LESSON 1
The Universe, The Solar System, and The Earth
IN THE BEGINNING
• the universe is composed of hot, tiny particles mixed
with light and energy.
• as the universe expanded, it cooled down.
• particles slow down and group together forming light
elements.
• atoms grouped together forming stars.
• with the presence of gravity, galaxies were formed.
• According to the widely accepted nebular
hypothesis, the planets and moons in the solar
system, including Earth, formed from a huge cloud
of mostly hydrogen and helium.
THEORIES ABOUT THE UNIVERSE
• Big Bang Theory – the well-known and accepted
theory that states that the universe came from a
dense, extremely hot singularity that exploded and
continuously expands through time.
• Big Crunch Theory - this theory is the opposite of
the Big Bang. It explains that the universe will stop
expanding one day. On “that” day, the universe will
begin to contract as gravity pulls down matter which
would cause everything to collapse back into a
dense, extremely hot singularity (or point).
• Oscillating Theory - this theory is a combination of
both the big bang and the big crunch theory. It
states that the universe will undergo a cycle. This
cycle is the phenomenon in the big bang and big
crunch.
• Stationary Theory / Cosmological Beginning – this
theory is theorized by Edward Milne. It explained
that the universe doesn’t have a beginning and an
end.
• Steady State Theory – this theory states that
“everything is the same”. It theorized that galaxies
are not moving away from each other. This theory
also states that there were no expansion or
contraction of the universe. This failed to explain the
CMB.
BIG BANG THEORY
• Big Bang is how astronomers explain the way the
universe began.
• It began nearly 13.8 billion years ago with a massive
expansion.
• It is the prevailing cosmological description of the
development of the universe.
• It started from a single point / singularity.
o Singularity – a term used to describe
regions of space that defy the laws of
physics. It is a region where all the mass
gobbled up by a black hole gets squeezed
into a tiny, infinitely massive point.
• The space itself expands with time everywhere and
increases the physical distances between comoving
points. So, the Big Bang is not an explosion in
space, but an expansion of space.
• The term, Big Bang, is a process where the universe
went from very small and very dense, to a very hot
state. Then, it cooled as it expanded.
o Inflation – a process where the universe
was in a hot, dense state and began to
expand.
• Big Bang is a term first coined by Sir Fred Hoyle
during a BBC radio broadcast in 1950.
Main Proponents:
1. Georges Lemaitre – He said that the universe
started as just a single point. He said that the
universe keeps on stretching and expanding.
2. Edwin Hubble – He noticed that other galaxies were
moving away from each other as seen on Earth.
3. Alexander Friedmann – He helped develop models
that explained the development of the universe.
4 Fundamental Forces of Nature
• Strong Force – the force that binds the nucleus. (can
be felt by protons and neutrons)
• Electromagnetic Force – the force that binds atoms
which can be either be attractive or repulsive.
• Weak Force – the force present in radioactive
decay.
• Gravity (or gravitational) Force – the force that binds
the Solar System.
Ideas / Assumptions on the Big Bang:
• General Relativity Theory
- this Einstein’s idea states that gravity is thought of
as a distortion of space-time and no longer
described by a gravitational field in contrast to the
Law of Gravity of Isaac Newton.
- It explains the peculiarities of the orbit of Mercury
and the bending of light by the Sun and has passed
rigorous tests.
• Cosmological Principle
- assumes that the universe is homogeneous and
isotropic when averaged over large scales.
- This is consistent with our current large-scale
image of the universe.
Summary of the Big Bang
• From time zero, all matter and energy in the
universe existed as a hot, dense, tiny state. Then, it
underwent extremely rapid, exponential inflation
(expansion).
• From this expansion, all matter, energy, space, and
time were created.
• Then, conditions allowed the existence of only
quarks, hadrons, and leptons.
o Quarks – a type of elementary particle and
a fundamental constituent of matter.
o Hadrons – the particles that feel the strong
nuclear force such as protons and
neutrons.
• Then, Big Bang nucleosynthesis took place and
produced protons, neutrons, atomic nuclei.
Afterwards, hydrogen, helium, and lithium were also
produced when enough cooling did not allow further
nucleosynthesis.
o Recombination – the process of when
electrons attach themselves to nuclei.
