Table of Contents

Course Description......................................................................................................................................... i
Course Objectives .......................................................................................................................................... i
Course Contents ............................................................................................................................................. i
Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................................... ii
Chapter One .................................................................................................................................................. 1
1. Introduction to Land Use and Transportation Planning ........................................................................ 1
1.1 Urban Development Plan .................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Land Use Planning .............................................................................................................................. 2
1.2.1 Objectives of Land Use Planning................................................................................................. 2
1.2.2 Principles of Land Use Planning .................................................................................................. 4
1.2.3 Land Use Planning values ............................................................................................................ 5
1.2.4 Legal Bases of Land Use Planning .............................................................................................. 5
1.3 Transportation Planning ...................................................................................................................... 6
1.3.1 Major disciplines of transportation .............................................................................................. 6
1.4 Role of Transportation in Society ....................................................................................................... 7
1.5 Modalism and Intermodal ................................................................................................................... 7
Chapter Two................................................................................................................................................ 11
2. Urban Transportation Planning Process .................................................................................................. 11
2.1 Basic Elements of Transportation Planning Process ................................................................... 11
Chapter Three.............................................................................................................................................. 13
3. A Changing Society and Its Impacts on Transport Planning .............................................................. 13
3.1 General trends in the urban transport sector ..................................................................................... 13
3.2 Urban transportation Issues ............................................................................................................... 14
Chapter Four ............................................................................................................................................... 17
4. Urban Land Use and Transport Modeling .......................................................................................... 17
4.1 Land Use and Transport Modeling ................................................................................................... 17
4.2 The Four step model (FSM) .............................................................................................................. 19
4.2.1 Trip generation-.......................................................................................................................... 20
4.2.2 Trip distribution ......................................................................................................................... 21

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 4.2.3 Modal Choice ............................................................................................................................. 22
4.2.4 Trip assignment .......................................................................................................................... 22
Chapter Five ................................................................................................................................................ 23
5. Public Transport/Urban Transit .............................................................................................................. 23
5.1 Introduction to Urban Transit ........................................................................................................... 23
5.2. General Transit Capacity Concepts.................................................................................................. 25
5.3 Important operational characteristics of public transport services .................................................... 27
5.4 Technologies ............................................................................................................................... 29
5.5 Park and ride ...................................................................................................................................... 31
5.6 Public Transport Provision in practising ........................................................................................... 32
5.7 Spatial Planning and Public Transport Critical Factors .................................................................... 33
5.8 The Development of Public Transport Plan Key Steps .................................................................... 33
Chapter Six.................................................................................................................................................. 34
6. Traffic Management and Traffic Safety................................................................................................. 34
6.1 Traffic Signs...................................................................................................................................... 35
6.1.1 Regulatory Signs ........................................................................................................................ 36
6.1.2 Warning Sign ............................................................................................................................. 36
6.1.3 Guide Signs (informative sign) .................................................................................................. 37
6.2 Traffic Markings ............................................................................................................................... 38
6.3 Traffic Markings ............................................................................................................................... 43

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 Chapter One

1. Introduction to Land Use and Transportation Planning

1.1 Urban Development Plan
Urban Development Plan is a Set of document/s (maps, charts etc) embodying goals and
objectives; policy guidelines, strategies & proposals for over-all socio-economic growth &
development of the area; Integrated series of
decision documents, including maps ; and Specifies
nature of future physical, social, economic and
environmental development of Urban Zone. In
addition it Consists of, among others, a Land Use
Plan, Including area phasing, sectoral programs,
land acquisition and disposition programs and
capital improvement programs

Why Comprehensive and Integrated?

Covers entire territorial jurisdiction of local government unit
Incorporates national policies & links/integrated with other higher level
plans
Based on detailed scientific analysis of socio-economic (including
demographic), physical & environmental data, projected conditions of
planning area;

1
 Contains multi-sectoral goals, plans, strategies, programs and projects e.g.
settlements development

1.2 Land Use Planning

It is Component of Urban Development Plan and Designates future use/reuse of land, structure
built upon land (within a given planning area) and policies, reasoning used in arriving at
decisions in the plan. LUP projects public and private land uses in accordance with planned
spatial organization of economic and social activities & traffic of goods and people

1.2.1 Objectives of Land Use Planning

Efficient utilization, acquisition, disposition of land
Influence, direct, harmonize decisions & activities of public,
private sectors affecting use, management, disposition of lands;
Reconcile land use conflicts (manage instead of resolving)
Desirable, efficient patterns of land uses
Protect, preserve valuable agricultural areas

Towns eat up rich agricultural land

Maintain ecological balance (control of development in flood plains, watershed areas

etc)(sensibilities, ecological cities)

2
Integrate programs and projects
Conservation: ecological, aesthetic, historical, natural open areas,
Good view, historic artifacts

Shelter plan: sites suitable for housing

3
 Efficient circulation system

1.2.2 Principles of Land Use Planning

Harmony with nature: Ecosystems

Livable built environment: fit between people, urban form

4
 Place based economy: meet local needs
Equity: Land use patterns provide equitable access to social, economic resources
Polluters pay: cause pollution, bear its costs
Responsible regionalism: minimize harm to other jurisdictions in pursuit
of local goals Overcrowding.

