October 26-27, 2023 | ALL SUBJECTS

EARTH SCIENCE
Topic 1: Theories on the Origin of the Universe
PRE-HISTORIC THEORIES
 Genesis
 Hindu Text Rigveda
 Atomic Universe
 Geocentric Universe
 Cartesian Vortex

 Atomic Universe
Atomic theory established that all matter is made of tiny particles. According to Democritus’ atomic theory,
everything is made of atoms which are:
o Physically but not geometrically indivisible
o Indestructible
o Have always been, and always will be in motion
5 Atomic models:
1. John Dalton’s atomic model – Dalton’s Billiard ball (Solid Sphere) Model
2. J.J Thomson’s model – Plum Pudding Model
3. Ernest Rutherford’s model – Nuclear Model
4. Neil Bohr’s model – Planetary Model
5. Erwin Schrodinger’s model – Electron Cloud Model/Quantum Model

 Geocentric Universe
States that Earth is the center of the Universe. The earth is immobile in the center of the cosmos, and the
sphere if the fixed stars rotates around it once a day, carrying the sun, moon, and planets with it.
Characteristics of Geocentric:
o Earth is in the center and is stationary
o The planets, the sun, and the stars revolve around it
o The sphere are perfect shapes

 Cartesian Vortex
A depiction of Rene Descartes’ vortices. In his theory, the universe was filled with elements of different sizes
which sifted around each other. Adopted on ontological of two finite substances:
o mind (spirit or soul), the essence is self-conscious
o matter, the essence is extension on three dimensions.
MODERN THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE
 Big Bang Theory Singularity
Describes the universe as expanding, and originated in an infinitely - Pure energy
tiny, infinitely dense point around 14 billion years ago. compressed in one
single point.
- Edouard Lemaitre - A violent explosion
- Edwin Hubble which caused the
- Amo Penzias inflation and
- Robert Wilson expansion of the
universe
4 Fundamental Forces:
o Gravity (attraction between bodies)
o Electromagnetic force (binds atoms into molecules)
o Strong nuclear force (binds protons and electrons)
o Weak nuclear force (breaks down an atom’s nucleus and produce radioactive energy)

 Oscillating Universe Big Crunch occurs

 Albert Einstein’s favored theory when the universe
 Followed the general theory of relativity equations of the universe with expands and
positive curvature eventually
 Combines both Big Bang and Big Crunch reverses
 A modification of the Big Bang Theory
 Forms one cycle of an endless series

 Steady State Theory Steady State predicted a universe that

 First proposed by Sir James Jeans (1920) expanded but did not changed its
 Revised by Sir Hermann Bondi and Thomas Gold (1948) density. Matter was inserted into the
 Further developed by Sir Fred Hoyle universe as it expanded in order to
 “steady state” → stable condition that doesn’t change maintain a constant density.

 Inflationary Theory
 The concept was developed by Russian-American physicist Andrei Linde
 American physicist Alan Guth
 To solve the uncertainties of the standard big bang theory, such as horizon and flatness problems

 String Theory
Everything in our universe is made up of tiny vibrating strings that are one dimensional objects and are identical
to one another.

 Multiverse
Sees the universe as just one of many “bubbles” that grew as a part of a multiverse
Topic 2: Types of Galaxies
HOW DOES GALAXIES FORM?
As clouds of dusks and stars swirl around space, gravity pulls other objects closer to it, eventually moving in
together to form one giant spinning pack of stars and dust.

3 MAIN TYPES OF GALAXIES

 Spiral Galaxies
 Has a spiral pattern and visible component parts
 Has three main parts:
 Bulge – typically spheroidal in shape and contain older stars
 Disk – contain younger and hotter stars and make up the spiral arm
structures that distinguish the shape of a spiral galaxy
 Halo – hovers around the bulge and contains globular stars cluster
that are older than the stars
 An example is the Milky Way galaxy which has an estimated 200 to 400 billion stars

 Elliptical Galaxies
 Named for their shapes
 Look like fat, fuzzy footballs
 The stars in an elliptical galaxy is wrap completely around the galaxy’s
heart
 Composed of older stars, and new star formation ceases to occur
 The largest galaxies that have been observed are elliptical in shape
 One of the largest observable elliptical galaxy is known as IC 1101

 Irregular Galaxies
 Have no definite shape
 Often small in size, with only 1 million to billions of stars
 Large and Small Magellanic Clouds are two irregular galaxies that lie
close to our Milky Way galaxy and can be observed in the sky from the
southern hemisphere.

Topic 3: Origin of the Solar System

THE SOLAR SYSTEM
 Is the gravitationally bound system of the sun and the things that orbit it
 Was formed 4.6 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of a giant interstellar molecular clouds
 It comprises of 8 planets, approximately 170 natural planetary satellites (moon), and countless asteroids,
meteorites, and comets.
 Situated within the Orion-Cygnus Arm of the Milky Way galaxy
 The closest star to the solar system is Alpha Centauri (made up of Proxima Centauri, Alpha Centauri A
and B)
  According to the scientists favored theory, the solar system formed from a solar nebula
Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Earth, are the four inner terrestrial planets which consists mainly of rocks
Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, and Uranus are the four outer planets which consists mainly of either gases or ice
Pluto was considered the ninth planet until 2006, when the International Astronomical Union voted to classify
Pluto as a dwarf planet.

THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

 Descartes’ Vortex Theory
 The solar system was formed into bodies with nearly circular orbits because of the whirlpool-like
motion in the pre-solar materials.

