Chinese Literature 1
Arabian literature
Saudi Arabia
The flag of Saudi Arabia has a green field with large white
Arabic writing above a white horizontal sword (the tip of
the sword points to the hoist side of the flag).
The Arabic writing is the Islamic statement of faith, "There
is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his Prophet." Green
is the traditional color of Islam.
Saudi Arabia is a desert country encompassing most of the
Arabian Peninsula, with Red Sea and Persian (Arabian) Gulf
coastlines.
Known as the birthplace of Islam.
It’s home to the religion’s 2 most sacred mosques: Masjid
al-Haram, in Mecca, destination of the annual Hajj
pilgrimage, and Medina’s Masjid an-Nabawi, burial site of
the prophet Muhammad.
Riyadh, the capital, is a skyscraper-filled metropolis.
Currency: riyal
King: Salman of Saudi Arabia
Language: Arabic
Political boundaries
The peninsula's constituent countries are
(clockwise north to south) Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, and the
United Arab Emirates (UAE) on the
east, Oman on the southeast, Yemen on the south and
Saudi Arabia at
the center. The island nation of Bahrain lies off the east
coast of the peninsula. Six countries (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait,
Bahrain, Qatar, United Arab Emirates and Oman) form the
Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC).
Population
Though historically lightly populated, political
Arabia is noted for a
high population growth rate - as the result of both very
strong inflows of migrant labor as well as sustained high
birth rates.
History Pre-Islamic Arabia
There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian
Peninsula dates back to about 106,000 to 130,000 years
ago. However, the harsh climate historically prevented
much settlement in pre-Islamic Saudi Arabia, apart from a
small number of urban trading settlements, such as Mecca
and Medina, located in the Hejaz in the west of the
peninsula.
The Rise of Islam
The seventh century saw the introduction of Islam to the
Arabian Peninsula.
The Islamic prophet Muhammad, was born in Mecca in
about 570 and first began preaching in the city in 610, but
migrated to Medina in 622.
• Muhammad began preaching Islam at Mecca before
migrating to Medina, from where he united the tribes of
Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity.
• Muhammad's death in 632 AD, disagreement broke out
over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim
community.
Abu Bakr- became leader of the Muslims as the first Caliph
The Middle Ages
• In political terms Arabia soon became a peripheral region
of the Islamic world, in which the most important medieval
Islamic states were based at various times in such far away
cities as Damascus, Baghdad, and Cairo.
• However, from the 10th century (and, in fact, until the
20th century) the Hashemite Sharifs of Mecca maintained a
state in the most developed part of the region, the Hejaz.
Their domain originally comprised only the holy cities of
Mecca and Medina but in the 13th century it was extended
to include the rest of the Hejaz. Although, the Sharifs
exercised at most times independent authority in the Hejaz,
they were usually subject to the suzerainty of one of the
major Islamic empires of the time. In the Middle Ages,
these included the Abbasids of Baghdad, and the Fatimids,
Ayyubids and Mamluks of Egypt.
Modern history
• The provincial Ottoman Army for Arabia (Arabistan
Ordusu) was headquartered in Syria, which included
Palestine, the Transjordan region in addition to Lebanon
(Mount Lebanon was however a semiautonomous
mutasarrifate).
• The Ottomans never had any control over central Arabia,
also known as the Najd region.
• In the modern era, the term bilad al-Yaman came to refer
specifically to the southwestern parts of the peninsula. Arab
geographers started to refer to the whole peninsula as
'jazirat al-Arab', or the peninsula of the Arabs.
Late Ottoman rule and the Hejaz Railway
In the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottomans
embarked on an ambitious project: the construction of a
railway connecting Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman
Empire and the seat of the Islamic Caliphate, and Hejaz with
its holiest shrines of Islam which are the yearly pilgrimage
destination of the Hajj. The goal was to improve the
economic and political integration of the distant Arabian
provinces into the Ottoman state, and to facilitate the
transportation of military troops in case of need. The
railway was started in 1900 at the behest of the Ottoman
Sultan Abdul Hamid II and was built largely by the Turks,
with German advice.
Culture of Saudi Arabia
• The cultural setting of Saudi Arabia is Arab and Islam, and
society itself is in general deeply religious, conservative,
traditional, and family oriented.
• The Wahhabi Islamic movement, which arose in the 18th
century and is sometimes described as austerely puritanical,
now predominates in the country. Following the principle of
"enjoining good and forbidding wrong", there are many
limitations on behavior and dress are strictly enforced both
legally and socially, often more so than in other Muslim
countries. Alcoholic beverages are prohibited, for example,
and there is no theatre or public exhibition of films.
Religious holidays: Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha
The Qur'an
The word Qur'an means 'recitation', and in early times the
text was transmitted orally. The Qur'an had a significant
influence on the Arab language. The language used in it is
called classical Arabic, and while modern Arabic is very

similar, the classical has social prestige. With its 114 suras
(chapters) which contain 6,236 ayat (verses). It contains
injunctions, narratives, homilies, parables, direct addresses
from God, instructions and even comments on itself on how
it will be received and understood. It is
also, paradoxically, admired for its layers of metaphor as
well as its clarity, a feature it mentions itself in sura 16:103.
The Qur'an- widely regarded by people as the finest piece
of literature in the Arabic language, would have the
greatest lasting effect on Arabic culture and its literature.
Arabic literature flourished during the Islamic Golden Age,
but has remained vibrant to the present day, with poets
and prose-writers across the Arab world achieving
increasing success.
Two Categories of Muslims
1. Secularist - do not have knowledge of the contents of the
Quran and only know a verse or two to justify enjoying their
life such as: “Wealth and children are the adornment of the
life of this world” (Surat Al-Kahf 18:46)
2. Fundamentalist - who wants to apply the more extreme
verses of the Quran to the letter. These verses came to
Muhammad after he was a strong military and after he
realize that the Christian and Jews were not becoming
followers of his new religion.
Eight Fundamental Beliefs of Muslims
Fundamentalist
1. The Prophet Muhammad urges Muslims to fight in the
cause of Allah.
2. The Quran commands Muslims not to be friend Jews
and Christian.
3. The Quran commands Muslims to fight Jews and
Christian.
