salty). Three-quarters of
this fresh water is solid and exists in the ice sheets.
- Earth’s Major Oceans
Ocean Zones
- Oceans may be divided into layers known as zones. The zones may be
horizontal or vertical.
- Horizontal zones divide the ocean from land to the sea. It consists of
coastal and pelagic zone.
- Coastal zone is the region in which sea bottom is exposed during low
tide and is covered during high tide. Some animals have adapted to
this environment like sea stars, sea urchins and some species of coral.
Horizontal Zones
- Coastal zone is the region in which sea bottom is exposed during low
tide and is covered during high tide. Some animals have adapted to
this environment like sea stars, sea urchins and some species of coral.
- Pelagic zone is located seaward of the coastal zone’s low tide mark.
This is always covered with water. There are two divisions: neritic zone
and oceanic zone. Neritic one lies above the continental shelf. It
extends from the low tide mark outwards from the seashore and
extends to a depth of 200. Sunlight penetrated the water. Many sea
animals are found in this zone.
Vertical Zone
- Vertical zones begin at sea level and end at the deepest point in the
ocean. There are five zones. Each zone receives different amount of
sunlight.
1. Epipelagic Zone
- The sunlight zone (0-200m)
- The zone that gets a lot of sunlight resulting to an abundance of
aquatic plants. Common animals found in this zone include seals, sea
turtles, sea lions, ray, and sharks.
2. Mesopelagic Zone
- The twilight zone (200-1000m)
- Characterized by dim light due to the limited amount of sunlight it
receives. Ono plants are found in this region. Lilly fish, octopus, and
squid are found in this region.
3. Bathypelagic Zone
- The midnight zone (1000-4000m)
- Does not receive any sunlight. Animals that live here lack eyes. Some
animals can be found in this are like viperfish, anglerfish, stripe eel, and
tripod fish.
4. Abyssopelagic Zone
- The abyss (4000-6000m)
- Described as deep sea. Most animals living in this area are
invertebrate like blind shrimps, small squids, and hagfish.
5. Hadalpelagic Zone
- The trenches (6000-bottom)
- The deepest part of the ocean. This zone is mostly found in deep water
trenches and canyons. Some animals exist here like sea cucumber and
tube worms.
Atmosphere
- This thin layer of gas envelops our planet is necessary to sustain life
because it contains gases essential for humans and animals to
breathe. It enables plants to make their own food, traps heat to keep
us warm, protects us from harmful radiation from the space and drives
ocean currents that spread heat which regulates our climate. The
greenhouse gases help keep our planet’s temperature to a level
conductive to life.
Troposphere
- Lowest layer
- It contains about 80% of the total mass of the atmosphere.
- Most of the water vapor present in the atmosphere is found in the
troposphere.
- All weather-associated cloud types are found in this layer.
Stratosphere
- Extends up to 50km high
- It is in this region where we can find the ozone layer which absorbs and
scatters the solar ultraviolet radiation.
Mesosphere
- This region is above the stratosphere and extends to 85km
- Meteors usually burn up in this region as they approach our planet
- The coldest region in the atmosphere is the upper mesosphere
Thermosphere
- Extends up to 500km above the mesosphere.
- It is where aurora and satellites occur
- The temperature in this layer can rise to as high as 1500 degrees Celsius
Biosphere
- Contains all the Earth’s living things (plants and animals)
- It is sometimes referred to as the “zone of life”
- From a geophysical standpoint, biosphere is the global ecological
system integrating all living things and their relationship, including their
interactions with the elements of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and
atmosphere.
- The term “biosphere” was coined by geologist Edward Suess 1875.
Biomes
- The biosphere is divided into biomes.
- The world’s major communities.
- They are classified according to the predominant vegetation
characterized by adaptations of organism to that particular climate
Aquatic (Biomes)
- Includes freshwater (ponds, lakes, rivers, etc.) and marine (ocean,
estuaries, etc.)
- The aquatic regions house numerous species of plants and animals
Forests
- Includes tropical, temperate, and boreal forest as well as a taiga.
- Each type of forest has distinctive features dominated by grasses
rather than large shrubs or tree.
Desert
- Characterized by low rainfall (less than 50cm/year)
- Most deserts have specialized vegetation as well as specialized
animals that can adapt to its condition.
Tundra
- The coldest of all the biomes
- It has low biotic diversity and simple vegetation structure.

Summary
- Lithosphere focuses on land surfaces like the continents
- Cryosphere is under hydrosphere because it was the frozen part of the
earth. Natural ice on arctic areas came from water
- Ionosphere was the area where in the aurora borealis and the
movement of radio waves that was used on the internet or cellular
phones occurs.
- Biosphere was present on all the three spheres.
Earth Science Moh’s scale of hardness:

Lesson 03: Earth Materials and Resources: Minerals and Rocks

Minerals
- The following characteristics: inorganic, represented by a chemical
formula, is solid found in nature.
Rock
- An aggregate of one or more minerals.
Example: A Coal is a sedimentary rock composed of carbon.