 Buffon’s Collision Theory

 Georges-Louis Leclerc Comte de Buffon
 Planets were formed by the collision of the sun and a giant comet
 The debris flung out from a comet’s collision with the sun, became the planets

 Jean-Jeffrey’s Theory (Tidal Theory)

 Sir James Hopwood Jeans and Sir Harold Jeffrey
 Dualistic Theory
 Proposed that the planets were formed from the substance that was torn out from the sun

 Kant-Laplace Nebular Theory

 Immanuel Kant and Pierre-Samon Laplace

 Solar Nebular Theory

 Solved the original problems of Kant and Laplace’s nebular hypothesis about the angular momentum of
the sun

Topic 4: Planets
INNER PLANETS
 Characteristics
- “Terrestrial Planets”
- Rocky
- Dense (about five times denser than water)
- Metal cores (iron)
- Thin atmosphere
1. Mercury
- Iron dwarf, having large iron core
- Has hundreds of craters
- The same size as the Earth’s moon
- 38% of the size of the Earth
- Thin atmosphere
 - Sunlight strength: 450-1040% of Earth’s
2. Venus
- Second planet from the sun
- Has thick atmosphere, 96% of carbon dioxide
- Lots of volcanic features but not active
- Hottest planet
- Earth’s sister planet
- Surface temperature of 464°C
3. Earth
- 200km thick atmosphere: 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 1% Argon
- Green planet
- composition: nickel, iron core (inner core: solid, outer core: liquid), Olivine mantle (composed from
oxygen, magnesium, and silicon), rocky crust
- one moon
4. Mars
- Red Dwarf
OUTER PLANETS
 Characteristics:
• Jovian Planets
• Composed of mostly gases and ices
• Doesn’t have solid surface
• May have solid core
• Most has rings
• Thick tumultuous atmospheres, rapid winds, large storms
5. Jupiter
- Goliath planet
- Three separate cloud layers: ammonia ice, ammonium hydrosulfide ice, and water ice
- Very powerful magnetic field that extends all the way to Saturn's Orbit
6. Saturn
- Ringed Giant
- Composition: liquid hydrogen (outer mantle), liquid metallic hydrogen (inner mantle), ice (outer core), and
rock (inner core)
- Most oblate planet with visible bulges at the equator
- Sunlight strength: 1% of Earth's
- Powerful magnetic field (600 times that of Earth's)
7. Uranus
- Blue Giant
- Atmosphere: 83% Hydrogen, 15% Helium, and 2% Methane
- Composition: Liquid hydrogen and other elements (outer mantle), slushy layer of icy compounds of water,
methane, and ammonia (inner mantle), and an icy, rocky (core)
- Red light is absorbed by methane which is why this planet is blue-green in color
8. Neptune
- Blue Colossus
- Atmosphere: 79% Hydrogen, 18% Helium, and 3% Methane
- Orbit is almost perfectly circular
 9. Pluto
- Dwarf planet
- 70% is rock, the remaining 30% is ice
- 67% of the diameter of the moon Kuiper Belt a
- Elongated and inclined orbit different than the other planet belt of icy
- Member of the Kuiper belt planet
building
leftovers

Topic 5: What Makes Earth Habitable

 Characteristics of a habitable planet
- Relatively large size and distance from the sun to allow liquid water to exist
FEATURES OF EARTH: IMPORTANT TO HUMAN LIFE
1. Surface liquid water
2. Atmospheric Oxygen
3. Plate tectonics
4. Climate Stability
UNIQUE FEATURES INTERTWINED:
- Plate tectonics creates climate stability
- Climate Stability allows liquid water
- Liquid water is necessary for life
- Life is necessary for atmospheric oxygen
 4 Subsystems of the Earth
 Hydrosphere
- Water
- 3% fresh water
- 1% lakes, river
 Atmosphere
- Air
- consists of Troposphere, Stratosphere,
Mesosphere, Thermosphere, Exosphere
 Geosphere
- Land
- Earth's layer (Lithosphere, Asthenosphere,
Mesosphere)
 Biosphere
- All forms of life

Topic 6: Rocks and Minerals

WHAT ARE ROCKS?
- Defined as ‘rock solid’ or ‘rock hard’
- Change in property due to high amount of heat and
pressure
- A formation of minerals (shells or plants)
 - Occurs under a rock cycle

THE ROCK CYCLE

 Crystallization of magma
 Weathering
- the process of breaking down rocks into smaller and smaller
particles without transporting agents at play
- factors that play: temperature extremities, biological
involvement of nature and water
 Erosion and Transport
- The process where rocks are broken down by natural forces
such as wind or water.
- The presence of agents like water and wind
- Act of transporting agents too
 Deposition of sediments
 Burial and Compaction
 Deformation and Metamorphism
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
1. Igneous rocks Rate of the cooling is one of
- Formed by the cooling or solidification of magma or lava most important factors that
- Molten rock materials can solidify below the Earth’s surface control crystal size and the
- Minerals are formed during the crystallization of magma texture of the rock in
 Classification of Igneous rocks general
a. Intrusive rocks
- Plutonic rocks
- Formed from solidified magma under the Earth
- Coarse-grained due to the slow cooling of magma allowing crystal growth due to the gradual lowering
of temperature
- Mostly have phaneritic texture
- Ex: Granite, Diorite, Gabbro
b. Extrusive rocks
- Volcanic rocks
- Formed on the surface of the Earth
- Coded lava, which are molten rocks ejected on the surface through volcanic eruptions
- Fine-grained due to abrupt cooling on the surface
- Fast rate of cooling/crystallization is due to huge variance in the temperature between Earth’s surface
- Common textures: Ephanitic, Porphyritic, and Vesicular
 Classification of Igneous according to Silica Content
a. Felsic
- Granitic
- 65% silica, generally light-colored
b. Intermediate
- Andesitic
- 55-65% silica, generally medium colored (medium gray)