4. The Quran commands Muslim to fight non-Muslims
until they exterminate all other religions and Islam would
be the only religion in the world.
5. The Quran command Muslim to terrorize and torture
and kill anyone who disobey Allah and the prophet
Muhammad.
6. The Quran declares that Allah loves those who fight in
his cause.
7. The Quran commands Muslims to convert non- Muslims
to Islam by force.
8. The Quran declares that Muslims who fight and die in
the battle are promised forgiveness and a sexual luxurious
life in Paradise.
Men and Women Dress
•Women- Saudi Arabia's human rights record, especially
with regards to protecting women, has often been called
into question. Although women's rights have been
incrementally extended in recent years – they were allowed
to vote in municipal elections for the first time last year -
their actions are still severely restricted. Sep 27, 2016. They
wear abaya. While all versions of Islam suggest a woman
should dress modestly, often covering her hair and body,
Saudi Arabia is one of the only Muslim-majority countries
that legally imposes a dress code (Iran is another). Women,
foreign and local, must wear an abaya (a few get away with
long coats) in public places.
•Men - a thawb or thobe, or jalabiyyah in Libya, is an
ankle-length Arab garment, usually with long sleeves,
Chinese Literature 2
similar to a robe. It is commonly worn in the Arabian
Peninsula, Iraq and neighboring Arab countries.
Arabic literature
Arabic literature is the writing, both prose and
poetry, produced by writers in the Arabic language. The
Arabic word used for literature is "Adab", which is derived
from a meaning of etiquette, and which implies politeness,
culture and enrichment. Arabic literature emerged in the
5th century with only fragments of the written language
appearing before then.
Maqama
Maqama not only straddles the divide between
prose and poetry, being instead a form of rhymed prose, it
is also part way between fiction and nonfiction. Over a
series of short narratives, which are fictionalized versions of
real life situations, different ideas are contemplated.
Maqama also makes use of the doctrine of badi or
deliberately adding complexity to display the writer's
dexterity with language. Al-Hamadhani is regarded as the
originator of the maqama and his work was taken up by
Abu Muhammad al-Qasim al-Hariri with one of al-Hariri's
maqama a study of al-Hamadhani own work. Maqama was
an incredibly popular form of Arabic literature, being one of
the few forms which continued to be written during the
decline of Arabic in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Non-fiction literature
 Biography, history, and geography
 Diaries
 Literary theory and criticism
 Maqama
Fiction Literature
o Epic literature -
o Romantic literature
o Murder mystery
o Satire and comedy
o Theatre
o Philosophical novels
o Science fiction
Poetry
A large proportion of Arabic literature before the
20th century is in the form of poetry, and even prose from
this period is either filled with snippets of poetry or is in the
form of saj or rhymed prose. The themes of the poetry
range from high-flown hymns of praise to bitter personal
attacks and from religious and mystical ideas to poems on
women and wine. The poetry and much of the prose was
written with the design that it would be spoken aloud and
great care was taken to make all writing as mellifluous as
possible.
Modern Poetry
During the 19th century, a revival took place in
Arabic literature, along with much of Arabic culture, and is
referred to in Arabic as "al-Nahda", which means "the
Renaissance". This resurgence of writing in Arabic was
confined mainly to Syria, Egypt and Lebanon until the 20th
century when it spread to other countries in the region.
Throughout the 20th century, Arabic writers in both poetry
and prose have reflected the changing political and social

climate of the Arab world in their work. Anti-colonial
themes were prominent early in the 20th century, with
writers continuing to explore the region's relationship with
the West until the present day. Poetry retains a very
important status in the Arab world. Mahmoud Darwish was
regarded as the Palestinian national poet, and his funeral
was attended by thousands of mourners. Syrian poet Nizar
Qabbani addressed less political themes, but was regarded
as a cultural icon, and his poems provide the lyrics for many
popular songs.
Modern Novels
Neo-classical movement - which sought to rediscover the
literary traditions of the past, and was influenced by
traditional literary genres—such as the maqama—and
works like One Thousand and One Nights. In contrast, a
modernist movement began by translating Western
modernist works—primarily novels—into Arabic.
Modern Arabic novel - the study of family life with obvious
resonances of the wider family of the Arabic world.
According to whom? Many of the novels have been unable
to avoid the politics and conflicts of the region with war
often acting as background to intimate family dramas.
The Arabian Knights
The Arabian Nights is a collection of tales from
the Islamic Golden Age, compiled by various authors over
many hundreds of years. Each collection features different
stories. One Thousand and One Nights is a collection of
Middle Eastern and South Asian stories and folk tales
compiled in Arabic during the Islamic Golden Age. In "The
Frame Story," he rules over the kingdom of India and begins
the practice of marrying wives and killing them the next
morning until Scheherazade begins to tell him stories every
night.
Characters: Shahzaman, Scheherazade, Dinarzad, Aladdin,
the sultan, the beautiful princess, the magician.
The Prophet
The Prophet is a book of 26 prose poetry fables
written in English by the Lebanese- American artist,
philosopher and writer Kahlil Gibran. It was originally
published in 1923 by Alfred A. Knopf. It is Gibran's best
known work. The Prophet has been translated into over 40
different languages and has never been out of print.
The Lady and Her Five Suitors
A lady’s lover is put into jail. To get him out she
invites all the important people of state to her house. The
Kazi, Wali, Wazir and King are tricked into her home as
they all desire her. She gets the Wali write a
release note for her lover. They are put into a cabinet
because they each time fear the next one to be the lady’s
husband. The carpenter is locked up because he has a
dispute with the lady over the size of the cabinet. The lady
leaves the city with her lover. The five suitors are released
by the neighbours after urinating on each other. The story
of a young woman who fell in love with her brother.
The Lady and Her Five Suitors
by: Arabian Night
The wife of a merchant loves a man when her
husband is away. One day this man is cast into prison
Chinese Literature 3
because of a quarrel he had. The woman clads herself in the
most beautiful CLOTHES and goes to magistrate. She brings
a paper to testify against the imprisonment of her ‘brother’.