• From then on, the cooling universe entered a
matter-dominated period when photons decoupled
from matter and light could travel freely as still
observed today in the form of cosmic microwave
background radiation.
• As the universe continued to cool down, matter
collected into clouds giving rise to only stars, and
 eventually galaxies would form after during which,
through nucleosynthesis in stars, carbon and
elements heavier than carbon were produced.
o The heat in the stars caused the formation
of all the other remaining elements in the
periodic table.
• From that until the present, the universe became
dark energy dominated and underwent accelerating
expansion.
• At about 9.8 billion years after the big bang, the
solar system was formed.
ABOUT THE UNIVERSE
Structure, Composition, and Age
• the universe consists of all space, time, matter, and
energy.
• made of 4.6% baryonic (or organic matter), 24%
cold dark matter, and 71.4% dark energy.
o Baryonic Matter – organic or visible matter
such as atoms, protons, electrons,
neutrons, planets, stars, galaxies, nebulae,
etc.
o Dark Matter – a matter that has gravity, but
doesn’t emit light.
o Dark Energy – a mysterious dark source of
anti-gravity that helps accelerate the
universe’s expansion over time rather than
slowing it down.
• Dark matter can explain what may be holding
galaxies together since the low total mass is
insufficient for gravity to do alone.
• Hydrogen, helium, and lithium are the 3 most
abundant elements.
Birth, Evolution, Death, and Rebirth of Stars
• Stars – the building blocks of galaxies that are born
out of clouds of gas and dust in galaxies.
• Protostar – the hot core of a future star as
thermonuclear reactions set in.
• Stellar Interiors – the internal structure of stars
where elements are combined or fused together.
• Main Sequence Stars – any star that has a hot,
dense core which fuses hydrogen into helium
through thermonuclear reactions to produce energy
such as the Sun. These burn up their hydrogen
faster than smaller stars.
• Stars, like the Sun, burn-up hydrogen in about 10
billion years.
• Galaxy – a cluster of billions of stars.
• Super clusters – clusters of galaxies
EVIDENCES FOR THE BIG BANG
The Red Shift
• In 1929, Edwin Hubble introduced his discovery of
the “red shift”.
• it interpreted that galaxies are moving away from
each other which is evidence for an expanding
universe.
• He observed that spectral lines of starlight made to
pass through a prism are shifted toward the red part
of the electromagnetic spectrum; thus, the inference
that the star or galaxy must be moving away from
us.
• Red shift is evidence for an expanding universe. The
positions of the absorption lines for helium for light
coming from the Sun are shifted towards the red end
as compared with those for a distant star.
• Hypothesis: If the universe was expanding, the
galaxies must have been close together in the past
and may even come from a single point in the
beginning.
Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)
• this is an accidental discovery in 1964 by Arno
Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson, earning the
physics Nobel Prize in 1978.
• it can be observed as a strikingly uniform faint glow
in the microwave band coming from all directions-
blackbody radiation with an average temperature of
about 2.7 degrees above absolute zero.
• CMB is believed to be the remnant heat or energy
from the formation of the universe.
Abundance of Light Elements
• Elements such as hydrogen, helium, with trace
amounts of lithium and beryllium found in the
observable universe agree with the hypotheses of
the Big Bang theory.
• Their abundance is checked from the spectra of the
oldest stars and gas clouds.
• The ratios of these light elements match with what
was expected from the big bang nucleosynthesis.
FORMATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
The Solar System
• the gravitationally-bound system of the sun and the
objects that orbit it.
• includes the Sun, 8 planets, dwarf planets,
asteroids, comets, meteors, etc.
• 8 planets from the Sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth,
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus
o Acronym:
Mang Victor Espinosa Mag Jogging Sa
Umaga Nang lumakas
2 Groups of Planets:
• Terrestrial Planets
o the inner planets
o includes Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars
o these are Earth-like planets made up of
rocks or metals with a hard surface
o these have a molten heavy-metal core, few
moons and topological features such as
valleys, volcanoes, and craters.