c. Mafic
- Basaltic
- 45-55% silica, generally dark colored
d. Ultramafic
- 45% silica
- Very dark colored, composed mainly of olivine and pyroxene which are the major constituents of the
upper mantle
2. Sedimentary rocks
- Formed by the compaction and cementation of sediments, a process called “lithification”
- Rocks are formed through the accumulation, compaction, and cementation of sediments
- Forms at the surface or near surface conditions; weathering of rocks; sediment transport and deposition,
compaction, and cementation
- Process: weathering and transport agents (water, wind, ice)
 Common Sedimentary Features
a. Strata
- 1 cm is called bedding
- Anything less is lamination
- Layering is the result of a change in grain size and composition
- Each layer represents a distinct period of deposition
b. Fossils
- Remains of traces of plants and animals that are presented in rocks
 Classification of Sedimentary rocks according to Clastic or Non-Clastic
a. Clastic
- Made up of sediments from pre-existing rocks
- When pre-existing rocks are physically weathered and eroded they form sediments
- When these sediments are transformed, deposited, lithified, they form the clastic sedimentary rocks
- These rocks can be identified based on their grain sizes that can range from 0.002 mm (e.g. clay size) to
>2mm (coarse gravel)
b. Non-Clastic
- Can be biological, chemical, or a combination of both
- Biological sedimentary rocks are lithified accumulation of dead organisms
 Ex: coal (formed from carbon-rich plants) and limestone (from the remains of calcareous organisms)
- Chemical sedimentary rocks are from chemical precipitation
 Ex: rock salt (dissolved salts precipitate from a solution)
3. Metamorphic rocks
- Formed by pre-existing rocks that are exposed to extreme heat and pressure in the Earth’s interior, a
process called “metamorphism”
IGNEOUS ROCKS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Basalt Bitumenous Biotite
Granite Chalk Calcite
Mica White Diatomite Garnet
Pumice Dolomite Marble
Quartz Beryl Pyrophylite
 Rhyolite Feldspar Red Mica Schist
Plagiogranite Halite Quartizite
Moyite Sand Stone Serpentine
Syenite Shale Slate
Andesite Limestone Marble
Anorthosite Quartz Sandstone Greenstone
Diabase Arenite Leptite
Muddy shale Glaucophane schist
Conglomerate Phyllite slate
Breccia Migmatitic granite
Marl Gneiss

DIFFERENT PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

Potassium; 2.60% Magnesium; 2.10%

Sodium; 2.80%
Cal-
Sales
cium;
Aluminum Sodium Others
3.60% Nickel Calcium 2% 0% 2%
Iron; 2% 2%
5.00% Mag-
Alu- nesium
minu 13%
m; Iron
8.10% Oxygen; 46.00% 34%

Silicon
Silicon; 27.70% 16%

Oxygen
30%

CLASSIFICATION SCHEME OF SOME COMMON MINERALS

- Silicates
Ferromagnesian Nonferromagnesian Clay Minerals
Biotite Quartz Kaolinite
Hornblende Muscovite (white mica) Illite
Augite Feldspars (aluminum silicates) Chlorite
Olivine Plagioclase
Sodium Feldspar
Calcium feldspar
Orthoclase (potassium feldspar)

- Non-silicates
Carbonates Sulfates Oxides Sulfides Phosphates Halides Native
Elements
Calcite Gypsum Hematite Pyrite Apatite Halite Gold
Dolomite Anhydrite Magnetite Sphalerite Fluorite Silver
Ilmenite Galena Copper
Aluminum Chalcopyrite Diamonds
Oxides
Sulfur
CRYSTAL FORM
Mineral Hardness Hardness of Common Objects
Diamond 10
Corundum 9
Topaz 8
Quartz 7 Streak plate: 7
Feldspar 6 Steel file: 6.5
Apatite 5 Glass: 5.5
Fluorite 4 Iron nail: 4.5
Calcite 3 Piece of copper: 3.5
Gypsum 2 Fingernail: 2.5
Talc 1

MINERALS
NO. HOUSEHOLD ITEMS MINERALS PRESENT
1 Glass Silica, quartz, lead, lithium,
sodium carbonate
2 Wallboard Gypsum, clay, perlite, vermiculite,
aluminum hydrate, borates
3 Paint Titanium dioxide, kaolin, clays,
calcium carbonate, mica, talc,
silica, wollastonite
4 Doorknob Nickel
5 Speaker Aluminum, cobalt, neodymium,
mica, carbon, silver, strontium,
titanium, graphite, silica, iron
6 Plastic Calcium carbonate, talc,
wollastonite, barium sulfate,
diatomite, clay, mica
7 Buttons Titanium
8 Drinking Water Limestone, lime, salt, fluorite
9 Sugar Limestone, lime
10 Table Salt Halite, iodine
11 Stainless Steel Iron, nickel, chromium,
molybdenum
12 Non-stick Coating Fluorite
13 Can Aluminum
14 Pan Iron
15 Telephone 42 different minerals
16 Wire Copper
17 Ceramic tiles Clay, feldspar, lithium, silicon,
talc
18 Countertop Titanium dioxide, calcium
carbonate, aluminum hydrate
19 Remote Chromium
20 Cosmetics Calcite, hematite, kaolimite, mica,
silica. talc, titanium, zinc
 21 Toothpaste Calcium carbonate, limestone,
sodium carbonate, fluorite, mica,
zinc
22 Carpet Calcium carbonate, limestone
23 Toy Zinc
24 Textiles Antimony, feldspar, tungsten
26 Dish Soap Halite, sodium carbonate
27 Windowpane Silica, lime, sodium carbonate,
calcium carbonate, halite, feldspar
28 Cold cream Sodium borate, silica, titanium
dioxide
29 Can Tin
30 Tiles Lithium
31 Ring Gold
32 Brick Kaolin, shale, barium, manganese
33 Handle Nickel
34 Grill Iron