1.2.3 Land Use Planning values

Economic Development Values: land as a commodity (production, consumption,
distribution)

Environmental Protection Values: city as a consumer of resources and land, producer of

wastes

Equity values: community as a location of conflict, services and opportunities. (Equitable

access to social and economic resources)

Livability Values: amenities of communities that support desired activity patterns, safety,
life style, aesthetic values

1.2.4 Legal Bases of Land Use Planning

Constitutional Provisions

5
 Existing Laws on Land Use Planning
Local Government Code
Guidelines

1.3 Transportation Planning

What is transportation?

It is defined as movement of freight, people and information from one place to another. It must
be safe, efficient, reliable, sustainable movements of persons & goods over time and spaces. The
important common element in any definition of transportation is movement. Movement is
changing of physical location of freight, passenger or exchange of information. Products must
be moved from their place of production or existence to the location where they are needed/
deficient. The benefits of planning transportation system include Reduce travel demand, length
of trip, travel cost, pollution, etc.

1.3.1 Major disciplines of transportation

Transportation engineering can be broadly consisting of the four major parts

A. Transportation Planning
B. Geometric Design
C. Pavement Analysis and Design
D. Traffic Engineering
A. Transportation planning

Involves the situation (need for transportation improvement) and problem definition, search for
solution and performance analysis, as well as evaluation and choice of project.

B. Geometric design

Include the cross-sectional features, horizontal alignment, vertical alignment and intersections.

C. Pavement analysis and design

Deals with the structural design of roads, both (bituminous and concrete), commonly
known as (flexible pavements and rigid pavements) respectively. The design mainly
covers structural aspects, functional aspects, and drainage.Structural design ensures the

6
 pavement has enough strength to withstand the impact of loads. Drainage design protects
the pavement from damage due to water infiltration.
D. Traffic engineering

Focus on the safety of the public, the efficient use of transportation resources, and the mobility of
people and goods.

1.4 Role of Transportation in Society

Economic role of transportation
Economics involves production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.
Transportation contributes two kinds of utilities: place and time utility,
Social role of transportation
To raise living standards of the people
To control settlement pattern of the country
Political role of transportation
For national unity and governance of vast area
To promote tourism and bring foreign exchange
To reduce congestion in the city
To bring revenue in terms of taxes

1.5 Modalism and Intermodal

Transport modes are the vehicles supporting the mobility of passengers, freight and
information and the infrastructures supporting their movements

Road transportation:

Are large consumers of

space with the lowest level
of physical constraints.
Environmental constrains are significant
in road construction
Has an average operational flexibility
Have high maintenance costs, both for the vehicles and infrastructures
Rail transportation:

7
 Composed of traced paths On
which vehicles are bound

Have an average level of physical

constrains linked to the types of
locomotives and affected by the
gradient

Heavy industries are

traditionally

Linked with rail transport systems

Containerization has improved

the flexibility of rail transportation by linking it with road and maritime modes.
Maritimetransportation:

Most effective mode to move

large quantities of cargo over
long distances.
Composed of oceans, seas, lakes,
rivers and channels

Maritime circulation takes place on

specific parts of the maritime space
The atlantic ocean is very
important since it accounts for 78%
of the global trade, and for 75% of
the maritime trade
The construction of channels is attempts to facilitate maritime circulation by reducing
discontinuity. Eg. Suez canal, connecting mediterranean sea with red sea

Air transportation:

8
 Fastest mode of transportation.
Air transport constraints are multi
dimensional and include the site (a
commercial plane needs about 3,300
meters of runway for landing and
takeoff).
Air activities are linked to the tertiary
and quaternary sectors, notably finance
and tourism that require movements of people

Most Common Urban Transport Modes

Mode of Individual Public Para Transit

Transport
Walking Animal-drawn
cart
Motorized

Bicycle
Human powered
Non-

Rickshaw/Tricycle

Motorbike Bus Tractor with trailer

Motorcycle Trolley bus Motor assisted
Car Tram way Tricycles
Bus rapid Taxi
Motorized

transit Minibus
Rail rapid
transit
personalized
rapid transit
Suburban rail
way

9
COMPARISON OF THE 4 MODES

10
 Chapter Two
2. Urban Transportation Planning Process
2.1 Basic Elements of Transportation Planning Process
I. Situation definition (Facility Inventory & Socio-economic and Land use Data)
II. Problem definition
III. Search for solution
IV. Analysis of performance
V. Evaluation of alternatives
VI. Choice of project for specification and construction
.
I. Situation Definition (Facility Inventory)
Inventory transportation facilities

