Lesson 1.

Stellar Evolution and the

Formation of Heavier
Elements
Objective give evidence for and
explain the formation of
At the end 1 heavier elements during
of the star formation and
lesson, you evolution.
should be
able to:
 Learn about It!

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

The BBN did not give rise to elements heavier than beryllium
• Drop in temperature resulted in insufficient energy levels
for fusion reactions to push through
• Nucleosynthesis continued with the expansion of the
universe
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Stellar Formation
The star formation theory states that stars formed when
gravity acted on the particles expanding with the universe.
• Stellar nurseries form from dense molecular regions
• Protostars are formed when these regions collapse.
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Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• Elements associated with both living and nonliving things
mostly originated from stars
• Processes that occurred inside stars were responsible for
the formation of these elements
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Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• Elements heavier than beryllium were formed through
stellar nucleosynthesis
• H and He produced from BBN started to combine in
nuclear fusion reactions
• Very high amounts of energy were released in the form
of light, heat and radiation.
 Learn about It!

Stellar Evolution
Stellar evolution refers to the process in which a star changes
through its lifetime
• The abundances of elements a star contains change as it
evolves
• The course of evolution is determined by its mass
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Stellar Evolution
All stars are formed from stellar nurseries called nebulae
• A nebula breaks into smaller fragments as it further
collapses before contracting into a protostar, or a very hot
stellar core that continues to gather gas and dust as it
contracts and increases in temperature
• Nuclear reactions like the proton-proton fusion reactions
occur at a temperature of around 10 million K
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Stellar Evolution
Protostars evolve into main sequence stars upon reaching
gravitational equilibrium
• Nuclear reactions form subatomic particles called
neutrinos and positrons
• An increase in pressure brought about by positrons and
neutrinos halt the contraction of the protostar
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Stellar Evolution
The sun is believed to be in the middle of the main sequence
phase of stellar evolution
• It will remain as such for at least five billion years
• Red dwarf stars stay on the main sequence phase for at
least 100 billion years due to the slow rate of hydrogen
fusion
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Stellar Evolution
Not all protostars become main sequence stars
• Brown dwarf stars are only able to fuel deuterium fusion
reactions
• They cool gradually and have an average lifespan of less
than a billion years
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Stellar Evolution
Main sequence stars evolve into red giant stars when all
hydrogen atoms in their cores get depleted
1. Helium becomes the major component of the core.
• Proton-proton chain reactions use hydrogen to produce
helium
• Hydrogen fusion moves to the outer shell and the core's
surface
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Stellar Evolution
Main sequence stars evolve into red giant stars when all
hydrogen atoms in their cores get depleted
2. Fusion stops when all hydrogen atoms in the core are used
up
• Pressure in the core decreases
3. Helium atoms or alpha particles are converted to carbon
via the alpha fusion processes
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Stellar Evolution
Main sequence stars evolve into red giant stars when all
hydrogen atoms in their cores get depleted
4. Temperature can increase to approximately 10 million K
• Pressure also increases
• Hydrogen is pushed away from the core
• The resulting expansion eventually transforms the main
sequence star to a red giant
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Stellar Evolution
Main sequence stars evolve into red giant stars when all
hydrogen atoms in their cores get depleted

Fusion of elements in a red giant

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Stellar Evolution
Low mass stars turn into white dwarf stars when the majority
of helium in their cores are consumed
1. Hot and inert carbon core eventually becomes the white
dwarf
• Lower amounts of helium in the core decrease the rate of
the alpha processes
• Outer shell expands into space, forming a planetary
nebula
 Learn about It!

Stellar Evolution
Low mass stars turn into white dwarf stars when the majority
of helium in their cores are consumed
2. A white dwarf’s composition depends on its predecessor’s
mass.
• A sun-sized main sequence star lacks energy to fuse
carbon and the white dwarf would mostly contain inert
carbon and some oxygen
• A smaller star will produce a white dwarf mostly
composed of helium and a bit of hydrogen
 Learn about It!

Stellar Evolution
Massive stars evolve into multiple-shell red giant stars
1. A high mass star can reach pressure and temperature
levels favorable for carbon fusion
2. It evolves through several stages where heavier elements
are fused in the core and in the shells around it eventually
forming multiple shells
• Multiple elements formed in a series of reactions in the
following order: carbon → oxygen → neon → silicon →
iron
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Stellar Evolution
Massive stars evolve into multiple-shell red giant stars
3. Elements lighter than iron can be fused since the nucleus
produced has a mass lower than the sum of their masses
• Missing mass is released as energy
4. Stellar nucleosynthesis of elements heavier than iron is not
possible due to its energy requirement
 Learn about It!

Stellar Evolution
Massive stars evolve into multiple-shell red giant stars

A multiple-shell red giant

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Stellar Evolution
Elements heavier than iron are formed after a supernova
1. An exploding multiple-shell red giant is called a supernova
• Happens when its core can no longer produce energy to
resist gravity
2. It releases massive quantities of high-energy neutrinos
• Neutrinos break nucleons and release neutrons
3. The generated neutrons are picked up by nearby stars
• Key step in the formation of elements heavier than iron
 Learn about It!

Proving Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis

1. The discovery of interstellar gas and dust in the early 1900s
2. The study of different stages of stellar evolution happening
throughout the universe
• Infrared radiation (IR) can be detected from different
stages of stellar evolution
• IR released by protostar is measured and compared to
IR from nearby area with zero extinction
• Approximation of energy, temperature and pressure
from IR
Key Points

Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements

1 are formed within stars.

The star formation theory proposes that stars form due

2 to the collapse of the dense regions of a molecular cloud.

Stellar evolution is the process by which a star changes

3 during its lifetime.
 Check Your Understanding

Identify what is being described by the following

statements.
1. This stellar core is formed as fragments from the collapsing
of cloud contract.
2. This new element is formed from He in a red giant star.
3. It is the force that squeezes stars when mass, temperature
or pressure is altered.
 Challenge Yourself

Are nuclear fusion reactions of elements lighter

than iron energy-requiring or energy-producing
reactions? Why?
 Bibliography

Clayton, D.D. 1968. Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis. Chicago, USA: University of
Chicago Press.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration. “The Big Bang.” Accessed December 8, 2016.
http://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-powered-the-big-bang/

National Geographic. “Origins of the Universe—An Expanding World.” Accessed December 8, 2016.
http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/universe/origins-universe-article/

Overton, Tina, et al. 2010. Shriver and Atkins’ Inorganic Chemistry. 5th ed. London: Oxford University
Press.