The magistrate immediately falls in love with her. He will let
him go if she comes to his house, but she invites the Wali to
hers. He accepts. Then she goes to the Kazi telling of a Wali
who has imprisoned her brother. The Kazi falls in love with
her and promises her to let him go. She also invites him to
her house. Then she goes to the Wazir asking for the
release of her brother. The Wazir want to have his will on
her and he is also invited to her home. Finally, she goes to
the King of the city. After telling her story he is pierced with
the arrows of love. He invites her to his palace, but she says
he would do much more honor entering her home. The lady
goes to a carpenter to ask him to
make a cabinet with five compartments, each with a DOOR
for locking up. Next she lets four gowns be dyed and
prepares food and drink. The Kazi comes first to her home
and he is put on one of the gowns. After a while there is a
tapping on the DOOR and the lady says it is her husband
and takes the Kazi to the lowest compartment to hide him.
When she opens the doors there is the Wali. She asks him
to write a letter to free her ‘brother’ from the gaol which he
does. He is asked to put on the second gown. Then there is
another tapping on the door and again she says it is her
husband. The Wali is put into the second compartment.
When she opens the door it is the Wazir, they play a bit
with each other and he is given the third gown. Then there
is another knock on the door. She puts the Wazir in the
third compartment and opens the door. The King has
arrived and after some talk desires her. His rich robes are
exchanged for the fourth gown. But another knocking is at
the door. She again says it is her husband and locks the King
up in the fourth compartment. The carpenter enters her
house. She tells him the top compartment is too strait. The
carpenter disagrees and to prove himself goes into the fifth
compartment, upon which she closes it. Then the lady goes
to the treasurer with the letter the Wali wrote to release
her lover. They both leave the city. Meanwhile the five in
the cabinet stayed within for three days without food or
drink. They cannot hold their water and urinate over each
other. When they complain they know who the others are
in the cabinet, except for the King, because he remains
silent. Then the neighbours break into the house to see
what is going on in the house. When they see the cabinet
with the voices coming out they fear there is are Jinni inside
it and want to set the thing on fire. But the Kazi screams not
to. They are
released and shown in the attires the lady prepared for
them.
The Lady and Her Five Suitors characters:
 Lady’s husband
 The lady
 Kazi
 Wali
 Wazir
 King
 Carpenter
Who are the characters in the story of Alibaba and the
Forty Thieves?
In the classic short story, ''Ali Baba and the Forty
Thieves,'' Ali Baba is the main character. He is a poor

woodcutter who lives with his wife and son on the outskirts
of town. His brother, Cassim, is rich and greedy and lives in
the town. The tale tells how Ali Baba outwits the forty
thieves to claim their treasure.
Ali Baba And The Forty Thieves Story Summary
Once upon a time, there lived two brothers
named Cassim (or Kasim) and Alibaba, who were sons of a
merchant and had an equal amount of inheritance. While
Cassim married a rich lady and became a wealthy merchant,
Alibaba married a poor, humble woman and lived the life of
a woodcutter.
The discovery of the cave
One day, Alibaba goes deep into the forest for some good
quality wood. There, he chances upon a cave owned by a
gang of 40 thieves. He watches from behind a tree and
learns that the cave is magically protected. He hears the
leader of the thieves say a magical word to open and close
the cave.
Alibaba waits until the thieves leave the cave and then goes
to it. He says, “Open Sesame”, the magic words that the
leader says and the cave opens. Inside, Alibaba finds
mounds of gold jewels, coins, and other precious artifacts.
He is awed by the wealth but is careful enough not to leave
a trace of his visit. He picks up a small bag of coins and
leaves the cave. Once outside, he utters the magical words
“Close Sesame” to close the cave.
Greedy Brother
Alibaba tells his wife about the cave and the thieves. They
borrow weighing scales from Cassim to measure the wealth
they have. Being sneaky, Cassim’s wife applies some wax
under one of the scales to know what grain her brother-in-
law has acquired. When the weighing scales are returned,
she is shocked to see a gold coin stuck to the bottom. After
a lot of prodding by his wife, Cassim asks Alibaba about the
money. He forces his brother into revealing the mystery
behind the gold coins. Alibaba tells him everything, but
after convincing Cassim not to reveal the secret to anyone,
including his wife. Cassim agrees to it and goes to the cave,
taking a donkey along, hoping to bring back as much wealth
as possible. He opens the door and gets excited at the sight
of all the gold. He quickly fills his bags with as many gold
coins and jewelry as possible. But in his excitement, he
forgets the magical words to open and close the cave door.
The thieves return and find Cassim in the cave. They kill him
and hang him outside the cave door, as a warning to
anyone who might try to steal from them again.
Keeping A Secret
When Cassim does not return from the cave, his worried
wife approaches Alibaba who goes to the cave and finds his
brother’s body – cut into four pieces and hung outside the
cave. Heartbroken, Alibaba takes his brother’s body down
and returns home. He seeks the help of Morgiana, a clever
slave girl from Cassim’s house, to make Cassim’s death look
natural. First, Morgiana goes to the pharmacist in the town
and gets medicine, claiming that Cassim is gravely ill. She
then finds an old tailor, blindfolds him, and takes him to
Alibaba’s house where he works on Cassim’s body. He
skillfully stitches the four pieces of the body overnight.
Alibaba and his family give Cassim a proper burial, without
arousing suspicion.
The Thieves Come To Town
On returning, the thieves find that Cassim’s body is gone.
The leader, worried that someone else knows the cave’s
Chinese Literature 4
secret, sends one of his men to the town to inquire. The
thief talks to different people in the village and comes
across Baba Mustafa, who boasts that he is the best tailor
in the area as he just came back from sewing a man’s body
together. On further inquiry and coaxing, the tailor agrees
to lead the thief to Alibaba’s house. He gets blindfolded
again and retraces his steps to the house. The thief marks
the door with a symbol and goes back to get the rest of his
gang. Morgiana sees this and marks all the other houses
with the same symbol. The next day, the leader and the
thieves return to the town only to find all the houses
marked the same. The leader kills the thief and assigns the
job to another. The second thief manages to find Alibaba’s
house and chips the wall of the house, as a mark. Morgiana
foils the thief’s plan again, by cracking the walls of all the
other houses in the neighborhood. Unable to find the house
yet again, the leader kills the second thief as well and
decides to complete the task himself.