• Jovian Planets
o the outer planets
o includes Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune
o these are planets larger, further from the
sun, rotate faster, have moons, have more
rings, less dense overall, and have denser
cores than terrestrial planets.
o also have gaseous atmospheres with the
main gases being hydrogen and helium
THE EARTH
• the only planet that harbors life
• the 3rd planet from the Solar System
• has a molten nickel-iron outer core which gives rise
to an extensive magnetic field
• located in the habitable zone
• has the right distance from the sun
• has an atmosphere and a magnetic field that shields ▪ inner planets receive light than
us from harmful radiation coming from the sun outer planets
• kept warm by an insulating atmosphere • Nutrients
• has the right amount of ingredients for life, including o Not Enough
water and carbon ▪ planet without systems to deliver
nutrients to its organism cannot
HABITABLE ZONE support life
o Just Right
• an area around star in space that possess liquid ▪ solid planets have nutrients in
water on its surface and can possibly sustain and them
support life. ▪ those with water cycle and
• a planet in the habitable zone can stay warm for a geologic activities can transport
half billion years. and replenish chemicals needed
by organisms
o Too Much
▪ too much activity prevents
organisms to get enough nutrients
o Situation in the Solar System
▪ Earth has water cycle,
atmosphere, and volcanoes to
circulate nutrients

FACTORS THAT MAKE A PLANET HABITABLE

LESSON 2.1
• Temperature
o Not Enough The Subsystems of the Earth
▪ low temperature = slow chemical
reaction
▪ low temperature = frozen water, INTRODUCTION
thus, no liquid water • The 4 subsystems of the Earth are:
o Just Right o Geosphere (or lithosphere) – solid earth
▪ -15 C to 115 C ▪ “geo” means land
▪ life thrives and liquid water exists ▪ “litho” means rock or soil
o Too Much o Atmosphere – gases (the air)
▪ At 125 C, protein, carbohydrates ▪ “atmo” means air
and DNA / RNA start to break o Hydrosphere – all water
apart. ▪ “hydro” means water
▪ high temperature water o Biosphere – all life
evaporates faster ▪ “bio” means life
o Situation in the Solar System • Environmentalists use these 4 subsystems to study
▪ Only Earth’s surface is in the the organic and inorganic matter of the planet,
temperature range. Earth.
• Atmosphere • Earth is a complex system of interrelating physical,
o Not Enough chemical, and biological processes. Sometimes, all
▪ some planets or moons have processes happen at the same time.
insufficient gravity to hold an
atmosphere ORGANIC VS INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
o Just Right
▪ Earth is the right size to hold • Organic Compounds – compounds that contain
sufficient atmosphere carbon atoms.
o Too Much • Carbons should react to hydrogen for it to be an
▪ Venus’ atmosphere is 100x thicker organic compound.
than ours • In the atmosphere, methane gas is an organic
o Situation in the Solar System compound seen in the atmosphere because the
▪ Earth and Venus have significant carbon reacted to hydrogen.
atmosphere • The hydrosphere doesn’t have organic compounds.
▪ Mars’ atmosphere is just 1% o Fresh water is composed of hydrogen and
compared to ours oxygen (H2O).
• Energy o Salt water has 90% sodium and chlorine
o Not Enough (NaCl) which is why the water is salty. It
▪ too little sunlight and chemicals, also has H2O.
organisms die • In the geosphere, it is possible to have organic
o Just Right compounds due to fertilizers.
▪ steady input of light and chemical
energy, cell functions ATMOSPHERE
o Too Much • the gaseous layers above the Earth’s surface
▪ too much light energy means high primarily composed of different gases.
temperature and harmful
radiation, UV rays Main Functions:
o Situation in the Solar System • provide the air needed for respiration and
photosynthesis.
 o Oxygen - the by-product of photosynthesis
which is good for respiration. Then, it GEOSPHERE
releases CO2 which is good for the plants.
• makes up of all the rocks and soil on the Earth’s
• protects living things from sun’s harmful UV rays.
surface.
• allows light to reach the Earth’s surface
• has 2 division: compositional and physical layers
• radiates the heat back to the Earth, keeping the
planet warm. (greenhouse effect) Compositional Layer
• density, temperature, and pressure increase as you
go towards the center.
