HVDC Systems in Smart Grids

ABSTRACT | The use of direct current (dc) power networks, either at high voltage or at medium voltage, is being increasingly seen in
modern smart grids. This is due to the flexible control possible with dc and its ability to transmit and distribute power under circumstances where
alternating current (ac) networks are either unable to, or less economic. This paper provides an overview of the evolution of high-voltage dc
(HVDC) transmission from early Thury systems, to modern ultrahigh-voltage dc and multiterminal voltage source converter systems. The operation of
both current Source and voltage source systems is discussed, along with modeling requirements. The paper provides a snapshot of the state of the
art of HVDC with copious references to enable in-depth reading. Key developments over the last 20 years are highlighted. Issues surrounding
multiterminal operation and dc protection are explained, along with drivers in economics and policy. This will inform HVDC integration into smart
grids.

INDEX TERMS | | High-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission; power conversion; power grids; power system control; power
transmission; smart grids.

I. INTRODUCTION and slowing down the resolution process, especially in cases with multiple
The debate over whether alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) is AC systems requiring multiple solutions.
the superior solution for electrical transmission dates back to the early
days of electrical power. This dispute was famously exemplified by the
Harmonic analysis constitutes a significant aspect of any design endeavor.
"war of currents" in the 1880s and 1890s, pitting Edison, who advocated
Selection and fine-tuning of appropriate filters for both AC and DC sides are
for DC, against Westinghouse, a proponent of AC. Despite sensational
essential. Considerations include the magnitude of current to be filtered,
claims about the dangers of AC, publicity stunts, and even the
reactive power requisites, filter response characteristics, peak voltages
electrocution of the circus elephant Topsy [1], AC ultimately emerged
during transients, fault recovery, and filter size (wherein much of the
victorious in this contest [2]. Tesla's invention of the induction machine
additional size of Line Commutated Converter (LCC) systems compared to
and advancements in transformers endowed AC with numerous
Voltage Source Converter (VSC) systems is attributed to reactive
advantages at the time.
compensation and filtering needs) . The interaction between filters and the
station, as well as filters and the AC network, demands meticulous attention
In the 1930s and 1940s, Uno Lamm and his team at ASEA (now part of and can be addressed through simulation of the detailed system or through
ABB) enhanced the capabilities of the mercury arc rectifier, leading to the conducting a harmonic load-flow, modeling all elements as Thevenin or
development of the first "modern" commercial High Voltage Direct Norton circuits for each harmonic frequency of interest. Acquiring real data,
Current (HVDC) system. This initial system, a 20-MW, 98-km, 100-kV link particularly pertaining to the AC network, can be challenging, often
connecting the island of Gotland with the Swedish mainland [6], paved the necessitating consideration of a "worst-case" locus of network impedances.
way for rapid technological advancements. By 1965, HVDC systems had
reached ±250 kV and 600 MW with the establishment of the first New
It is imperative to also consider DC side harmonics as they may couple with
Zealand Inter-Island link, and by 1970, ±400-kV 1440 MW systems were
metallic telephone lines, leading to a Telephone Interference Factor (TIF)
realized with the U.S. Pacific Intertie [7].
limit. Furthermore, they might even couple with metallic structures in the
vicinity of overhead lines via stray capacitances, potentially resulting in
Starting from the early 1970s, mercury arc rectifiers began to be replaced "touch voltages," unless meticulous design measures are implemented [37].
by thyristor valves, which had matured as a technology since their
introduction in the 1950s. As solid-state devices, thyristors did not
For in-depth studies, time-stepping models become essential. A benchmark
encounter the material deposition issues that plagued mercury arc
model defined by Cigré exists [38], [40], depicting a 12-pulse monopole with
rectifiers, limiting their voltage capabilities and necessitating significant
standard filters, line models, and control mechanisms. Additionally, finite
maintenance [8]. Furthermore, thyristors do not suffer from operational
element modeling proves indispensable for analyzing both the earthing
problems like arc backs, which were a concern with mercury arc rectifiers
structures of HVDC systems and the electric field surrounding these
[9]. Thyristor-based projects have since reached impressive milestones,
such as the 8000 MW ±800 kV Hami–Zhengzhou project commissioned in
2014 [9], with the construction of the Changi–Guquan 1100-kV link
pushing capacities to 13 GW per line.