A New Oil Merchant
The leader of the gang memorizes the exteriors of Alibaba’s
house and returns next day, posing as an oil merchant. The
leader comes to town with 38 donkeys carrying a barrel
each, with one barrel containing oil and the remaining
hiding the 37 thieves. He requests Alibaba’s hospitality and
tells him that he has 38 barrels of oil for trade. Morgiana
once again learns about the plan of the thieves and kills the
37 thieves by pouring hot oil into the 37 barrels. At
midnight, the leader comes to wake the others and finds
them all dead. Afraid, he escapes. On learning about how
Morgiana killed the thieves, Alibaba sets the slave-girl free
as a reward. Alibaba and Morgiana bury the dead bodies,
and Morgiana continues living with Alibaba and his family.
A Happy Ending
A few months later, the leader of the forty thieves comes
back to town as a merchant and befriends Alibaba’s son to
get his revenge. Alibaba’s son invites the merchant home
for dinner, where the leader plans to kill Alibaba and his
family. Morgiana, who is the only one to realize that the
leader of the thieves is among them, performs a dagger
dance at the dinner. While dancing, she plunges the knife
into the chief’s heart and kills him. Alibaba is furious at
Morgiana for killing the guest. But on learning why
Morgiana killed him, he is impressed by her intelligence and
quick thinking. Grateful that she saved his son’s life, Alibaba
makes her a part of his family, but getting her married to his
son.
One year later, Alibaba decides to visit the cave again as
there were no robbers left from the gang of forty. As he
reaches the cave, he spells the magic word “Open Sesame”
to open the cave door. He feels relieved that the cave had
remained untouched since the captain of the thieves left
the place.
Alibaba gathers as much gold as he can and leaves for his
town. Later, he shares the story of the secret cave with his
son and its inheritance is handed down to his children and
grandchildren. In the end, everyone is happy except the
thieves and the greedy brother.
A Story For All
The story of Alibaba and the Forty Thieves was originally
written in Arabic. The book has been translated into several
languages such as Hindi, English, Urdu, and more, and the
story was adapted to make plays, movies, and even
musicals in different languages. A musical based on the
 Chinese Literature 5

story was made in the Soviet Union, while movies based on

this Arabian Night story have been made in English, French,
Turkish, Hindi, and other Indian languages. The plot of the
story is interesting and encourages the readers to develop
positive traits such as quick and smart thinking. The story
also tells us what happens when one becomes too greedy.

Chinese Literature

Chinese civilization – one of the few ancient civilization to
have its individual writing concept.
 The Chinese language has over 20,000
characters the average Chinese only learns
about 5,000 of these in his lifetime.
Flag of China was originally adopted on October 1, 1949
 The red of the Chinese flag symbolizes the
Communist Revolution, and also the tradition
color of the people.
 The large gold star represents Communism
Communism means a way of organizing a society in which a
government own
 The four smaller stars represent the social
classes of the people.
The Republic of China has an area of 9, 597 million sq. km.
and the capital city of China is Beijing.
The famous landmark in China is the Great Wall of China
(also known as the “Ten Thousand Li Wall”).
 One Li is equals to 500 meters, the walls is over
1,500 miles in length.
The administration of China has 23 provinces, 5
autonomous regions, 4 municipalities and 2 special
administrative regions.
The religions and beliefs of Chinese people are:
1. Islam over 22 million,
2. Catholicism is 4 million
3. Protestant over 10 million.
4. There are also Atheist who doesn’t believe in
God.
Confucianism – an ethical teaching founded by Confucius.
Confucius is a Chinese Teacher, editor, politician and
philosopher of the spring and autumn period of Chinese
history.
 The opposite of Confucianism is Taoism and the
most important religion that encompasses a
variety of tradition and beliefs and spiritual
practices largely based on teaching attributed to
the Buddha.
Confucius- born 28 of September 551 BC, KONG QUI the 1st
name and died 479 BC. He is the founder of Confucianism
Influences – 1 Ching, Book of Rites. His philosophy
emphasized personal and governmental morality,
correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity. His
followers completed successfully with many other school
during the hundred school of thoughts era only to be
suppressed in favor of the legalists during the Qin dynasty.
He also recommends family as a basis for local government.
He embraces the well-known principle “Do not do unto
others what you don’t want others to do unto you” – the
Golden Rule.
Culture and traditions of Chinese in wedding.
Red is the color of wedding in China because they believe it
signifies love, joy, and prosperity to seclusion.
Seclusion means away from other people.
The wedding day is carefully chosen to astrological signs.
The most important event in China is the Chinese New Year
and they are celebrating it on the 1st day of the year in
lunar calendar, usually between late in January or early
February.
Chinese Literature 6
They also have the Lantern Festival and they are
celebrating it on the 15th day of the 1st Lunar Calendar
and in the 5th of 5th Lunar Month they are celebrating the
Dragon Boat Festival.
The education in China has always been a highly valued and
the great master Confucius thought that it is a pleasure to
learn something and try it out at intervals. Similarly,
numerous students have been convinced that reading
books excels all others careers.
The Chinese has 7 dialects and these are:
1.Mandarin
2.Cantonese
3.Hakka
4.Wu
5.Min
6.Xiang
7.Gan
Chinese Literature is one of the most major literacy with an
interrupted history and more that 30,000 years, dating back
at least to the 14th century.
4 Classes of Literature
1.Classical Literature
2.Modern Literature
3.Contemporary Literature
4.Present Age Literature
1. The Chinese Classical Literature (1644-1911)- refers to
the earliest period and covers works from 3,000 years ago
to the late Qing dynasty and is virtually unbroken strands
enduring dynastic changes. Written in ancient form of
language that is very different from present day Chinese, it
needs to be carefully studied to be understand.
2. Chinese Modern Literature - refers to the period from
the Opium War in 1840 to the may fourth movement in
1919.
 Opium War- this is the war between two wars in
the mid 19th century involving Anglo Chinese
dispute over the British.
 People observed the impact of Western thought
as foreigners poured China and established their
colonies, novels, poetry and other works begun
to appear with the theme of patriotism and
revelation of social literature.