Measure travel patterns and highway traffic volumes

Review prior studies

property and equipment

A public hearing might also be held to obtain citizen input,

EXAMPLE – FACILITY INVENTORY

Road X
is a major arterial system
Has n lanes of widths w1, …, wn
It has a capacity of C
Average flow is q veh/hr, speed is d/sec
Has 4 signalized junctions and 6 priority junctions
Lanes are marked
Travel time on Route Y is t sec
Such data could be coded into GIS system and should be updated regularly!
Socio-economic and Land-use Data
Transport plan focuses on the provision of transport facilities and services to meet the
existing or expected demand for travel.

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 Transport Planning should be related to the types of activities (i.e. land use, e.g.
schools, shopping centers and central business districts, residential area, … ) in a region
and the characteristics of the trip maker (e.g. income, HH size, cars in HH, education, …)
II. Problem Definition
Describe the problem in terms of the objectives to be accomplished by the
project and to translate those objectives into criteria that can be quantified.
Define objectives
Reduce travel time, to improve safety, to maximize the users benefit and to
reduce noise.
Establish criteria
Average delay time
Define constraints/ e.g. physical limitations, existence of structures,
topography, or historic buildings
Establish design standards/e.g Width,loadings,capacity
III. Search for Solutions
Consideration is given to a variety of ideas, designs, locations, and system configurations that
might provide solutions to the problem
IV. Analysis of Performance
It is to estimate how each of the proposed alternatives would perform under present and future
conditions.
For each option, determine
Cost/ determination of the investment cost of building the transportation project, as well
as annual costs for maintenance and operation.
Traffic flow/ number of persons or vehicles
Impacts/ Environmental effects of the transportation project
V. Evaluation of Alternatives
To determine how well each alternative will achieve the objectives of the project as defined by
the criteria. For example, determine Benefits vs. cost (Profitability, Cost-effectiveness); Social
impact; and Environmental impact.
VI. Choice of Project
Consider factors involved Revenue cost forecast, Site location and Political judgment.

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 Chapter Three
3. A Changing Society and Its Impacts on Transport Planning
3.1 General trends in the urban transport sector
Rapid growth of urban areas
Cities are major engines of growth in most developing countries; urban populations are
expanding at a high rate (more than 6% annually)
Very rapid increase in motorization:
Urban motor vehicle ownership and usage is growing even faster than the urban
population
Vehicle ownership grows at a rate of 15-20% per year in developing countries
Substantial increases in traffic congestion:
Ownership and usage of vehicles is growing much faster than the abilityof
developing and industrial countries to provide road space and alternative
means
of coping with the problem
Severe traffic congestion and its adverse side effects on the urban economy,
environment, and society are being felt in many cities
Relative de cline of public transport usage and services:
The growing reliance on private vehicles has resulted in a substantial decline in
the share of total trips being provided by urban public transport systems in
many cities
-powered vehicles
Similarly, the travel environment for pedestrians and people
has rapidly declined
Shift from public to private sector provision of services and facilities
It is estimated that at least80% of all urban bus services provided around the
world are now privately owned and opera
ted
Increasingly cities are arranging reductions/discounts or other arrangements for the
private provision of urban transport infrastructure
cites are moving from providers of transport infrastructure and services to
facilitators
Shift from new road construction to intensive management of urban road networks
and improved public transit

13
 Traffic management techniques to increase the practical capacity of available road
space, and improved urban public transport systems
charging road users for the use of scarce road space, primarily as a means of
maximizing the use of urban roads during congested periods, and secondarily as a
means of securing additional funds for transport investments
With the introduction of much improved electronic road pricing technologies,
which has the potential of eliminating delays at toll facilities, and which permits
multiple means of payment with minimum inconvenience, the practical application
of pricing as an urban demand management tool

Rapid introduction of intelligent Technology Systems (ITS):

The relatively recent developing of improved "intelligent technologies“
(electronic
toll collection systems, centralized traffic control systems, automatic vehicle
location identification systems for public transportsystems, and other similar
technologies) has resulted in manyapplications being rapidly deployed in many
cities as a means of betterutilizing urban transport facilities
The costs of these technologies are rapidly declining while their practical
applications improve
In recent years there has been more attention placed on reducing the level of
mobility which is a source pollution, congestion and accidents
.