Physical Properties of Minerals

1. Luster
2. Hardness
3. Color and Streak
4. Crystal Structure or Habit
5. Cleavage
6. Specific Gravity Color and Streak
7. Tenacity - Minerals come in different colors especially mineral gems. Mineral
8. Other properties gems are rare and are used to make jewelry.
- Streak of a mineral refers to the color of the mineral in powdered form.
Transparency You can do streak test plate (back side of a porcelain plate)
- A mineral is transparent if it allows the light to pass through and you - Above 7 does not have any streak
can see object through it. (Transparent, Translucent, Opaque)
Luster Crystal Structure and Crystal Habit
- Indicate how light is reflected off a surface of a mineral. There are - Minerals may be classified based on their crystal structure. Crystal
qualitative terms to describe these properties such as metallic, vitreous structure describes the orderly geometric spatial arrangement of
(reflection of crystals), pearly, dull, greasy and silky. atoms in the internal structure of a mineral.
Hardness
- Refers to the mineral resistance to be scratched. This property is
dependent on the chemical composition and the crystalize structure
of a mineral.
Cleavage
- It describes how a mineral break along weakness plain.

Tenacity
- Resistance of breakage
Other Properties
- Carbonate minerals like calcite, dolomite, azurite react with
hydrochloric acid (HCI).
- Minerals containing irons like magnetite is attracted by a magnet.
- Gold, Silver, and Copper Minerals are good conductor of electricity.

ROCK
Rock Cycle
- Refers to the rock cycle. It shows the origin of the igneous rock,
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks and their interrelationship.
Specific Gravity
- It describes the minerals density in comparison to the density of a
standard like water.
Rock Cycle
- Suppose you start with metamorphic rocks. The magma cools and
solidifies through the process of crystallization which may occur either
beneath the surface of the Earth or at the surface through volcanic
eruption. The resulting rock is called igneous rocks.
- If sedimentary rocks are buried deep within the Earth. They will be
subjected to heat and pressure changing them into metamorphic
rocks.
- If the metamorphic rocks are subjected to higher temperature, they
will melt forming magmas. The magma will solidify into igneous rocks,
starting the cycle.
Igneous Rocks
- Form by crystallization and solidification of molten rock. They made up
80% of the mass of the Earth’s crust. It is mostly classified based on their
texture and mineral composition.
Example: Obsidian Rock
Types of Igneous Rocks
Volcanic Rocks
- Are formed from magma erupted from a volcano. It is the most
common rock types on Earth’s surface, particularly in the ocean.
Examples: Basalt, Pumice, Rhyolite, Andesite, and Komatiite.
Plutonic Rocks
- Are crystallized slowly cooling magma below the surface of the Earth.
Examples: Granite, Gabbro, Diorite and Peridotite
Sedimentary Rocks
- 70% of the rocks in the earth’s surface are sedimentary in origin.
Sedimentary rocks are formed from consolidation of materials
(sediments) from pre-existing rocks, from precipitation or from life
processes.
Examples: Sandstone
- Like volcanic rocks, some sedimentary rocks are “lithified” right at the
surface, for instance by direct precipitation from seawater.
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
- Are from weathered rocks such as igneous rocks
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
- Are formed by inorganic and organic processes, i.e. precipitation from
solution or derived from life processes such as evaporation and
chemical activity, produce chemical sediments. Organic processes
form biochemical sediments from shells and skeletons of dead marine
organisms.
Metamorphic Rocks
- Are derived from any pre-existing rocks by mineralogical, chemical
and/or structural changes, in response to marked changed in
temperature, pressure or the introduction of
chemically active fluids, without melting the rocks.
Textures of Metamorphic Rocks
Foliated Textures
- Are brought about by pressure. Pressure causes mineral grains to
realign and certain minerals to recrystallized.
Examples: Mica and Chlorite
Non-Foliated Textures
- Are metamorphic rocks without layering, banding or alignment.
Examples: Marble, Hornfels, and Quartzite