3. Contemporary Literature (1919-1949)- spanned period
from 1919 to the foundation of modern in 1949 and
took on a new vigor despite the fact that Chinese was in the
checkered and complicated times.
4. Present Age Literature (1949- present) - evolved since
the establishments of the People’s Republic in 1949 during
this time. There was a Logjam as a consequence of the
cultural resolution that lasted for near 10 years that era is
now long past and we now have a favorable turn events
and a great number of responsible written works.

Dynasty in China
1.Shang Dynasty (1700-1050 BC) – Development of Chinese
Writing
- 1st dynasty
- hieroglyphics writing on bronze wares and oracle bones
- it evolved into ideographic and partlyphonetic Chinese
characters.
2. Zhou Dynasty (1045-225 BC)– Basic Philosophical and
religious Literature
- oldest dynasty
- major literary achievements originated in the late Spring
and Autumn period and Warring State period.
3. Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC)– Literary Disaster and Legalism
 Mohism – big philosophical and religious school
 Li Si – Qin emperor who introduced a writing
system and developed into Modern Chinese
writing.
 Legalism – philosophical school.
4. Han Dynasty (206 – 220 BC)– Scientific & Historical Texts
- Era’s major contributions were historical texts and
scientific works.
 Sima Qian – wrote Historical Records
 Historical records – major history concerning the
overall history of China from Shang Dynasty to
Han Dynasty.
 Cai Lun – 1st person in the world to create
writing paper.
5. Tang Dynasty (618-907) – Early Woodblock Printing and
Poetry
 Dufu and Li Bai – China’s greatest poets.
 Li Bai – one of the greatest Romantic poets.
 Dufu – one of the greatest Realists poets.
6. Song Dynasty (960-1279) – Early Woodblock Printing.
Travel Literature, Poetry, Scientific texts and the Neo-
Confucian Classics
 5 Classics and 4 Books – written in the classical
language.
 Shen Kuo and Su Song – both work scientific
treatises
 Shen – discovered the concepts of true north
and magnetic declination.
 Su Song – famous for his hydraulic-powered
astronomical clock tower.
7. Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) – Drama and Great Fictional
novels
 Guan Hanquing– one of the best playwrights of
the times.
 Mid Summer Snow – one of the most popular
drama pieces.
 The Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Water
Margin – two of the four greatest novels in
Chinese Literature.
 The Romance of the Western Chamber by Wang
Shifu – one of the best romantic dramas ever
written in China.
Chinese Literature 7
8. Ming Dynasty (1368- 1644) – Novels
 Journey to the West by Wu Cheng’en – based
on the historical journey of a Buddhist to India.
9. Qing Dynasty (1644- 1911) – Novels and Pre –modern
Literature
 Manchus – established the last dynasty.
 The Dream of the Red Chamber – last of China’s
four great classic novels.
The Analects of Confucius by Confucius
Summary:
The Analects of Confucius is an anthology of brief passages
that present the words of Confucius and his disciples,
describe Confucius as a man, and recount some of the
events of his life. The Analects includes twenty books, each
generally featuring a series of chapters that encompass
quotes from Confucius, which were compiled by his
disciples after his death.
Book I serves as a general introduction to the various
disciples in the work. Book II deals largely with issues of
governance. Books III and IV are seen as the core texts,
outlining Confucius's ideology. Much of the work concerns
itself with the concept of the Tao or the Way, the chun-
tzu or the gentleman, Li or ritual, Te or virtue, and Jen or
goodness. There are additional terms in the work, but these
comprise the core concepts. Taken together they form the
backbone of Confucian ideals.
The Tao, or the Way, refers to a literal path or road. In the
context of the work it refers to the manner in which
anything is done; a method or doctrine. Confucius speaks
often about the Tao under Heaven, meaning a good way or
path to achieving morally superior ends. This could include
self-conduct or how a kingdom is ruled.
Jen is most often translated as "goodness" or "humanity".
The gentleman, or chunt-tzu, possesses this quality. Its
translation is a bit difficult to represent exactly in English,
but the text provides a good deal of context when
discussing the gentleman and goodness. It is helpful not to
simply think of the term as meaning "goodness" but also to
see how its juxtaposition with the other terms forms a
greater picture of how Confucius defined goodness and
other positive human qualities. For example, words like
"altruistic" or "humane" are useful in understanding this
term.
Te corresponds most closely to the word "virtue", although
you may encounter some disagreement among scholars
regarding this translation. A better definition, some scholars
say, is to think of it as "character" or "prestige", an attribute
that would have been desirable in a human being.
The gentleman or chun-tzu is the central term in The
Analects and the other terms are generally used in
reference to this persona. For this reason, it is difficult to
summarize the gentleman easily, but considering the term
in the light of the other ideas in the text is helpful. The
gentleman is one who follows the Way and acts according
to a system of morals and beliefs that are not common
amongst other individuals. The use of the term "gentleman"
to describe the chun-tzu is itself problematic, as it can
conjure images related to an aristocratic existence. Some
scholars see a similarity between the term and Nietzsche's
concept of the Ubermensch, although there is dispute over
this idea as well. A "superior man" is another suggested

translation of the term. Taken in consideration with the
other terms presented, a more complete concept of
the chun-tzu emerges.
Li, or ritual, is another core concept in the text. Although
the work does not go into great detail on what ritual
traditions actually entailed, their importance is presented
as paramount in the cultivation of te and an understanding
of the Tao. The general principles of conduct comprise
much of what this term encompasses. Here, moral
initiatives outweigh pure historical knowledge. In other
words, practicing what we might call good manners and
conducting oneself in a moral and fair affectation were
considered characteristic of a gentleman. An appropriate
attitude was also necessary: one of reverence and respect
for one's elders and for rites and cultural norms that had
been handed down by past generations.
Also important to consider in reading The Analects is the
historical context in which Confucius lived and the events
that surrounded his struggle to spread his doctrine. During
the Sixth century, powerful warlords and families gained
control of the state of Lu, gradually undermining and
marginalizing the ducal house. Consequently, the normal
structure and function of government and social rituals
were altered, much to the dismay of Confucius. Confucius
sought a revival of the Chou traditions that once had been
the norm in Lu. He saw these ways as legitimately bettering
society. The term li fits best in understanding the Chou
traditions that Confucius so eagerly wished to reinstate.