Topic 7: Mining
 Surface Mining Blasting –
- To extract are minerals near the surface of the Earth controlled use of
- Soil and rocks that covered the ores are removed through blasting explosions and
a. Open-pit Mining gas exposure to
- Most common type of surface mining break rocks.
- Open pit, means a big hole (pit) in the ground by blasting with explosives and
drilling
- Used to mine gravel and sand and even rock
b. Strip Mining
- Removal of a thin strip of overburden (soil) above a desired deposit
- Used for cool, phosphates, clays, and tar mining
c. Dredging
- Mining from the bottom of a body of water: rivers, lakes, and oceans
 Underground Mining
- Used to extract rocks, minerals, and other precious stories that can be found beneath the Earth’s surface
- They create a tunnel
- More expensive and dangerous
 Mineral Processing
- Extracting minerals from the ore, refining them and preparing these minerals for use
PRIMARY STEPS IN PROCESSING MINING
1. Sampling – removal of a portion which represents a whole needed for the analysis of this material

2. Analysis
- To evaluate the valuable component in an ore
- This includes chemical, mineral and particle size analysis
3. Comminution
 - Valuable components of the ore are separated through crushing and grinding
- Begins by crushing the ores to a particular size and finishes it by grinding the ores into a powder form
4. Concentration – separation of the valuable minerals from the raw materials
5. Dewatering
- Uses the concentration to convert it to valuable minerals
- Involves filtration and sedimentation of the suspension and drying of the solid materials harvested from
the suspension

Topic 8: Fossil Fuels

RENEWABLE
(a) These resources are renewed or replenished
by nature in a short span of time
(c) Often those are available continuously like
solar energy, water, etc.
(d) Renewable resources can be divided into
continuous or flow
NON-RENEWABLE
(b) These resources may not be replenished by
nature or take very long geological time to be
formed again
(b) these resources are exhausted after use
Ex: fossils, etc.
(c) Non-renewable resources can be recyclable or
non-recyclable

 Fossil Fuels
- energy rich substances formed from the remains of once-living organisms
- Include coal, petroleum (oil), natural gas, oil shales, bitumens, tar sands, and heavy oils
- Without fossil fuels, most automobiles are stranded, most of the lights go out, and our homes become
hotter in summer and cooler in winter
- All fossil fuels contain carbon
- All were formed as a result of geologic processes acting on the remains of organic matter produced by
photosynthesis
- Comes from algae, bacteria, and plants
- Actual remains of plants and animals
- might be mere impressions made in the rock
- skeleton, bones which are rich in calcium phosphate and diatoms are made up of silicon dioxide (silica)
- sometimes bones, shells, and tissues are transformed into solid minerals
 Fuels
 A fuel is a substance that provides a form of energy
 Such as heat, light, electricity, or motion
 As a result of a chemical change
 Combustion
 The process of burning a fuel

 Three Major Fossil Fuels

 Coal
- Coal is a solid fossil fuel formed from planet remains
- Known deposits of coal (and other fossil fuels) can be obtained using current technology are
called reserves
- Coal is the most plentiful fossil fuel in the U.S
 Oil
- Oil is a thick, liquid fossil fuel, it is formed from remains of small animals, algae, and protists
- Petroleum is another name for oil
- The United States consumes about one third of all the oil produced in the world
- Only 3% of the world’s supply is located in this country
 Natural Gas
- The third major fossil fuel is natural gas
- It is a mixture of methane and other gases
- Advantages:
 Provides lots of energy
 Lower levels of air pollutants than coal and oil
 It’s easy to transport
- Disadvantages
 Highly flammable
 Fuel Supply and Demand
 Fossil fuels takes hundreds of millions of years to form
 Fossil fuels therefore are considered a nonrenewable resource
21ST CENTURY LITERATURE IN THE PHILIPPINES AND THE WORLD
Topic 1:
PRE-CALCULUS
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Topic 1: Matter
TERMINOLOGIES:
 Chemistry – study of Matter
 Matter – anything that has mass and occupies space
 Mass – is the measure of how much matter is within an object
 Volume – space occupied by the object
 Atoms – smallest unit of matter; neutral, meaning the number of protons and electrons are equal
 Protons – positively charged
 Electrons – negatively charged
 Ions – an atom or group of atoms that has an electrical charge
 Anion – negatively charged
 Cation – positively charged
 Molecules – two or more atoms connected by chemical bonds
 Elements – simplest matter which contains one type of atom
 Compound – two or more atoms combined in specific amounts (all compounds are molecules, but not
all molecules are compounds)
 Homogeneous – uniform composition throughout
 Heterogeneous – composition is not uniform (two or more distinguishable faces)
 Physical Property – changes in appearance; no change in chemical composition
 Chemical Property – changes in appearance and phase; change in chemical composition
 Extensive Property – depends on the amount or matter present
 Intensive Property – does not depend on the amount of matter present
 Pure substance – how many kinds of atoms are present
 Mixture – the phases there is
 Measurements – an integral part in quantifying matter; always measured plus one approximated value;
all measurements are subject to uncertainty
 Accuracy – the closeness of a measurement to the true value
 Precision – degree of agreement between successive measurements using a given instrument (how close
are the measurements are to each other)
 Systematic error – caused by the result to be far from the true value (low accuracy)
 Random error – cause the result to be different from each other (low precision)
 Significant figure – essential digits that contribute meaning to a certain number; shows how precise
measurements are
 Estimate – approximation of a number based on reasonable assumptions
 Scientific notation – very large or very small number that can be expressed using scientific notation
 Conversion factor – a fraction whose numerator and denominator are the same quantity expressed in
different units
 Dimensional analysis – a mathematical method that uses the fact that any number or expression can be
multiplied by “one” without changing its value
 International System of Units (SI units) – revised version of the metric system
 Metric system – is a decimal system based on 10
 Law of Conservation of Mass – a chemical reaction, no change in mass takes place. Total mass of the
products is equal to the total mass of the reactants
  Law of Definite Proportion – proposed by Joseph Proust in which a compound contains the same
constituent element in a fixed or definite proportion by mass
 Law of Multiple Proportion – it two elements can combine to form more than one compound, the
masses of one element that will combine with a fixed mass of the other element, are in a ratio of small
whole numbers
 Law of Constant Proportion – if a compound is broken down into its constituent elements, the mass of
the constituents will always have the same proportions, regardless of the quantity or source of the
original substance
 Molecular compound – compounds that are composed of molecules and contain more than one type of
atom
 Ionic compounds – combination of metal and non-metal; transfer of electrons
 Covalent or Molecular – combination of two non-metals or a metalloid and a non-metal; involve
sharing of electrons
 Monoatomic Cation/Anion –
 Polyatomic Cation/Anion –
 Halogens –
 Stoichiometry – quantities of reactants and products
 Atomic weight – mass of carbon
 Atomic Mass Units (AMU) –
 Avogadro’s number
 Writing Molecular Formula – actual number of atoms in each element