Summary:
- Rocks are the accumulation of minerals.
- There are three type of rock: Sedimentary, Metamorphic, and Igneous.
- Mining was the process of acquiring on the earth.
Earth Science
Lesson 04: Energy Resources
Energy
- All around us. Energy in our planet flows in its subsystem - the
atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. It moves in and
out of these systems, and during any energy transfer between them,
some is lost in the surroundings, as heat, light, sound, vibration or
movement.
Use of Energy
- Energy is not only used for electricity generation to power computers,
mobile phones, home appliances, and other stuff people use every
day. It is also necessary for transportation as motor fuels, among others.
2. Hydroelectric Energy: one of the top 3 sources for electricity
generation along with fossil fuels and nuclear fuels. Dams are
commonly used in the country for electricity generation. Dams may
also be used for purposes like irrigation, water supply, flood control,
recreation, navigation, and fish farming.
3. Geothermal Energy: harnessed natural heat from deep within the
Earth. This internal heat is also responsible in melting rocks to form
magma. It is important for geothermal reservoirs to have a heat
sources, permeable rock or fault that will allow fluid to rise close to
the surface, adequate water recharge, and an impermeable cap
rock to prevent heat escape.

Energy Sources
- Some energy sources are easily replenished but most of the resources
man mainly use are replaced very slowly or not within man’s lifetime.
Energy sources are classified either as renewable for non-renewable.

Biomass
Non-Renewable Energy Sources
- Included plant materials (ex: rice/coconut husks, fuelwood, and agro
1. Fossil fuel: is the world’s main energy source. This includes coal, oil, and
wastes) or animal waste utilized to produce biofuels such as ethanol
natural gas.
and biodiesel.

i. Coal: is an end product of the burial of plant material.

Renewable Energy Sources
Commonly wetlands such as swamps and bogs provide the
- Photovoltaic cell panels are commonly used to collect and convert
conditions to form coal. This is the most abundant fossil fuel.
solar energy - radiation from the sun - into electricity. However, on the
However, coal originates mainly from dead tree and plant
planet’s surface, the intensity of this inexhaustible energy source is
matter.
relatively low due to distance between and the sun.

1. Wind Energy: harnessed by windmills or turbines wherein the kinetic

energy of the wind is converted into mechanical or electrical
energy.
Types of Coal
1. Lignite: a soft, brownish-black coal that forms the lowest level of the
coal family. In some lignite, you can still see the texture of the original
wood.

2. Sub-bituminous: sometimes called as black lignite is a category of coal

which appears as grey-black or dark brown.

3. Bituminous: sometimes called “soft coal”. Compared with the sub-

bituminous coal, there is more energy in bituminous coal.

4. Anthracites: the hardest coal and gives off a great amount of heat
when it burns.

Oil and Natural Gas

- Hydrocarbons in liquid and gaseous form - oil and natural gas - has
been technically termed petroleum or crude oil (liquid form).
- Are formed from dead marine organism that subside to earth. While
moving downwards, the dead remains experiences an increasing heat
and pressure turning them to oil and natural gas that later on, move
upwards due to pressure. When moving upward, most of the fuels
were trapped by a rock fold turning the area into oil and gas reservoir.

Summary
- Energy exist in different forms.
- There are 2 types of energy resources: renewable and non-renewable
- Renewable energy resources can be generated on a short period of
time.
- Non-renewable resources require a long period of time to be
generated or harvested.
 Surface Water
Earth Science - Water in the river, lake or freshwater wetland. It is replenished naturally
by precipitation and loss through discharge to the oceans,
Lesson 05: Water Resources evaporation, transpiration and seepage.

Water Human Activities that Affect the Water Quality

- The expanse of the water on
the surface of the Earth with 1. Pollution
both liquid and frozen water - Water Pollution is any contamination of water with chemicals or other
covers 71% of the surface. foreign substances that are detrimental to human, plant, or animal
97% of Earth’s water is health. These pollutants include fertilizer and pesticides from
occupied mostly by all agricultural runoff; sewage and food processing waste; lead, mercury,
oceans and salt water, and and other heavy metals; chemical wastes from industrial discharges;
the majority, is locked up in and chemical contamination from hazardous waste sites.
glaciers and ice caps, mainly
in Greenland and Antarctica. 2. Landscape Changes
Only 3% is fresh water. - Streamflow is determined by climate, water use within the catchment
as well as the pathways and rate of water movement to streams.
Groundwater These factors vary significantly across a catchment.
- The water below Earth’s surface. It occupies cracks and pore spaces
into bedrock and between sediment particles. Geological spaces that 3. Over-abstraction
can hold and transmit large quantities of water are aquifers. - When water is taken from aquifers, groundwater levels fall. If the
amount of water taken is greater than the amount of water falling as
Types of aquifers rain, it is called over-abstraction.
1. Unconfined Aquifers: geologic units in which the water is exposed to
atmospheric pressure. Summary
2. Confined Aquifers: under pressure and separated from the ground - There’s only a little amount of drinkable water.
surface and atmospheric pressure by confining layer, or aquitard. - Water cycle helps to generate freshwater.
- Freshwater can be easily contaminated because of most of the
freshwater can be found underground.