Eventually, Confucius and his disciples sought an audience
with various leaders in Lu to help bring these traditions
back. Confucius's plan failed, however, and he left Lu after
becoming convinced that the sort of rulers he needed to
enlist to his side were not present there. So began a long
period of traveling around to neighboring states seeking out
such a ruler. Some of this period is captured in the text.
Confucius eventually returned to Lu upon the invitation of
Jan Ch'iu and lived out his days teaching young men about
the Chou traditions. However, he was not able to set up a
state based on the teachings he held so dear.
The structure of The Analects can make it a difficult work to
comprehend. On first reading, the passages can appear to
be quite haphazard in their arrangement. From an academic
standpoint there is more disagreement than agreement
over how best to translate and represent the text for a
modern reading audience.
Li Po: The Golden Age Poet
 Influences on Li Po's Poetry
 Analysis of the Poetry of Li Po
 Notable Quotes from Li Po
According to critic Kathleen Liscomb, Li Po was revered as
a hero and cultivator of bravery due to the struggles his life
possessed, and through his poetry he inspired many others
to speak their minds and to desire and strive for prosperity
despite setbacks and seemingly unchangeable situations, as
“stories about Li (Po)’s courage were familiar to broader
audiences” (Liscomb). Li Po’s portraits convey him as
someone to be revered rather than a person of legend, and
convey that his courage rather than his stories were what
resonated with the Chinese and are what inspire and
influence others who indulge in his poetry. The reason that
Li Po’s poetry has withstood the test of time is not because
it is legend, but because it inspires and motivates others to
Chinese Literature 8
find comfort in life and pursue an existence that is both
pleasurable and meaningful in society. Translators such as
Ezra Pound have found it difficult to capture the true
meaning behind Li Po’s poetry, as some of the inner
meaning that it author tries to convey in their work cannot
be transcribed through translation into another language,
but have often found that “he seeks companionable forms
in nature but only to validate his own echoing spirit” (Bush).
An excellent example of Po’s passionate connections with
nature is when he writes about having a terrible nightmare,
and staring at “the brightness/ of the moon/ and when/ the
song/ is done/ the feeling/ already/ is forgotten” (Po). Po
undeniably believes that he is one with nature, conveying
that the answer to all of life’s woes lies in the secrets that
nature can provide. Nature is essential to life, Po portrays,
just as essential breathing and eating and aids in
maintaining our healthy state of being.
Another theme present in Po’s works is the
theme of freedom and autonomy, as he writes that “I
climb/ the eastern slope/ of Great Tower Mountain/ staring
west/ ...glance down/ at the flowing/ stream/ giving my
message/ to the river” (Po). Po’s prevalence of aspects of
freedom in his writing convey the change in society during
the time period, and how it was becoming a society more
so based off of one’s ability and determination versus one’s
birthright or class division.
His writings also reflect his inner conflict of
loneliness versus serenity as he writes, “wanting to go/
unable to/ careless wandering/ become eternal/ what year/
shall I/ go home/ tears/ in the rain/ fall/ in my lonely boat”
(Po). Po struggles internally with feelings of isolation and
feelings of immense liberty throughout his life due to his
nomadic lifestyle and no true friends or family. He desires
to be independent, yet simultaneously desires to have
companionship: a common yearning felt throughout
humanity. This is why Li Po’s poetry resonates through all
cultures and withstands the repercussions that time can
ensure on literature and its admiration, for human nature
remains unchanged.
Lao-Tzu (l. c. 500 BCE, also known as Laozi or Lao-Tze) was a
Chinese philosopher credited with founding the
philosophical system of Taoism. He is best known as the
author of the Laozi (later retitled the Tao-Te-Ching
translated as “The Way of Virtue” or “The Classic of the
Way and Virtue”) the work which exemplifies his thought.
The name by which he is known is not a personal name but
an honorific title meaning 'Old Man' or 'Old Master' and
the debate continues as to whether an individual by that
name ever existed or whether Lao-Tzu is an amalgam of
many different philosophers. The historian Will Durant
comments: Lao-Tze, greatest of the pre-Confucian
philosophers, was wiser than Teng Shih; he knew the
wisdom of silence, and lived, we may be sure, to a ripe old
age – though we are not sure that he lived at all. (652)
Durant expresses the scholarly consensus on the historicity
of Lao-Tzu in that he may be a fictitious character created
to embody the concept of the sage. At the same time,
according to Chinese tradition, he was an actual historical
figure and, in religious Taoism, he is understood as a deity.
If he did exist, he is thought to have lived in the 6th century
BCE. According to legend, Lao-Tzu tried his best to instruct
people in the way of the Tao, the creative and binding force

which runs through the universe, but no one would listen.
His explanation that people could live happier, more
fulfilling, lives by aligning themselves with the natural flow
of the Tao, instead of placing themselves in opposition to it,
went unheeded and, finally, he decided to leave humanity
behind and retire into seclusion after writing the Tao-Te-
Ching.
MODERN-DAY SCHOLARSHIP DISMISSES LAO-TZU AS THE
AUTHOR OF THE TAO-TE-CHING, MAINTAINING THE WORK
WAS CREATED BY MULTIPLE AUTHORS UNDER THE NAME
LAOZI.
Legends concerning Lao-Tzu also claim he was the
contemporary and teacher of Confucius (l. 551-479 BCE),
founder of Confucianism which, in its original form, was
closer to Taoism. Modern-day scholarship dismisses this
claim, as well as Lao-Tzu as the author of the Tao-Te-Ching,
maintaining the work was most likely created by multiple
authors under the name Laozi.
Whenever it was written, or by whom, its value was
recognized during the Han Dynasty (202 BCE - 220 CE) and
its reputation grew afterwards to inform the culture of the
great Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE). Today it is regarded as a
classic of Chinese philosophical-religious literature and has
influenced millions of people around the world.