3.2 Urban transportation Issues

Adverse impacts of rapid growth in vehicle ownership and use:
Ownership and usage of vehicles is growing much faster and has caused substantial adverse
impacts. These impacts are expressed in several dimensions:
Economic-Business efficiency is adversely affected by traffic delays
Environment-Slow moving traffic, combined with an ill-maintained stock of vehicles,
is making the mega cities in developing countries the most polluted in the world; in
-95% of health- threatening lead
some large city centers road traffic accounts for 90
and carbon monoxide in the air and a m
ajor share of suspended particulate matter

14
 Social-Sprawling which leads to land-consuming and change in urban structures
and deteriorating traffic conditions are making the journey to work, particularly for
some of the very poor, excessively long and costly
Inadequate urban transport financial mechanisms:
Most cities are unable to financially cope with the rapid increases in
motorization and travel demand being experienced
Part of the problem is caused by the devolution of responsibilities from central
governments to local governments without providing localgovernments with
adequate funding either through satisfactoryintergovernmental transfer
arrangements or the authority to raiseadditional tax revenues
An increased emphasis on charging transport users, especially private vehicle
users who are the least efficient users of transport networks, for the costs of the
facilities and services being provided to them at public expense is one solution
Increased reliance on private sector to build, operate, and finance urban
transport infrastructure and services
Inadequate Urban Transport Regulation and Legislation:
Associated with the shift of selected public sector responsibilities in the provision of
urban transport services and facilities to the private sector increased the importance
of appropriate regulation and supporting legislation to facilitate this shift
In many cases there is inadequate national legislation in place to protect either public
or private sector interests, or alternatively, legislation is too restrictive and hinders
private sector activity
the regulatory authority is too centralized at the national level giving too little
authority to local governmental bodies where urban transit services
reaprovided
Due to a history of strong central controls, local governments typically have not
developed adequate bodies to regulate urban transport at the local level
Weak and fragmented urban transportation institutions:
Urban transportation institutionsare often ill equipped to deal with the total
increase in traffic or to adopt advances in technology that would help them
overcome problems

15
It is rare to find single agencies with the comprehensive authority needed to deal
with the large range of transportproblems and to coordinate overall solutions
Instead, authority is usually divided among several agencies, each dealing with
different elements of the transportation problem
The boundaries of these agencies often tend to be unclear; the result is unclear or
duplication of responsibility, an undermining of accountability, and resistance to
change
The fragmentation problem is particularly common with regard to the traffic
management function within local jurisdictions and transportation planning between
local jurisdictions
problems are often exacerbated by the lack of sufficient resources, particularly
suitably trained staff

16
 Chapter Four

4. Urban Land Use and Transport Modeling

4.1 Land Use and Transport Modeling

II. Transport Alternatives

Transportation planning should consider a broad range of alternatives
A. Alternative modes of transportation
B. Alternative locations of different systems
C. Alternative levels of capacity or alternative policies
A. Alternative Modes of Transportation
Basic factors are:-
Costs and payment options
Travel time and speedSchedules
(frequency, availability)
Comfort, convenience and safety
Accessibility
Reliability
Aesthetics
B. Alternative locations of different systems

Transportation alternatives involve a variety of

components:

Location Alternatives
When and Where service is provided
General location as well as level of service
on the links and network

17
 Overall network structure
Radial, grid, hierarchy of components (express-local) taxi subway
Orientation--many-one, one to one, many to many, specific to general
Service area
Extent of the network. How far do you extend routes, service.
C. Alternative levels of capacity or alternative policies

Capacity
Number of lanes, signal control systems, etc.
Number of vehicles for transit service; this determines frequency of service,
capacity per hour
Technology Alternatives
What modes to provide, balance of modes, type of guideway and vehicles
operating over the guideway
Control systems technology, Intelligent Transportation Systems, etc.
III. Forecasting model

Transportation planning process involves:

Prediction of most probable pattern of land development
Demand vs supply

Transportation planning factors are:

Family
Situations, characteristics of the person making the trip, and the choices (destination,
route and mode) available for the trip
Two basic questions

1. What will our community look like in the future?

How many people will there be? (Population forecasts)
What will they be doing? (Economic forecasts)
Where will activities take place? (Land use)

2. What are the travel patterns in the future?

How many trips will be made? (Trip generation)
Where will the trips be? (Trip distribution)

18
 What modes will be used? (Mode split)
What routes will be used? (Traffic assignment)
What will be the effects of this travel? (Impact analysis)
IV. Travel Demand Modeling

Need for Travel Demand Forecasting

Impacts of facilities or modes of travel

Lines on existing roads

Roads

Light rail

Bus service

Geometric design

Pavement design

Transport Modelestablish the spatial distribution of travel explicitly by means of an appropriate

system of zones.