Layers of the Atmosphere: (from lowest to highest) • includes the crust, mantle, and core
• Troposphere – the lowest layer where the weather • Crust
forms o a solid state
• Stratosphere – this is where the ozone layer is o thin, outermost layer
found. o less than 1% of Earth’s mass
o Ozone Layer – the layer that protects the o thicker beneath continents and thinner
Earth from the Sun’s harmful UV radiation under ocean.
• Mesosphere – the third layer that protects the Earth o Continental Crust – the crust made of
from the impact of space debris graphite which includes all land forms.
• Thermosphere – the layer that has charged particles o Oceanic Crust – the crust made of basalt
that are affected by the Earth’s magnetic field. The which includes all bodies of water.
particles create the Auroras or Northern and • Mantle
Southern lights. This is where the Karman line is o thicker, middle layer
found. o dense, iron-rich material
o Karman Line – the altitude or boundary o where convection currents occur
between the Earth’s atmosphere and outer ▪ Mantle Convection - the
space. This is the line where the outer movement of warm and cold
space begins. magma in the mantle causes the
• Exosphere – the farthest layer asthenosphere to move which
results to movement of the
tectonic plates.
Atmospheric Composition: • Core
• 78% nitrogen o inner sphere
o Nitrogen is one of the building blocks of life. o sphere of hot, dense nickel and iron
It is important for all plants and animals in Physical Layer
order for them to survive. It helps in
• Lithosphere
production of amino acids and proteins. o in the crust and uppermost mantle
o However, nitrogen is in unreactive form;
o consists of tectonic plates
therefore, it is not accessible for the living
• Asthenosphere
organisms. We need a fixed, reactive form
o the upper mantle rock that moves slowly
of nitrogen.
o solid, yet plastic (semi-solid in form)
o To utilize the 78% nitrogen in the
• Mesosphere
atmosphere in its reactive form, nitrogen
o lowest part of the mantle
will undergo the carbon nitrogen cycle.
o below the asthenosphere
• 21% oxygen
• Outer Core
o When there is too much oxygen in the
o liquid nickel and iron
atmosphere, oxygen toxicity is possible to
happen. The surface of the Earth would • Inner Core
heat up and may cause fires to form. o solid nickel and iron
o oxygen level in the atmosphere is possible o 4000-5000 C
to decrease. o enormous pressure
• 0.9% argon
• 0.1 % other gases including carbon dioxide, neon, BIOSPHERE
helium, methane, water vapor, krypton, hydrogen, • the zone of Earth where all forms of life exist
xenon, and ozone. • Decomposers – they eat or decompose dead
animals and plants.
HYDROSPHERE • all living organisms in the biosphere plays a big role
• the total amount of water found on Earth in the food web.
o when one group of organisms is lost, the
• includes water that is on the surface of the planet,
other group who benefit from the said
underground, and in the air.
group will be affected the most.
o water vapor – the gas state of water
• On Earth, liquid water exists on the surface in the
form of oceans, lakes, and rivers. It also exists SPHERE INTERACTION
below ground as groundwater, in wells and aquifers. • processes that move matter and energy from one
• Cryosphere – the frozen part of the Earth’s system sphere to another.
• water is the only state of matter that can be in a form • changes in any sphere greatly affect the other
of solid, liquid, or gas state. spheres as well since all the spheres are
About Water interconnected system.
• hydrosphere interacts with atmosphere through the
• two thirds (71%) of our planet are covered by water.
water cycle (hydrologic cycle)
• 97.2% of the water is saltwater (found in oceans).
• atmosphere interacts with the biosphere through the
• Only 2.8% of the water on Earth is freshwater. Why?
carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle. (plants and animals
o because the majority of freshwater is in breathe)
cryosphere, beyond our reach, and locked
• living things change the lithosphere, become rock,
into polar snow and ice.
erode the land through the phosphorus cycle.
• Less than 1% is available for consumption
(consumed by all humans, plants, and other
animals). FLOW OF MATTER IN THE BIOSPHERE
 • Biogeochemical Cycle – the movement of the
substances through the biosphere.
Nitrogen Cycle
• Nitrogen comprises 78% of the atmosphere.
• Since nitrogen cannot be used directly by most living
organisms, it undergoes the process of fixation in
order to utilize it.
• Nitrogen in the atmosphere falls to the Earth when
precipitation occurs such as rain or snow.