Lao-Tzu & Taoism
All that is known of Lao-Tzu comes from the classic work
Records of the Grand Historian by the Han Dynasty writer
Sima Qian (l. 145/135-86 BCE). Sima, working from older
historical and literary documents, claims that Lao-Tzu was
one of the curators at the Royal Library in the state of Chu
and was known as a philosopher. He advocated a deep,
connective empathy between people as the means to peace
and harmony and claimed that such empathy was possible
through recognition of the cosmic force of the Tao which
had created all things, bound all things, moved all things,
and finally loosed all things back into their original state.
Aligning one’s self with the Tao, according to Lao-Tzu,
brought one into harmony with the universe and enriched
one’s life; opposition to the Tao only brought frustration,
unhappiness, and anger which resulted in bad behavior.
He was especially interested in converting the ruling class to
his belief because the country was, at this time, in the midst
of the era known as the Warring States Period (c. 481-221
BCE) during which seven states fought each other nearly
constantly for supremacy and control of the Chinese
government. The Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE) was in
decline and could do nothing to maintain order because the
separate states were all more powerful than the
government but evenly matched against each other.
The wars continued and various schools of Chinese
philosophy were established which tried to suggest the
best way to end the violence and establish a moral
government that would care for its citizens. Lao-Tzu,
according to Sima Qian, persisted in his efforts to convince
people to accept the Tao and live a life in harmony with
each other and the universe, and when he finally
understood they never would listen to him, he abandoned
human society for self-exile.
On his way out of China, by way of the Western Pass, the
gatekeeper, Yin Hsi, recognized him and asked him to
please write down his philosophy before leaving humanity
Chinese Literature 9
behind. Lao-Tzu took the materials from Yin Hsi, wrote until
he had nothing left to say, handed the manuscript to him,
and walked through the pass, never to be seen again. Yin
Hsi, presumably, then had the manuscript published.
It is unlikely that any of this ever happened, however,
because Taoism – in more or less the same way it is
expressed in the Tao-Te-Ching – developed during the
Shang Dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BCE) from the same folk belief
and understanding which produced the I-Ching, a book of
divination, which was informed by the concept of the
principles of yin and yang. Scholar John M. Koller
comments: Yin-yang thought began as an attempt to
answer the question of the origin of the universe. According
to yin-yang thought, the universe came to be as a result of
the interactions between the two primordial opposing
forces of yin and yang. Because things are experienced as
changing, as processes coming into being and passing out of
being, they must have both yang, or being, and yin, or lack
of being. The world of changing things that constitutes
nature can exist only when there are both yang and yin.
Without yang nothing can come into existence. Without yin
nothing can pass out of existence. (207) This concept was
later adapted by the polymath Zou Yan (l. 305-240 BCE)
who founded the Yin-Yang School, one of the many –
including Taoism – which are recognized from the period
known as the Hundred Schools of Thought from the Spring
and Autumn Period (c. 772-476 BCE) and Warring States
Period. It could be argued that Zou Yan took the principles
of the yin-yang from Lao-Tzu, but this is unlikely as it seems
clear it existed centuries prior to his supposed existence.
Further, the same basic concept of dualistic forces in
constant motion informed the concept of Tian (Heaven) as
recognized by the philosophies of Confucianism and
Mohism, among others. Even so, tradition still maintains
that Lao-Tzu is the author of the Tao-Te-Ching and that the
work represents his last words to humanity.
The Tao-Te-Ching
The Tao-Te-Ching is an anti-authoritarian treatise which
posits that the way of virtue lies in non-action (Wu Wei)
through a recognition of the natural, universal force known
as the Tao. The Tao flows without effort and, like water,
goes where it will without striving and effects change and
growth. To be virtuous, one should emulate the Tao and
engage in non-action (not forcing an effect or outcome).
Human-made laws, it claims, cannot make one virtuous and
cannot contribute to good behavior, inner peace, or
empathy with others because they are not in tune with
nature. It is only by recognizing the Tao, and one’s
connection to it and all things, that one may achieve these
goals.
To recognize the Tao, one must know what it is, and so it is
defined in the first chapter:
The Tao that can be told of is not the eternal Tao;
The name that can be named is not the eternal name.
The Nameless is the origin of Heaven and earth;
The Named is the mother of all things.
Therefore, let there always be non-being, so we may see
their subtlety, And let there always be being, so we may see
their outcome.
The two are the same, But after they are produced, they
have different names. (Verse I; Baird, 371)

The verse here is relating the intangible concept of being-
and-non-being, of yin-and-yang, of the constant dynamic
motion of the universe which keeps creation in balance.
That which actually is cannot be comprehended by the
human mind and so that which can be known is what is
named, and this is the Tao; it is not the actual Tao but it
points the way toward the Tao.
One cannot grasp the actual Tao through intellectual
pursuits but, rather, by submitting to and expressing its
essence in one’s life, through self-reflection and
harmonious interaction with others. Rulers, especially, are
encouraged to embrace the Tao since, by their example,
their subjects will do likewise. According to the Tao-Te-
Ching, the best ruler is one who governs so effortlessly that
it seems he has done nothing, and yet everything has been
done (Verse 17). The best individual is the one who can
recognize the current of existence and move with it, as
effortlessly as water flowing, without upset or resistance, as
in the famous passage:
Yield and overcome
Bend and become straight
Empty and become full. (Verse 22)
This verse has become one of the most iconic in that it
distills the message of Taoism regarding inner peace, accord
with others, and personal success, in three lines:
 Yield and Overcome: one cannot fully listen to
another person’s views if one is full of one’s
own; yielding to another encourages personal
growth.
 Bend and become Straight: one cannot reach an
accord with someone else if one is unwilling to
compromise and one cannot correct bad
behavior if one is unable to accept criticism.
 Empty and become Full: one has little hope of
success, in any enterprise or relationship, if one
clings to what one thinks one knows instead of
opening one’s self to new ideas and other views.
Verse 22 expresses the heart of the Taoist message that,
when one is in alignment with the natural flow of energies
of the universe, one is able to live more easily with one’s
self and others through non-resistance or non-action. One
does not resist other people’s views or new concepts but
flows with them, again like water, picking up and carrying
what is useful and discarding what is not, what is too heavy
to be carried.