Topic 1: Matter
STATES OF MATTER
 Solid (low energy)
- Definite shape
- Definite volume
- Incompressible
 Liquid (moderate energy)
- Indefinite shape
- Definite volume
Incompressible
 Gas (high or chaotic energy)
- Indefinite shape
- Indefinite volume
- Compressible
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
 Changes Undergone
- Physical
o Ex. Phase changes, cutting, breaking
- Chemical
o Ex. Burning, decaying, rusting
  Dependence to amount of Matter
- Intensive
o Ex. Mass, size, volume, length
- Extensive
o Ex. Melting point, boiling point, density, hardness, color, luster
CLASSIFYING MATTER
 Pure substance (only 1) [how many kinds of atoms present?]
- Elements (only 1)
- Compounds (more than 1)
 Mixture

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
45,000 = 4.5x10 raise to 4
3750 = 3.75x10 raise to 3
580,000 = 5.8x10 raise to 5
72, 000, 000 = 7.2x10 raise to 7
9, 300, 000, 000 = 9.3x10 raise to 9

EMPOWERMENT TECHNOLOGY
KOMUNIKASYON AT PANANALIKSIK SA WIKA AT KULTURANG FILIPINO
Paksa: Konsepto ng Wika
ANO ANG WIKA?
Ang wika ay isang instrumento ng komunikasyon na ginagamit sa pakikipagtalstasan at kasangkapan ng tao sa
pagpapahayag ng kanyang damdamin.
 Hutch (1991) “Ang wika ay isang sistema ng tunog o sagisag na ginagamit ng tao sa
pakikipagkomunikasyon.”
 Otanes (1990) “Ang wika ay isang napakasalimuot na uri ng pakikipagtalastasan.”
 Henry Allan Gleason (1961) “Ang wika ay isang masistemang balangkas ng mga sinasalitang tunog na
pinipili at isinasaayos sa paraang arbitraryo na ginagamit sa pakikipagkomunikasyon ng mga taong
kabilang sa isang kultura.”
 Sapiro “Ang wika ay isang lakas at makataong pamamaraan ng paghahatid ng mga kasisipan,
damdamin, at hangarin sa pamamagitan ng isang kusang-loob na kaparaanang lumikha ng tunog.”
 Hemphill “Ang wika ay isang masistemang kabuuan ng mga sagisag na sinasalita o binibigkas na
pinagkaisahan o kinaugalian ng isang pangkat ng mga tao, at sa pamamagitan nito’y nagkakaugnay,
nagkakaunawan, at nagkakaisa ang mga tao.”

WIKANG PAMBANSA
 Tumutukoy sa isang wikang gingamit sa pasulat at pasalita ng isang bansa
 Ang Lingua Franca ng Pilipinas ay Filipino
 Saligang Batas 1987, Artikulo XIV, Seksyon 6
- Ang wikang pambansa ng Pilipinas ay Filipino. Samantalang nililinang, dapat payabungin at
pagyamanin.
WIKANG OPISYAL
 Wikang ginagamit sa mga legal na usapin at pangkalahatang komunikasyon ng gobyerno
 Ang wikang opisyal ng Pilipinas ay Filipino at Ingles
 Virgilio Almario “Ang wikang opisyal ay ang itinadhana ng batas na maging opisyal na talastasan
ng pamahalaan. Ibig sabihin ito ang wikang maaaring gamitin sa anumang uri ng komunikasyon.”
 Itinakda sa Konstitusyon 1987 ang Filipino at Ingles bilang mga opisyal na wika ng Pilipinas
 Saligang Batas 1987, Artikulo XIV, Seksyon 7
- Ukol sa mga layunin ng komunikasyon at pagtuturo, ang mga wikang opisyal ng Pilipinas ay
Filipino at hangga’t walang itinadhana ang batas, Ingles.
 Saligang Batas 1987, Artikulo XIV, Seksyon 8
- Ang konstitusyong ito ay dapat ipahayag sa Filipino at Ingles; at dapat isalin sa mga
pangunahing wikang panrelihiyon, Arabic at Kastila.
WIKANG PANTURO
 Tumutukoy sa wikang gingamit sa daluyan ng pagtuturo sa sistema ng edukasyon
 Konstitusyon 1987, Artikulo XIV, Seksyon 6
 Ipinatupad ang BEP (Bilingual Education Policy) noong 1987
LINGGUWISTIKONG KOMUNIDAD
 Isang grupo ng mga taong gumagamit ng iisang uri ng barayti ng wika at nagkakaunawaan sa
espisipikong patakaran o mga alituntunin sa paggamit ng wika.
 Yule (2014) “Ang wika at pamamaraan ng paggamit nito ay isang porma ng panlipunang
identidad at ginagamit, malay man o hindi, upang ipahiwatig o maging palatandaan ng pagiging kasapi
ng isang tao sa isang tiyak na grupong panlipunan.”
 Unang wika – wikang kinagisnan mula pagsilang
 Pangalawang wika – pagkakaroon ng eksposyur sa iba pang wika sa kanyang paligid
 Ikatlong wika – iba pang wikang naririnig o nakikila na kalaunay natutuhan
 Monolingguwalismo
- Iisang wika na ginagamit sa edukasyon, komersyo, negosyo, at pakikipagtalastasan
- Ipinatupad ito sa mga bansang England, Pransya, South Korea, at Hapon
 Bilingguwalismo
- tumutukoy sa kakayahan ng isang taong makapagsalita ng dalawang wika
- Leonard Bloomfield (1935) “Ang bilingguwalismo ay ang paggamit o pagkontrol ng tao sa
dalawang wika na tila ba ang dalawang ito ang kanyang katutubong wika.”
- John Macnamara (1967) “Ang bilingguwal ay isang taong may sapat na kakayahan sa isa sa
apat na wika na markong kasanayan ang pangwikang kinabibilangan ng pakikinig,
pagsasalita, pagbasa at pagsulat sa isa pang wika maliban sa kanyang unang wika.”
- Uriel Weinreich (1953) “Sinasabing ang paggamit ng dalawang wika nang magkasalitaan ay
matatawag na bilinggualismo at ang taong gagamit ng mga wikang ito ay bilinggual.”
- Lauren Lowry (2011) “Ang bilinggual na bata ay malikhain at mahusay. Sa nakatatanda
naman ay nababawasan ang sakit na may kinalaman sa pag-iisip at nahuhuli ng apat na
taon sa pagkakaroon ng Dementia.”
- Ipinatupad ang BEP sa Pilipinas sa pamamagitan ng National Board of Education (NBE)
Resolution No. 73-7 S. 1973 noong 1994
 Multilingguwalismo
- tumutukoy sa kakayahan ng isang indibiduwal na makapagsalita at makaunawa ng iba’t ibang
wika
- Department of Education Order 16, Serye 2012
o Pagpapatupad ng Multilingguwalismo na Edukasyon