• Once the nitrogen is in the soil, it goes to the
bacteria on the roots of plants. This is where
nitrogen fixation takes place.
o Nitrogen Fixation – the process of
converting atmospheric nitrogen into
ammonia (NH3) by combining nitrogen and
hydrogen at the roots of the plants.
o Some bacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen
such as Acetobacter Aceti (in alkaline soil), Oxygen Cycle
Clostridium Pasteurianum (in acidic soil), • Oxygen is the by-product of photosynthesis in
and Rhizobium bacteria (in leguminous plants.
plants). • 3 Non-living sources of oxygen: carbon dioxide
• Since ammonia is toxic, additional bacteria (CO2), water (H2O), and molecular oxygen (O2)
combines the ammonia with oxygen in a process • Oxygen moves to the Atmosphere, then the
called nitrification. lithosphere, then the biosphere.
o Nitrification – the process by which the o Atmosphere contains roughly 21% oxygen.
ammonia is oxidized into nitrites and o Hydrosphere contains 33% oxygen by
nitrates. volume.
o Nitrifying Bacteria – the bacteria involved in o Biosphere contains 22% oxygen found
nitrification mainly in organic molecules.
• Then, the nitrifying bacteria first convert the
• Plants, phytoplankton, and other organisms that
ammonia to nitrites. Then, nitrites are converted to
carry out photosynthesis release oxygen in the
nitrates.
atmosphere.
o Nitrite (NO2) / Nitrate (NO3) – the
• Oxygen is produced by:
compounds when ammonia is combined
o the plants in the process of photosynthesis.
with oxygen (oxidation)
o when sunlight reacts with water vapor in
• At this point, the plants can now absorb this nitrogen
the atmosphere.
in a process called assimilation.
• Oxygen is used up during:
o Assimilation – the process of plants,
o respiration or when we breathe.
absorbing nitrates and ammonia into
o decomposition of plants and animals when
organic nitrogen.
they die.
• But not all nitrates are absorbed by the plants. Some
o combustion or burning with the use of
goes to the denitrifying bacteria that releases
oxygen along with heat and fuel.
nitrogen to the atmosphere in a process called
o oxidation that causes metals to rust.
denitrification.
• How does oxygen cycle take place in
o Denitrification – the process of when
photosynthesis?
denitrifying bacteria attack the nitrates to
o Photosynthesis – the process of when
get oxygen from them and release nitrogen
plants take energy from the sun, carbon
into the atmosphere.
dioxide (CO2) in the air, and water to make
• Once an animal eats the plant that undergone
their own food such as glucose.
assimilation of nitrogen, the organic nitrogen is
o In return, plants release oxygen into the air.
transferred to their body. Afterwards, they either die
o When oxygen is released in the air,
or releases waste.
respiration takes place. All living organisms
• Then, another type of bacteria takes the dead
use oxygen to breathe.
animal or its waste with organic nitrogen. This o Then, when we exhale or release flatulence
process is called ammonification. (or fart), we release carbon dioxide (CO2).
o Ammonification / Mineralization – the
o This carbon dioxide will again be absorbed
process of when decomposers (such as
by plants. And the oxygen cycle continues.
fungi and bacteria) convert organic nitrogen
into Ammonia when animals die or secrete
waste. Nitrates are converted into
molecular nitrogen (N2) through nitric oxide
(NO).
• Then, the ammonia from ammonification will
undergo in nitrification process again and the cycle
continues.

Carbon Cycle
o Carbon in the atmosphere can be found in the form
of carbon dioxide (CO2) or methane (CH4).
 o Carbon cycle on land begins with the fixation of
atmospheric carbon dioxide through photosynthesis
by plants and microorganisms.
o Plants absorb carbon dioxide and releases
oxygen.
o Then, the oxygen released are used by
living organisms such as animals during
cellular respiration. And releases carbon
dioxide too.
o Animals eat plants that contain carbon. Then, they
also release carbon as methane during digestion.
o The soil contains decomposers that release carbon
into the atmosphere.
o Carbon is also stored in the lithosphere. Substances
from volcanic eruption releases carbon. Fossil fuels
when burned releases carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
o When carbon dioxide is absorbed by the ocean, it
reacts with the water and creates carbonic acid.