4.2 The Four step model (FSM)

-Step Model (FSM).
The most popular of the transport modeling approaches is the classic Four

19
4.2.1 Trip generation-
Trip generation- forecasts the number of trips that will be made.
The objective of this first stage of the FSM process is to define the magnitude of total
daily travel in the model system, at the household and zonal level, for various trip
purposes (activities).
In the case of home-based (HB) trips, five categories have been usually employed: trips
to work; trips to school; shopping trips; social and recreational trips; and other trips.
It has two basic functions:
To develop a relationship between trip production or attraction and land use, and
To use the relationship developed to estimate the number of trips generated at
some future date under a new set of land-use condition
Trip generation (both production and attraction) depends on the nature and characteristics
of the activity system.
In production models, estimates are primarily based on the demographics of the
population within a zone.
For attraction models, the variables that have been found to have the best explanatory
power are those based on characteristics of the land use, such as office and retail space or
the employment levels of various sectors..

20
 Factors affecting trip generation

Some factors which have been found to have a considerable impact on the trip producing
capacity are:

Income
Car ownership
Household structure
Family size
Value of land
Residential density
Accessibility
Trips can be modeled at the zonal, household, or personal level, with household level
models most common for trip productions and zonal level models most common for trip
attractions.

Trip Production Trip Attraction

Household income Employment available

Vehicle/Car ownership Commercial floor space

Household size Industrial floor space

Distance from the CBD Accessibility of workspace

Residential Density Educational Institutions

4.2.2 Trip distribution

Trip distribution- determines where the trips will go.
Trip -distribution procedures determine where the trips produced in each zone will- go
how they will be divided among all other zones in the study area.

21
 The decision on where the trips go is represented by comparing the relative attractiveness
and accessibility of all zones in the area.

4.2.3 Modal Choice

In this phase of travel-demand forecasting, we analyze people’s decisions regarding mode
of travel; auto, bus, train, and so on.
Before we can predict how travel will be split among the modes available
to the travelers,
we must analyze the factors that affect the choices that people make.
Three broad categories of factors are considered in mode usage:
The characteristics of the trip maker (e.g. family income, number of autos available,
family size, res idential density)
The characteristics of the trip (e.g. trip distance, time of day)
The characteristics of the transportation system (e.g. riding time, excess time)

4.2.4 Trip assignment

Trip assignment- predicts the routes that the trips will take, resu
lting in traffic forecasts
for the highway system and rider-ship forecasts for the transit system.
Traffic assignment is the step in traffic analysis in which inter-zonal trips are assigned to
the network.
The major aims of traffic assignment proceduresare:
To estimate the volume of traffic on the links of the network and obtain aggregate
network measures.
-D) pair.
To analyze the travel pattern of each origin to destination (O
To identify congested links and to collect traffic data useful for thedesign of
future junctions
Necessary input for the assignment:

An OD table of trips between the zones, usually all trip purposes combined;

A (computer)representation of the network;

Characteristics of the network elements (links and nodes);

A route choice model.

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 Chapter Five

5. Public Transport/Urban Transit

5.1 Introduction to Urban Transit
I. Role of Transit
Transit plays two major roles:
First, it accommodates choice riders—those who choose transit for their trip-making even
though they have other means of travel, such as a motor vehicle. Many commuters choose transit
because they are unwilling to deal with traffic congestion during peak periods. Choice riders
dominate transit during the peak periods for work trips. Transit is essential for mobility in the
central business districts (CBD) of some major cities, which could not survive without it.
Accommodating choice riders is especially critical in cities with high CBD densities and costly
and limited parking.
The other major role of transit is providing basic mobility for segments of the population that are
too young, too old, or otherwise unable to drive due to physical, mental, or financial situations.
About 35 percent of the adult population in the United States and Canada do not have a driver’s
license (2) and must depend on others to transport them in autos, on transit, or on other modes,
including walking, cycling, and taxis. This is the principal role of transit services provided
specifically for people with disabilities and it is the dominant role of many smaller transit
systems. These transit users have been called captive riders.
Rail service offers higher capacities than buses for heavily traveled corridors, and its use of fixed
routes makes it more visible and attractive in densely populated areas. Light rail is characterized
by a versatility of operation—it can operate separated from other traffic below grade, at grade, or
on an elevated structure, as well as at grade in mixed traffic.
II. Transit Characteristics
Several characteristics differentiate transit from the automobile in terms of availability and
capacity. Although the automobile has widespread access to roadway facilities, transit service is
available only in certain locations during certain times. Roadway capacity is available 24 h/day
once constructed, but transit capacity is limited by the number of transit vehicles operated at a
given time.