A. Modelling Methods

When considering smart grids incorporating DC components, multiple

design studies are imperative before construction commences. In AC
system studies, the principal low-frequency dynamics operate within a
timeframe determined by synchronous generator rotor inertias [37].
Consequently, detailed models of converters are often unnecessary, and a
Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit suffices, coupled with phasor (and
load-flow) studies. However, the presence of a "firewall" inherent in DC
systems poses a challenge for conventional modeling. Unlike AC systems, Fig. 13. Finite element analysis model of an experimental moving
where behavior is dictated by the physics-based dynamics of angles and coil actuator in an HVDC breaker system (four series coils carrying
voltage magnitudes, DC circuit behavior is primarily governed by current; lighter colors show higher flux density).
converter control. Thus, solutions for AC and DC circuits typically
necessitate separation in simulation packages, potentially complicating
 Particularly for the latest generation of UHVDC systems, the extremely
high voltage means that the design of system components to avoid local
breakdown discharge resulting from inadvertently high fields requires
extensive study.

A. Technical Challenges
A problem for LCC HVDC is operation with weak net-works [those
with a short-circuit ratio (SCR), i.e., ratio of ac rated power to dc link
power, of less than 3]. The weak ac system may not be able to provide
sufficient reactive power to the HVDC station and will be vulnerable to
voltage disturbances caused by the HVDC system current (such asvoltage
instability, small-signal control instability, harmonic responses,
overvoltages) which may lead to commutation failure in the HVDC
scheme [38]. AC series capacitors have been proposed to help LCC
HVDC operate with weak ac systems (the so-called capacitor- B. Modeling Methods
commutated converters) and have been used in two back-to-back projects
For smart grids employing dc components, multiple design studies
(Garabi in Brazil–Argentina, 2002, 2000 MW 70 kV and Rapid City,
are required prior to construction. For ac system studies, the dominant
2003, 200 MW, 13 kV).
low-frequency dynamics are in a time frame determined by synchronous
Technical developments in recent years for the con- verter have
generator rotor inertias . Thus, detailed models of the converters are not
been the replacement of electrically triggered thyristors by those using
needed in these studies and a Thevenin- or Norton- equivalent circuit
laser light to trigger conduction [light-triggered thyristors (LTTs)]. This
may be used with phasor (and load-flow) studies. However, the inherent
gives advantages in terms of circuit isolation for the multiple thyristors
“firewall” that a dc system provides means that it presents a problem for
used inseries in each valve. Current rating of converters is still con-strained
conventional modeling. The behavior of the dc circuit is not inherently
by that of individual devices: while putting devices in series is readily
driven by the physics-based behavior of the ac system (its angles and
possible, though overvoltage and voltage grading components are needed,
voltage magnitudes) but by the control of the con-verter. Thus, solutions of
getting semiconductor devices to reliably share current is problematic.
the ac circuit and dc circuit typi-cally have to be split in many simulation
The main development in LCC HVDC has been the gradual increase packages solvers, complicating and potentially slowing the solution.
in voltage in order to raise power levels. This required considerable Wheremultiple ac systems exist, multiple solutions are required.
research and development across all elements of the system: Harmonic analysis forms a major piece of any design. Appropriate
transformers, lines/cables, switchgear, and the converter, all from a filters must be selected and tuned for the ac and dc sides. Factors include the
current, fault cur- rent, and insulation coordination perspective. Much amount of current to be filtered, reactive power requirements, the filter
of thishas been enabled by modern computer simulation and study tools, response characteris- tics, the peak voltages under transients, fault
particularly for insulation coordination. The impact of computers is also recovery, and the size of the filter (much of the extra size of LCC compared
felt within control, where digital control is now standard and hot-swap to VSC is the reactive compensation and filtering require- ment) . The
redundancy is typically enabled.