Planktons absorbs carbon dioxide during
photosynthesis.
o Deforestation among human activity can cause the
amount of carbon in the atmosphere to increase.
Water / Hydrologic Cycle
o When the sun rises up, it heats all bodies of water
including oceans, seas, and rivers.
o Then, evaporation takes place.
o Evaporation – the process in which the
water becomes water vapor and rises up in
the atmosphere.
o When the water vapor reaches the sky, it turns into
tiny water droplets. Then, condensation takes place.
o Condensation – the process in which these
water droplets along with different gases
and dust particles accumulate and form
clouds.
o When the cloud becomes too heavy, and it cannot
hold any more water droplets inside, precipitation
happens.
o Precipitation – the process in which the
clouds bursts and releases rain, hail, or
snow into the land.
o As it rains, water goes back again into all bodies of
water such as oceans and rivers.
o Sometimes, the water from rain seeps through the
soil and becomes ground water (process of
infiltration).
o Transpiration – when plants releases water (like
sweat) on their leaves.
o Sublimation – when snow directly turns into water
vapor without melting into water.
MOVEMENT OF ENERGY IN THE BIOSPHERE
o Sun is the Earth’s major source of energy.
o When light reaches the Earth, 3 things happen:
o Light is reflected back into space.
o Light is transmitted through an object.
o Light energy is absorbed and captured in
photosynthesis.
o Once the energy is captured by autotrophs
(producers) such as plants as stored energy
(chemical energy), it can be transferred to one
trophic level to another.
o Trophic level represents the feeding
positions that a biotic component occupies
in a food chain.
o There are considerations in energy transfer
according to the laws of thermodynamics:
1. Energy cannot be created nor destroyed.
2. No transfer of energy is 100% complete
since energy can be lost.
LESSON 2.2
Characteristics of Life
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
• All living things have a cellular organization.
o Cell – the basic unit of life.
▪ Unicellular –one celled
▪ Multicellular –more than one cell
o Cells are composed of chemicals.
▪ Water – the most abundant
▪ Carbohydrates – for energy
▪ Proteins and Lipids – building
materials
▪ Nucleic Acids – contain genetic
material (DNA and RNA)
• All living things react to stimuli.
o Stimulus – something in the environment
that causes a reaction or a response. (can
be external or internal)
o Response – an action or change in
behavior
• Living things grow and develop.
o Growth – an increase in the size of an
organism
o Development – a progressive change in an
organism over time. (cell division takes
place, etc.)
o Ex. A baby kitten becomes an adult.
• All living things have the ability to reproduce.
o All living things arise from other living
things.
o Theory of Spontaneous Generation –
proposed that life can appear
spontaneously from non-living things, was
 disproved by experiments performed by IGNEOUS ROCKS
Redi and Pasteur.
• formed from hardening and crystallization of magma
o Asexual Reproduction – a single cell can
or molten minerals.
reproduce another single cell. It involves
only 1 parent and all offspring are identical. o magma – a molten material found deep
inside the Earth. These are dissolved rocks
o Sexual Reproduction – involves two cells
from the mantle.
from different parents unite to produce the
first cell of a new organism. • it also has a shiny crystals.
• All living things are based on a universal genetic • comes from the volcanic eruption.
code. • the molten magma comes upwards or even erupts
o DNA (or deoxyribonucleic acid) – the from a volcano in the form of lava.
double-stranded molecule responsible for • when the lava cools, it leads to the formation of
the genetic code of a molecule. igneous rocks.
o RNA (or ribonucleic acid) – the single- • ex. pumice and granite
stranded molecule that serves as • an igneous rock can be extrusive or intrusive.
intermediary between DNA and protein. o Extrusive / Volcanic Igneous Rock
• All living things use energy. ▪ magma comes out as lava and
o Energy is used to nourish, repair, and cools rapidly on the surface.
create new cells. ▪ smaller crystals
o Plants give energy. o Intrusive / Plutonic Igneous Rock
o We obtain energy from converting the ▪ magma cools off slowly beneath
foods that we eat into energy that can be the surface.
used by the cells.