23
Transit passengers frequently rely on other modes to gain access to transit. Transit use is greatest
where population densities are highest and pedestrian access is good. A typical transit user does
not have transit service available at the door and must walk, bike, or drive to a transit stop and
then must walk or bike from the transit discharge point to the destination. In contrast, suburban
areas are mainly automobile-oriented, with employment and residents dispersed, often without
sidewalks, and without direct access to many transit lines. If potential passengers cannot have
access to transit from both their trip origin and destination, transit is not an option. Finally,
transit is about moving people rather than vehicles. Transit operations at their most efficient
involve relatively few vehicles, each potentially carrying a relatively large number of passengers.
In contrast, roadway analysis traditionally involves relatively large numbers of vehicles, each
usually carrying only one occupant. When evaluating transit priority measures for transit and
automobile users, it is the number of people affected that should be compared, rather than the
number of vehicles. The major transit modes (in terms of passengers carried) that operate on
streets and interact with other users of streets and highways. These modes include buses,
streetcars, and light rail,.
Bus services can be provided by several vehicle types, ranging from minibuses to articulated and
double-deck buses. Standard 12-m buses with more than 35 seats are the dominant type of bus in
U.S. transit systems and comprise more than 80 percent of the national bus fleet. Articulated
buses 18 m in length have been adopted by a few agencies, but their use is increasing as agencies
seek to improve capacity and comfort with only small increases in operating costs. Double-deck
buses have had tryouts but have not found widespread use in either Canada or the United States.
A few transit agencies operate trolleybuses (both standard and articulated), powered from
overhead electrical lines.

During the first half of the 20th century, streetcars were common in larger North American cities
but nearly disappeared in the 1950s as automobile use increased and the spreading suburbs could
not be served efficiently by rail. The modern equivalents of the streetcar are the light-rail systems
that have started up since 1978. The two modes are similar; however, light rail provides higher
speeds and somewhat higher capacity than streetcars. Also, in North America, light-rail tracks
usually are separated from general traffic, even when operating on the same street as other
traffic, but streetcars sometimes share a lane with other traffic.

24
5.2. General Transit Capacity Concepts
Transit capacity is different from highway capacity. It deals with the movement of both people
and vehicles; it depends on the size of the transit vehicles and how often they operate; and it
reflects the interaction of passenger traffic and vehicle flow. Transit capacity depends on the
operating policy of the transit agency, which specifies service frequencies and allowable
passenger loadings. Accordingly, the traditional concepts applied to highway capacity must be
adapted and broadened.

I. Definitions

A distinction is made between vehicle and person capacity. Vehicle capacity reflects the number
of transit units (buses or trains) that can be served by a loading area, transit stop, guide way, or
route during a specified period of time. Person capacity reflects the number of people that can be
carried past a given location during a given time period under specified operating conditions,
without unreasonable delay, hazard, or restriction, and with reasonable certainty. In this chapter,
the term capacity applies both to persons and vehicles. It is possible to operate many buses, each
carrying only a few passengers. Whether the buses are full or empty, a larger number of buses
can have a negative impact on level of Service (LOS) in terms of highway capacity.
Alternatively, a few vehicles could operate, each overcrowded. This represents a poor quality of
service from the passenger perspective, and long waiting times would detract from user
convenience.

II. Vehicle Capacity

Transit vehicle capacity is commonly determined for three locations: loading areas or berths;
transit stops and stations; and bus lanes and transit routes. Each location directly influences the
next. The vehicle capacity of a bus stop or rail station is controlled by the vehicle capacities of
the loading areas, and the vehicle capacity of a bus lane or transit route is controlled by the
vehicle capacity of the critical stops along the lane or route.

The two greatest influences on loading area vehicle capacity are the dwell time and the ratio of
the green time to the cycle length (g/C ratio) for the street on which the transit operates. Dwell
time and the g/C ratio also have major influences on the vehicle capacity of transit stops and
routes. However, dwell time—the time required to serve passengers at the busiest door plus the

25
time required to open and close the doors—has the greater influence on loading-area vehicle
capacity. The amount of green time provided to a street controls the number of transit vehicles
that theoretically can arrive at a loading area during an hour. In addition, the length of red in
relation to a vehicle’s dwell time also affects vehicle capacity: if passenger movements have
finished, but the vehicle must wait for a traffic signal to turn green, vehicle capacity will be less
than if the vehicle can leave immediately, so that another vehicle can use the loading area.

III. Person Capacity

Person capacity typically is calculated for transit stops and stations and for the maximum load
point of a transit route or bus lane; it is calculated for three locations:

Transit stops and stations,

Transit routes at their maximum load points, and
Bus lanes at their maximum load points.