LAO-TZU’S TAOISM EMPHASIZED THE IMPORTANCE OF
NON-ACTION, NON-RESISTANCE, “GOING WITH THE
FLOW” TO LIVE AN ELEVATED & TRANSFORMATIVE LIFE.
Lao-Tzu’s Taoism – or, at least, the Taoism of the 6th
century BCE – emphasized the importance of non-action,
non-resistance, “going with the flow” to live an elevated
and transformative life. In so doing, it refuted Confucius’
philosophy and its insistence on education, knowledge-as-
power, and strict adherence to social custom and ritual in
improving one’s character and quality of life. Lao-Tzu’s
claim (paraphrased) that “the more rules one makes, the
more criminals one creates” is the antithesis of Confucius’s
assertion that adherence to ritual improves one’s moral
character and produces better citizens.
Taoism & Confucianism
Even so, the two systems have much in common. As noted,
legends claim that Lao-Tzu was Confucius’ mentor and
Chinese Literature 10
teacher which suggests an early association between the
two philosophies. While the Lao-Tzu/Confucius claim has
been challenged (and largely dismissed), the two systems
share a number of similarities which are often ignored in
favor of highlighting their differences. The Hundred Schools
of Thought produced many different philosophies which
contended for adherents and, among them, three became
most prominent – Confucianism, Taoism, and Legalism – all
three of which would be influenced by the other schools of
thought and each other and would go on to significantly
inform Chinese culture.
Of them all, Legalism was the most unchanged and would
always remain a social philosophy based on the
understanding that human beings were innately selfish and
self-centered and required strict laws and guidelines to
restrain their negative impulses. Confucianism and Taoism,
on the other hand, both developed and began with the
recognition of some higher power. They are regarded as
philosophies as well as religions as they both include
metaphysical speculation and rely upon a higher, unseen,
force to validate their claims. In Confucianism, this power is
Tian, in Taoism, it is the Tao, but both of these concepts are
informed by the yin-yang principle of the constant flux of
the universe.
Taoism, which advocated adherence to the universal Tao
long before the Tao-Te-Ching, was practiced through
ancestor worship and an acknowledgment of the natural
law of the Tao in all things, which enabled personal and
community balance. Confucianism, which also
acknowledged the importance of ancestor worship as part
of filial piety, recognized Tian as the stabilizing force of the
universe, which encouraged the same. The difference
between the two had to do with the emphasis on ritual and
social custom. Taoism, officially at least, repudiated these
practices; Confucianism embraced them.
According to Taoism, all human beings are
naturally good but are corrupted by unjust law and an
incorrect belief in how they are supposed to behave in
society. By trying to regulate people’s behavior through the
law, the government only worsens their behavior because it
creates an artificial environment which human beings rebel
against in an effort to maintain their natural state of
harmony. If rulers recognized the Tao and aligned
themselves with the flow of the energy of the universe,
they would enact laws in accord with natural rhythms and
their subjects would respond with respect and proper
behavior.
Confucianism says the same thing but within a
different paradigm. Tian is the regulating force of the
universe, which people, who are essentially good, respond
to but, because they lack proper education and guidance,
fall short of becoming their best selves. Through education
and observance of ritual and social custom, one aligned
one’s self with the order of the universe and recognized the
value of respect for one’s self, others, and authority. In this
way, Confucius said, people would naturally behave well,
respecting both themselves and others.
Lao-Tzu maintained, as did the sophist Teng Shih (l. c. 500
BCE) that people behaved badly because they were forced
to through poor government and unjust laws. Confucianism
said the same thing and, in fact, both Confucius and the
later Confucian sage Mencius (l. 372-289 BCE), traveled to
 Chinese Literature 11

the different warring states to try to convince them to

adopt policies of morality, virtue, and peace.
The two systems, whose differences are often
overly contrasted, shared much in common but diverged
(again, officially at least) when it came to formal education
and knowledge. Knowledge was among the central values
of Confucianism expressed, to cite only one example, in
Analects VII.2: “To gain knowledge quietly, to learn without
losing interest, to instruct others relentlessly,” while Taoism
rejected formal education and 'book knowledge' in favor of
natural intelligence: “Abandon learning and there will be
no sorrow” (Verse 20.1). By this, Taoism was not dismissing
knowledge per se, only formal education and the value
placed on the social standing associated with it.

Conclusion
Confucianism and Taoism, as well as the other systems
articulated by the Hundred Schools of Thought, were
banned when the Warring States Period ended in the
victory of the state of Qin and the establishment of the Qin
Dynasty (221-206 BCE). Between 213-210 BCE, all books,
except those on Qin history, Legalism, and practical
measures, were burned and scholars were executed. The
only reason some texts survived was because they were
hidden by people who understood their value.
After the Qin Dynasty fell, the Han Dynasty revived these
works and they were again disseminated. Confucianism
became the state philosophy under the reign of the Han
emperor Wu the Great (141-87 CE) but, by that time, the
systems of Confucianism and Taoism had absorbed
concepts from other schools so their formulation by the
time of the Han was almost certainly different from their
early visions. Confucianism, by this time, had been
reformed by Mencius and Xunzi (l. c. 310 - c. 235 BCE) and
was far more developed than the form conceived by
Confucius.
By the time Taoism was adopted as the state philosophy by
the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE), it had also developed and
was a far more rigid system than expressed by the Tao-Te-
Ching, observing rituals the work itself would have
dismissed as superfluous. At this same time, Taoism was
also considered a religion with Lao-Tzu as one of its deities
among many others.
In the present day, Taoism is recognized as a philosophy, a
religion, and, in one aspect, a pop-culture phenomenon. Its
concept of a cosmic current flowing through and binding all
things served as the inspiration for the Force in the Star
Wars franchise and the image of the Taoist sage Lao-Tzu,
and those who followed him, informed the paradigm of the
Jedi Knights.
Whether there ever was a Lao-Tzu who wrote the Tao-Te-
Ching before cutting ties with humanity hardly matters
anymore. The philosophy he may or may not have founded
has long ago taken on a life of its own and continues to
develop as it attracts more adherents intrigued by the
vision it presents of a life lived in accord with the natural
world as opposed to one which struggles against it.