• All living things can move.
o All living things move according to their
structure. (ex. through feet)
o Locomotion – a directional movement that
enables something to move from one
location to another.
o Plants move their branches and leaves
toward the Sun.
• All living things will die.
o One of the realities of life is that all life
eventually comes to an end. This process
is called expiration.
o Our cells are the ones who die. • an igneous rock, as molten magma, always undergo
solidification when they cool off above / beneath the
LESSON 3 surface.
o Solidification – from liquid to solid state
Rocks and Minerals Classification of Igneous Rocks
• According to Composition / Color:
INTRODUCTION o Felsic – light in color
• The crust is the outermost solid part of the Earth. It ▪ granite
is made of solid rocks and minerals. ▪ microgranite
▪ rhyolite
• If you examine a rock under the magnifying glass,
▪ granodiorite
you will notice that it has crystals. These crystals are
actually chemical substances called minerals. ▪ micro granodiorite
▪ dacite
• Rocks are made of one or more minerals.
▪ obsidian
• Minerals – the building blocks of rocks. These are
o Intermediate – in between felsic and mafic
naturally-occurring, inorganic substances that is
▪ syenite
solid with a definite chemical composition and an
▪ micro syenite
orderly crystalline structure.
▪ trachyte
• Rocks – combined aggregation of minerals. It can ▪ diorite / diabase
be classified into igneous, sedimentary, or ▪ micro diorite
metamorphic rocks. ▪ andesite
• Rock Cycle – the process of continuous changing of ▪ obsidian
rocks from one type to another over time. o Mafic – dark in color
• Petrology – the scientific study of rocks. ▪ gabbro
o Petrologist – a person (geologist) who ▪ dolerite
specializes in petrology. ▪ basalt
• Geology – the science that studies the Earth’s ▪ tachylyte
physical structure and substances, even the history o Ultramafic – very dark in color
of rocks. ▪ peridotite
• Soil – from weathered rocks ▪ lamproite
o 3 Layers: ▪ komatiite / pricrite
▪ Topsoil • According to Texture:
▪ Subsoil o Course
▪ Bedrock ▪ granite
• Importance of Rocks: ▪ granodiorite
o No Rocks = No Soil ▪ syenite
o No Soil = No Solid Ground and Farm Land ▪ diorite / diabase
o No Farm Land = No Plants ▪ gabbro
o therefore, rocks have a big role in ▪ peridotite
sustaining life on Earth. o Medium
▪ micro granite
▪ micro granodiorite
 ▪ micro syenite
▪ micro diorite
▪ dolerite
▪ lamproite
o Fine
▪ rhyolite
▪ dacite
▪ trachyte
▪ andesite
▪ basalt
▪ komatiite / picrite
o Glassy
▪ obsidian
▪ tachylyte
Texture and Composition of Granite and Basalt:
• Granite
o Type: Igneous (Intrusive / Plutonic)
o Texture: Coarse
o Composition: Felsic
o Color: white mostly (sometimes, pink)
o Silica Composition: 70-77% silica
• Basalt
o Type: Igneous (Extrusive / Volcanic)
o Texture: Fine
o Composition: Mafic
o Color: dark gray to black
o Silica Composition: 45-52% silica
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• from pre-existing rocks or pieces of one living
organisms.
•
most commonly found
• has a rough texture, easily to break and crumbles.
• ex. sandstone, coal, and limestone
• natural processes like rain, wind, flowing rivers carry
soil particles, sand, and dead plants.
• Over time, sand, soil, dead plants, etc. get deposited
on top of each other. They are called layers of
sediment. And, eventually, forming sedimentary
rocks.
• sedimentary rocks take thousands of years to form.
• these rocks can be clastic or chemical.
o Clastic – formed from accumulation of
clasts (little pieces of broken rocks and
shells).
o Chemical – formed from soluble materials
produced by chemical weathering and are
composed of mineral crystal.
• Organic Rocks – made from organic carbon.
o Coal – altered remains of fossil vegetation,
especially from plant debris. These
accumulates in lush tropical wetland
settings (ex. swamp). It requires deposition
in the absence of oxygen. It is combustible
and is often mined to use as a fuel.
o Oil Shale – shale with heat altered organic
matter.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
• formed from pre-existing rocks.