IV. Operator Policy

A transit operator directly controls the maximum passenger loads allowed on transit vehicles and
the service frequency. An operator with a policy requiring all passengers to be seated will have a
lower potential person capacity for a given number of vehicles than an operator with a policy
allowing standees. However, passengers experience a higher quality of service with the first
operator. The service frequency determines how many passengers actually can be carried, even
though a transit stop, transit route, or bus lane can serve more vehicles than actually are
scheduled.

V. Passenger Demand Characteristics

How passenger demand is distributed spatially along a route and how it is distributed over time
during the analysis period affects the number of boarding passengers that can be carried. Because
of the spatial aspect of passenger demand, person capacity must be stated for a location (typically
the maximum load point), not for a route or a street as a whole.

Passenger demand fluctuates during the peak hour. The peak-hour factor (PHF) reflects peak
demand volumes typically over a 15-min period during the hour. A transit system should provide

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sufficient capacity to accommodate peak passenger demand. However, since peak demand is not
sustained over the entire hour, and since every transit vehicle will not experience the same peak
loadings, actual person capacity during the hour will be less than the peak 15-min demand
volumes.

5.3 Important operational characteristics of public transport services

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5.4 Technologies

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New Conventional Rail

Light Rail Train (LRT)

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 Guided bus

5.5 Park and ride

Terminal and inter changes

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5.6 Public Transport Provision in practising

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5.7 Spatial Planning and Public Transport Critical Factors

5.8 The Development of Public Transport Plan Key Steps

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 Chapter Six

6. Traffic Management and Traffic Safety

Traffic control devices
Media by which traffic engineers communicate with drivers.
Three broad categories:
a. Traffic signs
b. Traffic markings
c. Traffic signals
Purpose
To assign the right of way to drivers
To facilitate highway safety by ensuring the orderly and predictable
movement ofall traffic on highways.
Traffic control
May be achieved by traffic signals, signs, or markings
Regulate, guide, warn, and/or channel traffic.

To be effective, a traffic-control device must

a. Fulfill a need: - must have a specific purpose for the safe and efficient
operation of traffic flow.

b. Command attention from the road user: - This affects the design of signs.

Proper visibility should be there.

Also the sign should be distinctive and clear.

The sign should be placed in such a way that the driver requires no

extra effort to see the sign

c. Convey a clear, simple meaning

a. Clarity and simplicity of message

b. The use of color, shape and legend as codes becomes important in this

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 regard.
c. The legend should be kept short and simple so that it is clear for all
group of the drivers .
d. .Give adequate time for proper response
The sign boards should be placed at a distance such that the driver could see it and gets sufficient
time to respond to the situation. To ensure that a traffic-control device possesses these five
properties, engineers must consider the following five factors during design:

1. Design

Combination of size, color, and shape that will convey a message and command the
respect and attention of the driver.

2. Placement

At appropriate location within the cone of vision of the viewer and the driver has
adequate response time when driving at normal speed

3. Operation

Ensures the fulfillment of traffic requirements in a consistent and uniform way.

4. Maintenance

The device must be regularly maintained to ensure that legibility is sustained.

5. Uniformity

Similar devices should be used at locations with similar traffic and geometric

characteristics.

6.1 Traffic Signs

Traffic signs are used to

Directing
Informing
Controlling

Road users’ behavior in an effort to make the roads as safe as possible for everyone

General ly traffic signs fall into one of three major categories:

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 a. Regulatory signs

b. Warning signs

c. Informatory signs

6.1.1 Regulatory Signs

Convey information concerning specific traffic regulations

May relate to:

Right-of-way

Speed limits

Lane usage

Parking, or a variety of other functions

Regulatory signs shall be
Installed at or near where the regulations apply

Designed and installed to provide adequate visibility and

legibility in order toobtain compliance
Except for some special signs(stop and yield sign), most regulatory
signs are Circular,.

The background color of regulatory signs, with a few exceptions, is

white, whilelegend or symbols are black.

6.1.2 Warning Sign

Inform drivers about upcoming hazards

Alert road users to conditions that might call for a reduction of speed or an

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 action in the interest of safety and efficient traffic operations
Color: - the legend will be black with a white background.
Shape: - upward triangular or diamond shape with red borders.

Used to inform drivers of a variety of potentially hazardous circumstances,

including:
Changes in horizontal alignment
Intersections
Advance warning of control devices
Converging traffic lanes
Narrow roadways
Changes in highway design
Grades
Roadway surface conditions
Railroad crossings Entrances and crossings
Some examples of warning signs

6.1.3 Guide Signs (informative sign)

Provide information on routes, destinations, and services that drivers may be

seeking.