I. VOLTAGE– S O U R C E CON V E R T E R H V DC
VSCs HVDC emerged from the advent of suitably powerful self-
commutating semiconductor switches in the late 1990s. Since then they
have undergone rapid development in terms of power and voltage, a factor
enabled by their ability to use much of the hardware (transformers, dc
cables, switchgear) used previously for LCC HVDC

A. VSC HVDC Hardware

VSC HVDC synthesizes an ac voltage at its terminals from the dc
voltage supplied to it. Initially this used pulsewidth modulation
(PWM): a two-level converter switches rap- idly between the
voltages at the upper and lower dc supply (Fig. 14). The output is the
local time average of this, which can be varied sinusoidally. Only higher
order switching har- monics need to be filtered, leaving a sinusoidal
fundamental voltage at the point of connection, and drastically reducing
the ac filter compared with LCC HVDC.
Losses at this point were still relatively high (Table 1), compared
with LCC converter losses of less than 1% per converter. In order to
reduce this, ABB moved to a three- level technology (Fig. 14 and
Table I), using the neutral point clamped (NPC) topology.
Subsequent improvement of two-level converter design and the use of
optimum PWM (careful switching selection to reduce harmonics and
thirdharmonic injection to boost dc voltage utilization) allowed a further
reduction in switching frequency and losses.
In two- and three-level designs, each “switch” or valve is made of
many series connected IGBTs, which requires care- ful control to ensure
voltage sharing. In 2010, Siemens pro- posed a modular multilevel
converter (MMC) design based on the work of Marquardt [27], and other
manufacturers also
interaction between filters and the station, and filters and the ac network
need careful consideration and are undertaken by simulation of the
detailed system orby in effect undertaking a harmonic load-flow, modeling
all elements as Thévenin or Norton circuits for each harmonic.
A parenthetical statement at the end of a sentence is punctuated outside of
the closing parenthesis (like this). (A parenthetical sentence is punctuated
within the parentheses.) In American English, periods
B. Multilevel Converters With Full-Bridge Modules
Previously, all installed MMC HVDC systems employed modules with
half-bridges. Moreover, almost all of them are realized as symmetric
monopoles with sea or land cable. Station losses in the order of about 1%
can be achieved with that configuration. A half-bridge module has two
switching modes during operation: bypass and application of a unidi-
rectional voltage across its terminals (Fig. 16).
Therefore, a converter arm equipped with half-bridge modules can
apply only one voltage polarity. In case of line-to-line faults on the dc side,
 Fig. 16. Typical VSC HVDC converter station layout (ac
filter may be omitted for MMC, and offshore the tap
charger is typically omitted on the transformer to
reduce space and maintenance requirements).

C. VSC HVDC Control

The VSC HVDC system typically controls the current ofeach phase
using the voltage at the converter terminals. Sincethe semiconductor
switches are self-commutated, provid-ing a sufficient dc voltage exists,
this can continue to operatedown to very low ac voltage levels. However, the
IGBTs havein essence no overload capability; the output is limited to rated
current, so fast acting control and current protection is needed.In most
publications, a dq control structure of the con- verter current is used. A
PLL is used to converter three-
phase

Fig. 17. Half-bridge and full-bridge modules with switching

modes (reproduced with permission from Siemens).

VII. CONCLUSION
HVDC technology has established itself as a reliable and cost-effective
solution for various challenges encountered in power network transmission.
With many years of successful operational experience accumulated with
both Line Commutated Converter (LCC) and Voltage Source Converter (VSC)
HVDC systems, confidence in their efficacy has grown. Both technologies
continue to evolve rapidly, with manufacturers working on higher power
solutions.
REFERENCES AND FOOTNOTES
A. REFERENCES locally%20measured%20quantities.pdf
[1] IEEE, “HVDC and Flexible AC Transmission Subcommittee of the [3] S. Thorburn and T. Jonsson, “AC/DC— Backing up AC grids with DC
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Projects List, Mar. 2012. [Online]. Available:
http://www.ece.uidaho.edu/hvdcfacts/Proj- [4] S. P. Teeuwsen, G. Love, and R. Sherry, “1400 MW New Zealand HVDC
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in Proc. IEEE PES Gen. Meeting, Vancouver, BC, Canada, Jul. 2013, pp.
[2] M. Marz et al., “Mackinac HVDC converter automatic runback 21–25.
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Automatic%20runback%20utilizing%20 [7] ABB, “HVDC references: Cross sound cable.” [Online]. Available:
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