BARAYTI NG WIKA
Homogenous at Heterogenous – tumutukoy sa pagkakroon ng iisang porma o istandard na anyo nito o kaya ay
pagkakroon ng iba’t ibang porma o barayti.

 Homogenous
- Iisang klase mula sa iisang lahi o angkan
- Pagkakaroon ng iisang anyo at katangian ng wika
- Language uniformity o pagkakaroon ng iisang istandard
- Pagkakatulad ng mga salita, ngunit nagkakaroon ng ibang kahulugan dahil sa paraan ng
pagbabaybay, intonasyon o aksent sa pagbibigkas
  Heterogenous
- Pagkakaibang uri at katangian ng isang wika.
- Iba’t ibang konsepto ng diyalektal na baryasyon sa wika
- Pagkakaiba ng mga indibiduwal at grupo ng tao, ayon sa lipunan na kanyang ginagalawan
 Dayalek – unang wikang kinagisnan sa lalawigan, pamayanan, tahanan
 Idyolek – indibiduwal na paraan/istilo ng paggamit ng wika
 Etnolek – wika ng mga etnolinggwistikong grupo o wikang naiuugnay sa isang pangkat/etnikong grupo
 Soyolek – wikang ginagamit ng mga kaibigan o espisipik na grupo ng tao na sila lang ang nakakaintindi
 Pidgin – walang pormal na anyo o istruktura
 Creole – produkto mula sa Pidgin
 Rehistro/Register – espilisiyadong wika na ginagmit sa iba’t ibang larangan na kinabibilangan ng
bawat tao (propesyon)
 Ekolek – wikang ginagamit sa bahay o pamilya lamang ang nakakaintidndi

Paksa: Pakikipagpanayam
Ang pakikipagpanayam ay ang pakikipag-usap upang makakuha ng impormasyon. Ito ay binubuo ng
dalwang partido: ang kumakapanayam (taga-tanong) at kinakapanayam (taga-sagot)

TATLONG URI NG PAKIKIPAGPANAYAM

 Paksa
- Aktuwal – ang tanong ng kumakapanayam ay sumasaklaw sa mga impormasyon,
kuro-kuro, o reaksyong nais malaman
- Nagtatampok – kasama rito ang paglalarawan at pagpapahalaga ng mga taong
kilala
- Pantalambuhay – naglalayong makakuha ng mga impormasyon tungkol sa
pinagdaanan sa buhay ng isang taong maaaring makapagbigay kawilihan sa
kapuwa
 Layunin
- Karaniwan – pormal, pag-uusap sa mga bagay na may kinalaman sa
pangkalahatang kalagayan
- Kinaugalian – madetalye, naglalayong makakuha ng higit pa sa sapat na
impomasyon
- Pangkatan – nakabatay sa bilang ng kumakapanayam at kinakapanayam
 Pamamaraan

 Mga Hakbang para sa maayos na Pakikipagpanayam

  Bago ang Pakikipagpanayam
- Dapat alam mo ang layunin ng gagawing panayam
- Kilalanin ang taong kakapanayim
- Kabisaduhin o pag-aralang mabuti ang paksa
- Maghanda ng mga katanungan
- Ihanda rin ang mga kagamitan na gagamitin tulad ng papel panulat, video at audio
recorder
- Itakda ang oras ng pakikipagpanayam
 Sa takdang oras
- Dumating ng mas maaga upang magkaroon ng sapat na oras para sa preparasyon
- Maging magalang at magpakita ng respeto
- Ipakitang interesado ka sa bawat sasabihin ng kinakapanayam upang hindi ito
mawalan ng ganang sumagot
 Sa oras ng pakikipagpanayam
- Maging matalino sa pagpili ng mga katanungan
- Huwag gambalin ang kinakapanayam kapag siya ay sasagot
- Makinig ng mabuti
- Itala ang mga mahahalagang impormasyon
- Huwag makipagtalo
 Pagkatapos ng pakikipagpanayam
- Tapusin ng maayos
- Ipahiwatig na nais mong siya ay makapanayam muli
- Isulat muli ang naitala upang hindi mailto
- Bigyan ng kopya ang kinapanayam
- Makipagkita kaagad kung may nais pang itanong o nais i-clarify