Are rectangular, with the long dimension horizontal, and have white
letteringand borders

The background varies by the type of information contained on the sign

Directional or destination information signs with a green background

Services information is provided by signs with a blue background

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 Cultural, historical, and or recreational information signs with a brown
background

6.2 Traffic Markings

Road markings

Defined as lines, patterns, words or other devices, except signs, set into
applied or attached to the carriageway or curbs or to objects within
or adjacent to the roadway
For controlling, warning, guiding and informing the users.
Traffic markings are the most plentiful traffic devices in use
Three broad categories:
a. Longitudinal Markings

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 b. Transverse markings
c. Object markers and delineators

Purpose:- is to guide and control traffic on a highway.

Important to ensure the safe, smooth and harmonious flow of traffic.
a. Longitudinal markings
Placed along the direction of traffic on the roadway surface
Purpose:- indicating to the driver, his proper position on the roadway
Colors
White:- separating traffic flow in the same direction
Yellow:- separate the traffic flow in opposite direction and pavement edges
Types of lines :- broken, solid, double solid or combination
Broken:- permissive in character and allows crossing if traffic
situation permits

Solid lines:- restrictive in character and does not allow crossing except for
entryor exit from a side road or premises or to avoid a stationary obstruction
Double solid:- indicate severity in restrictions and should not be crossed except
in case of emergency

Combination:- a solid line may be crossed with discretion, if the broken line
ofthe combination is nearer to the direction of travel.

Different types of longitudinal markings are

Center line
No passing zone
Warning lines
Border or edge lines
Bus lane markings, cycle lane markings etc.

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b. Transverse markings

Are marked across the direction of traffic.

are marked at intersections
Includes:
Stop line markings
Markings for pedestrian crossing,
Direct ion arrows, etc.

c. Object marking and delineators

Marking of physical obstructions in a carriageway like traffic island or

obstructions near carriageway like signal posts, pier etc. as they cause serious
hazard to the flow of traffic.
Objects within the carriageway
The obstructions within the carriageway such as traffic islands, raisedmedians
May be marked by not less than five alternate black and yellow stripes.
The stripes should slope forward at an angle of 45 with respect to
thedirection of traffic.
These stripes shall be uniform and should not be less than 100 m wide so as to
provide sufficient visibility.
Objects adjacent to carriageway

Sometimes objects adjacent to the carriageway may pose some obstructions

to the flow of traffic
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 Includes objects such as subway piers and abutments, culvert head walls
etc.

Should be marked with alternate black and white stripes at a forward angle of45
with respect to the direction of traffic.

Poles close to the carriageway should be painted in alternate black and

whiteup to a height of 1.25 m above the road level.

Word messages

Information to guide, regulates, or warn the road user may also be

conveyedby inscription of word message on road surface

Characters for word messages are usually capital letters

Should be as brief as possible and shall not consist of more than three
wordsfor any message

Some of the examples of word

messages are STOP, SLOW,
SCHOOL, RIGHTTUN ONLY etc.

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Parking

The marking of the parking space limits on urban roads promotes more
efficient use of the parking spaces

Tends to prevent encroachment on places like bus stops, fire hydrantzones etc.,
where parking is undesirable.

Such parking space limitations should be indicated with markings that are solid
white lines 100 mm wide

Words TAXI, CARS, SCOOTERS etc. May also be written if the parking area
isspecific

Parkings

Hazardous location

Wherever there is a change in the width of the road, or any

hazardous location in the road, the driver should be warned about this
situation with the help of suitable road markings.

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6.3 Traffic Signals
Most effective ways of controlling traffic at an intersection

Used to eliminate many conflicts because different traffic streams can be

assigned the use of the intersection at different times

The most important factor that determines the need for traffic signals at a
particular intersection is:
The intersection’s approach traffic volume
Pedestrian volume and
Crash experience may also play a significant role
Purpose
To ensure an orderly flow of traffic
Provide an opportunity forpedestrians or vehicles to cross an intersection
Reduce the number of conflicts between vehicles entering intersections
from differentDirections.
Advantages and disadvantages of traffic signals

Advantages of traffic signals

Provide for orderly movement of traffic;
Increase traffic-handling capacity of an intersection;
Reduce frequency and severity of certain types of crashes,
especially right-angle Collisions;
Provide for continuous movement of traffic at a definite speed along a given
route;
Interrupt heavy traffic at intervals to permit other vehicles or pedestrians to cross.

Disadvantages of traffic signals

Excessive delay;
Increased traffic congestion, air pollution and gasoline consumption;
Disobedience of signals
Increased use of less-adequate streets to avoid traffic signals;
Increased frequency of crashes, especially rear-end collisions.

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