• known as the “hardest rock type”
• rocks that have been modified by heat, pressure,
and chemical processes.
• has a smooth texture because of the heat and
pressure below the ground.
• Metamorphism – a change of minerals or geologic
texture in pre-existing rocks (protoliths) without the
protoliths melting into liquid magma (solid-state
change).
• ex. gneiss, slate, quartzite, schist, marble, phyllite
ROCK CYCLE
• the process of the Earth that allows the recycling of
rocks from one form to another.
• This is fueled by exogenic and endogenic activities.
• Steps:
1. Magma or lava cools and hardens /
solidifies into igneous rocks.
2. In turns, weathering and soil erosion break
down igneous rocks into small particles or
sediments.
3. These sediments may be cemented and
form sedimentary rocks
4. When sedimentary rocks are subjected to
intense heat and pressure, they change
into metamorphic rocks.
5. Further heating of metamorphic rocks may
change them into magma. When magma
cools and solidifies, a new igneous rock is
formed. And the whole process begins
again.
6. Igneous rocks do not always break down to
form sedimentary rocks. They directly
change into metamorphic rocks when they
are buried or subjected to intense heat and
pressure.
7. A metamorphic rock may be broken down
into sediments that may later form directly
into sedimentary rocks.
LESSON 4
Exogenic Processes (Weathering, Erosion, and
Deposition)
INTRODUCTION
• Exogenic Geomorphic Processes – processes which
occur on the Earth’s surface due to the influence of
exogenic forces.
• can be in the form of weathering, mass movements,
erosion, and deposition.
WEATHERING
• the breaking down of rock into smaller and smaller
pieces.
• destructive, it “tears down” rocks and landforms.
• has 2 types: mechanical and chemical
o Mechanical Weathering – breaking down
rocks by physical means
o Chemical Weathering – chemical
breakdown of rock and minerals into new
substances
• Agents of Weathering: (Natural Occurences)
o Pressure
▪ collision of rocks creates extreme
pressure which weather rocks.
o Temperature changes
▪ repeated daily heating and cooling
of rock
▪ heat causes expansion; cooling
causes contraction
▪ different minerals expand and
contract at different rates causing
stresses along mineral
boundaries.
o Frost Wedging
▪ when water gets into cracks of
rock, freezes, and thaws over and
over again and splits the rock.
o Abrasion
▪ Wind – sandstone shapes eroded
by coastal winds
▪ Water – rubs fragments against
each other and wears away the
surface of the rock by abrasion.
 The faster the water, the greater
the erosion.
▪ Ice (glaciers) – the glacier gouges
out chunks of rock and leaves
scratches on the rock called
striations.
o Human Activities - mining and construction
often expose rock surfaces to agents of
weathering
o Plant Growth – roots of plants also push
into the rocks and break them apart. They
act like wedges and push the rocks apart.
o Animals – little animals also help
weathering by burrowing and digging
through the ground.
• Chemical Weathering - the chemical breakdown of
rock and minerals into new substances
o Dissolution – rocks or minerals dissolved
by water.
o Carbonation – carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and soil air is absorbed by
water to form carbonic acid that acts as a
weak acid.
o Hydrolysis – breaking down of rocks by
acidic water.
o Oxidation – a chemical reaction in which an
iron combines with oxygen. It is breaking
down of rocks by oxygen in/and water,
giving iron-rick rock (a rusty-colored
weathered surface).
• Water – considered to be the universal solvent. It
dissolves many things, including rock. Over time,
water can break down even hard rock like granite.
• Carbon Dioxide (CO2) – when mixed with water, it
creates Carbonic Acid that slowly dissolves
limestone (acid in groundwater).
• Living Organisms – acids from decaying plants or
fungi such as lichens breaks down rocks.
• Acid Precipitation – rain or snow that contains more
acid than normal due to air pollution. The acid
dissolves and eats away the rock.
• Erosion – the separation and removal of weathered
rocks due to different agents like water, wind, and
ice that causes transportation of the minerals to
where they’re deposited.
• Mass Wasting – the movement of sediments
downslope under the influence of gravity. (fall, slide,
avalanche, flow, etc.)
• Deposition – the process in which the weathered
materials carried out by erosion settle down in a
particular location.