Paksa: Kahalagahan, Tungkulin, Gamit, Katangian, at Anyo ng Wika

KAHALAGAHAN NG WIKA
 Instrumento ng komunikasyon
 Nag-iingat at nagpapalaganap ng kaalaman
 Nagbubuklod ng bansa
 Lumilinang ng malikhaing pag-iisip
TUNGKULIN AT GAMIT NG WIKA
 Interaksyunal – nagpapatatag ng relasyong sosyal
 Instrumental – tumutugon sa pangangailangan
 Regulatori – kumokontrol ay gumagabay sa kilos
 Personal – pagpapahayag ng sariling damdamin
 Imahinatibo – nalilinang ang imahinasyon o malikhaing pag-iisip
 Heuristiko – nagtatanong o nangangalap ng impormasyon
  Imahinatibo – nagbibigay ng impormasyon
KATANGIAN NG WIKA
 Masistemang balangkas (may prosesong sinusunod)
 Binubuo ng mga tunog (tunog gamit sa pagbuo ng salita)
 Arbitraryo (napagkaksunduan)
 May kakanyahan (may iba’t ibang istruktura)
 Buhay o dinamiko (naiiba ang gamit
 Nanghihiram
 Wika at kultura ay magkabuhol
 Bahagi ng anyo/uri (pagsusulat, pagsasalita)
 Nasusulat
 May lebel o antas
ANYO NG WIKA
 Pormal (may istandard)
- Pambansa (ginagamit sa paaralan, pamahalaan, akademikong sulatin)
- Pampanitikan (matatalinghagang salita)
 Di Pormal (wika na ginagamit sa pang araw-araw na pakikipagtalastasan)
- Lalawiganin (partikular na pook o lugar)
- Kolokyal (pinaikling salita)
- Balbal (slang words o salitang kalye)

Paksa: Teorya at Barayti ng Wika

2 BARAYTI:
PAGTAMO NG WIKA

 Motherese
- Cathy Snow “Malaki ang impluwensya ng mga taong nakapaligid sa bata sa
kaniyang pagkatuto ng wika.”
 Behaviorist
- Burrhus Frederic Skinner “Ang teoryang behaviorist ay natatamo sa pag-kondisyon
at pang-gagaya.”
 Cognitive-Constructivist
- Jean Piaget “Ang pagka-develop ng wika ay pagka-develop ng kaisipan.”
 Nativist
- Noam Chomsky “Ang indibiduwal ay ipinanganak na may likas na kaalaman sa
wika.”
 Social-Constructivist
- Levigostky “Ang wika ay natatamo sa pamamgitan ng pakikisalamuha sa tao.”
PAGKATUTO NG WIKA
 Pananaw Interaksyunal - ugnayang interpersonal sa ibang tao
 Pananaw Komunikatibo – pagtugon sa komunikasyon, semantic
TEORYA NG PINAGMULAN NG WIKA
 Teorya sa Tore ng Babel
- Mula sa banal na kasulatan (Gen. 11:1-8)
- Gustong higitan ng tao ang Diyos kaya gumawa sila ng tore at nang ito ay
nakarating sa Kaniya, pinarusahan niya ang mga tao at sila’y binigyan ng iba-ibang
wika kaya hindi na sila nagkakaintidihan
 Teoryang Bow-wow
- Panggagaya ng mga tunog mula sa hayop
 Teoryang Dingdong
- Tunog mula sa paligid
 Teoryang pooh-pooh
- Nalilikhang tunog sanhi ng bugso ng damdamin
 Teoryang yo-he-ho
- Himig na kinakanta ng sinaunang tao sa panahon ng pagtatrabaho
 Teoryang yum-yum
- Pag-kumpas ng maestro ng musika upang makagawa ng tunog
 Teoryang ta-ta
- Mula sa salitang Pranses na ibig sabihin ay ‘paalam’
- Ginagaya ng bibig ang pagkumpas ng kamay
 Teoryang sing-song
- Hindi mawatasang awit o kanta
 Teoryang la-la
- Pwersang may kinalaman sa romansa
 Teoryang tara-boom-de-ay
- Seremonya o ritwal ng sinaunang tao
 Teoryang to-he-ho
- Pwersang ginagamit ng tao na nakagagawa ng tunog at nagiging wika
 Aramean
- Aramaic (tawag sa kanilang wika)
- Naniniwala silang sa kanila nagsimula ang wika
 Charles Darwin
- Lioberman (libo)
- “Ang wika ay mula sa pakikipagsapalaran”
 Kahariang Ehipto
- Haring Psammaticos “Sadyang natututuhan ang wika”

ORAL COMMUNICATION
Topic 1: Nature of Communication
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
- Comes from the Latin word “communus” or “communicare” which means to share or to make common
- The exchange of thoughts, feelings
- An act that brings people together
- A two-way process of connecting
- Sharing messages, information, ideas, and feelings
NATURE OF COMMUNICATION
1. Communication is a process
- Active, cyclical, continuing condition of life
2. Communication is interactive
- Sharing of ideas
- Occurs between a sender and a receiver
3. Communication is symbolic
- Can be expressed through written or spoken words, actions, or both

Topic 2: Elements of Communication

1. Sender or Speaker
- The source of information
2. Message
- Information, ideas, or thoughts conveyed by the speaker though words or actions
3. Encoding
- The process of converting message into words or other forms that the receiver/speaker understands
4. Channel
- The vehicle used in transmitting messages
- Can be personal, non-personal, written, verbal
5. Decoding
- The process of interpreting the message and is done by the receiver
6. Receiver
- Recipient or someone who decodes the message
7. Feedback
- Reactions, responses, information provided by the receiver
8. Context
- The environment where communication takes place
9. Barrier
- A factor that affects the flow of communication
Topic 3: Models of Communication
3 DIFFERENT MODELS USED IN THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
1. Linear
- One-way process
- The sender transmits the message to the receiver in which a receiver has no way of responding
2. Interactive
- Two-way process
- Feedback is given by the receiver
3. Transactional
- There are many senders and receivers speaking or interacting all at the same time
- Noise can be heard

Topic 4: Functions of Communication

 Control – regulates actions and behaviors
 Social Interaction – sharing, conveying messages, expressions, and information
 Motivation – to motivate or to encourage people to live better
 Emotional Expression – a tool to express feelings and emotions
 Information Dissemination – to convey information and provide awareness

Topic 5: Barriers Affecting the Flow of Communication

 Physical Barrier – noise or sounds from the environment
 Psychological Barrier – also referred to as mental barriers, which include social and personal issues of
a speaker towards communicating with others
 Cultural Barrier – problems encountered by people regarding their intrinsic values, beliefs, and
traditions
 Linguistic Barrier – regards to language and word meanings
VERDERBER’S CLASSIFICATION OF NOISE (1991)
 External Noise – from sight, sound, and other stimuli that draw people’s attention away from the
intended meaning
 Internal Noise – thoughts and feelings that interfere meaning
 Semantic Noise – the alternate meanings or the word that a speaker conveys has another meaning

Topic 6: 7C’s of Effective Communication

1. Completeness – communication should INCLUDE EVERYTHING
2. Conciseness - short, but direct to the point
3. Consideration – always consider the feelings, mood, background, race, preference, education, etc. of
others when communicating
4. Concreteness – a message should be supported by facts
5. Courtesy – always show some respect towards the culture, values, and beliefs of the receiver
6. Clearness – the use of simple and specific words
 7. Correctness – refers to correctness in grammar eliminates negative impact on the audience

Topic 7: 4 Types of Speech Contexts

1. Intrapersonal JOHARI’S WINDOW
- Only one person or one’s self acts as
both the sender and the receiver
- Self-talk Blind Self
Open Self
2. Interpersonal Information
Information
about you that
- Communication among others about you that
you don't know
both you and
- Dyad (two, more intimate, direct, other know
but others do
immediate response) know
- Small Group (3-12 members)
3. Public Communication Hidden Self
Unknown Self
- Refers to communication that requires Information
Information
you to deliver a message in front of a about you that
about you that
you know but
specific group neither you nor
otheers don't
others know
4. Mass Communication know
- Refers to communication that takes place
through television, radio, newspaper, and
other types of media which includes everyone in an overall discussion

Topic 8: Types of Speech Styles

WHAT IS A SPEECH STYLE
- Choice of words and structures of sentences should be considered
- Our manner or style of speaking or communicating should vary depending on the occasion, audience,
subject matter and the purpose of communication
- According to Martin Joos (1976), it is the form of language that the speaker uses which is characterized
by the degree of formality from the most formal to the least formal style
5 TYPES OF SPEECH STYLES
1. FROZEN STYLE
- Intended to be remembered and used in very formal setting such as in place, church, ritual, speech for
state ceremony, and some other occasions
- Involves in very large group of people whose members are known to one another
- Most highly formal style
- Utilizes customary and ritualized expressions
2. FORMAL STYLE
- Used in formal situation, where there is least shared background
- Little to no feedback or reactions from the receivers

3. CONSULTATIVE STYLE
- Use semi-formal communication
- Two-way participation
 - Used in negotiating with the strangers or work together
4. CASUAL OR INFORMAL STYLES
- Common among peers and friends
- Free and easy participation of both speaker and listener
5. INTIMATE STYLE
- Used in conversation between people who are very close

Topic 9: Types of Speech Act

SPEECH ACTS are offering an apology, greeting, request, complaints, situation, compliment or refusal
J.L. AUSTIN (1962)
 Locutionary Act – the actual act of uttering when we produce an utterance
 Illocutionary Act – the social function of what is said (resulting at)
 Perlocutionary Act – responses from the receiver
JOHN SEARLE (1976)
1. ASSERTIVE
- The speaker expresses BELIEF about the truth of a proposition
- Maybe SUGGESTING, PUTTING FORWARD, SWEARING, BOASTING, and CONCLUDING
2. DIRECTIVE
- Speaker tries to make the addressee to make an action
- ASKING, ORDERING, REQUESTING, INVITING, ADVISING, and BEGGING
3. COMMISSIVE
- Commits the speaker to do something in the future
- PROMISING, PLANNING, VOWING, and BETTING
4. EXPRESSIVE
- The speaker expresses their feelings or emotional reactions
- THANKING, APOLOGIZING, WELCOMING, and DEPLORING
5. DECLARATION
- Brings change in the external situation
- Bring into existence or cause the state of affairs which they refers to
- BLESSING, FIRING, BAPTIZING, BIDDING, EXCOMMUNICATING

Topic 10: Types of Communication Strategies

1. Nomination
- A speaker carries our nomination to collaboratively and productively establish a topic.
- You try to open a topic with the people you are talking to
2. Restriction
- Restriction in communication refers to any limitation you may have as a speaker
3. Turn-taking
- Pertains to the process by which people decide who takes the conversation floor
- The primary idea is to give all communicators a chance a to speak
- Keep your words relevant and reasonably short enough to express your views and feelings
4. Topic Control
- Covers how procedural formality or informality affects the development of topic in conversation
- Topic is achieved cooperatively
- When a topic is initiated, it should be collectively developed by avoiding unnecessary interruptions and
topic shifts
5. Topic Shifting
- Involves moving from one topic to another
- It is where one part of a conversation ends and where another begins
- Be initiative and make sure to nurture the previous topic to generate adequate views
6. Repair
- Refers to how speakers address the problems in speaking, listening, and comprehending that they may
encounter in a conversation
- The self-righting mechanism in any social interaction (Schegloff et al, 1977)
7. Termination
- Refers to the conversation participants’ close-initiating expressions that end a topic in a conversation
- Most of the time, the topic initiator takes responsibility to signal the end of the discussion as well
- Concluding cues
- Soliciting agreement from the other participants usually completes the discussion of the topic
meaningfully
-
GENERAL MATHEMATICS