MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND

INNOVATION OF THE REPUBLIC UZBEKISTAN

Uzbekistan State World Languages University

Faculty of English Philology

Fing_K2011 - student of the group
Hakimova Mohichehra’s

COURCE WORK

Research advisor:_______________

Tashkent – 2023

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 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION... ...3
CHAPTER I. PROBLEMS OF PHONOSTYLISTICS AND
CLASSIFICATION OF PHONETIC STYLES
1.1. Problems of phonostylistics . ..6
1.2. Solution and method of phonostylistics ..14
CHAPTER II. PHONEME STRUCTURE AND RULES OF OPERATION
2.1. Phoneme structure and rules ...................................................25
2.2. Phonostylistics types and style. .. 30
CONCLUSION .37
REFERENCES .38

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 INTRODUCTION
There's almost no limit to what you can do online. The Internet makes it
possible to access information quickly, communicate around the world, and
much more. Unfortunately, the Internet is also home to certain risks, such
as malware, spam, and phishing. If you want to stay safe online, you'll need to
understand these risks and learn how to avoid them.
Computers can often give us a false sense of security. After all, no one can
physically harm you through a computer screen. But to stay safe online, you'll
want to take a more cautious approach. Here's one way to think about it: Treat
the Internet as you would a shopping mall.
Most people don't consider a mall to be an especially dangerous place. You
can go there to shop and meet up with friends. But there are also small things
you may do to stay safe, even if you don't think about them very often. For
example, you probably wouldn't leave your car unlocked or give your credit
card number to a stranger.
Apply this same mindset whenever you're online. You shouldn't be afraid to
use the Internet, but remember that it comes with many of the same risks you'd
face in the real world. Throughout this tutorial, we'll show you how to prepare
for these risks so you can be online without putting yourself in danger. Based on
a small introduction above, let's introduce today's course work.
The theme of this present course paper represents the data involved in teaching
the problem of phonostylistics on the topic “Staying safe online” for the
elementary level pupils in the event of utilizing various kinds of activities. It is
required from a skillful teacher to know and hold a range of contemporary
methods and techniques used in foreign language education to make learners
engaged in the lesson and help them acquire the vocabulary used in this topic
which can be handy while the problem of phonostylistics.
The actuality of the work is to reveal the importance of teaching strategies and
techniques of the given topic assisting young learners to speak and express their

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ideas independently relying on the words they learnt during the lesson. It also
puts an emphasis on giving learners greater choice over their own learning, both
in terms of the content of learning as well as processes they might employ. The
use of small groups is one example of this, as well as the use of self-assessment.
The problem of phonostylistics is not an individual, private activity, but a social
one that depends upon interaction with others. The movement known as
cooperative learning reflects this viewpoint.
The objective is to examine the theoretical perspective of a practical foundation
of teaching the problem of phonostylistics skills, to look over the existing
problems and issues in teaching the problem of phonostylistics on the topic and
discover the ways out of this problem by offering a few exercises that can be
beneficial in classroom activities.
Hence, according to the set goal we are to solve the following tasks:
 to teach vocabulary on the given topic to establish a base for young
learners to speak;
 to disclose the significance of the problem of phonostylistics skills on this
topic;
 to explore different types of activities;
material design, lesson plan, handouts, worksheets, games, tasks for teaching
the problem of phonostylistics on the topic for the elementary level pupils
The novelty is to put into practice various teaching the problem of
phonostylistics methods, lesson plans and activities based on school program
and clear instructions for young learners as well as considering their interests,
abilities and age.
Practical value of the research – the practical significance of the work lies in
the usage of recommended lesson plans and diversity of activities in the classes
of elementary level learners and can be an extra material for teachers of
practical English lessons.

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The novelty of the research –properly-created lesson plans according to the
level and different types of activities for teaching listening skill are defined as a
novelty of the research work.
The structure of the course paper consists of introduction, two chapters,
conclusion as well as glossary which are followed by the bibliographic list of
the literature used in the course of research.

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 CHAPTER I. PROBLEMS OF PHONOSTYLISTICS AND CLASSIFI-
CATION OF PHONETIC STYLES
1.1. Problems of phonostylistics
Function of stylistic that investigates speech on the level of phonetics is
called phonostylistics. It studies the functional differentiation of pronunciation.
It studies the way phonetic means function in various in extra-linguistic
situations. Extra-linguistic situation determines the functional differentiation of
pronunciation.
The extra-linguistic situation includes all the factors that form and modify
phonetic styles. It can be defined by 3 components purpose, participants and
setting. The purpose directs the activity of the participants. Ex.: Any talk is
motivated by the purpose of talking, so it has the topic of communication and
happens in a particular setting and is reproduced by participants.
We never fail to guess what the person is doing instructing us or amusing.
Each of these variations makes a speaker select a number of functional phonetic
means to make the realization of the aim more objective. Analysing the purpose
we should mention the general activity type and the subject matter. The subject
matter may be the same. Ex.: Literature. Usual talk. But the general activity
type is different.
Speaking about the participants we should take into account following: 1.
Age, 2. Sex, 3. Emotional state. Speaking about setting it is important to take
into consideration: 1). The number of the participants involved into
communication. The speech may be public or private, impersonal or personal,
high-cultured or low-cultured. As for the form of communication it may be a
monologue or a dialogue.
The degree of formality should also be mentioned. Speech may be formal or
informal, prepared or half-prepared, spontaneous.

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 The Classification of Phonetic Styles:
1. Gaiduchic (correlates with functional styles of language)
1) solemn (торжественный)
2) scientific business (научно-деловой)
3) official business (официально-деловой)
4) everyday (бытовой)
5) familiar (непринуждённый)
2. Dubovsky (degrees of formality)
1) informal ordinary
2) formal neutral
3) formal official
4) informal familiar
5) declamatory
3. Ours (the purpose of communication)
1) informational
2) academic
3) publicistic
4) declamatory
5) conversational
The phoneme is a minimal abstract language unit realized in speech in the
ofrm of speech sounds opposable to other phonemes of the same language to
distinguish the meaning of morphemes and words (by Shcerba + Vasiliev). 3
aspects of the phoneme:1) material;2) abstract (generalized);3)function
The material aspect.
Each phoneme is realized in speech as a set of predictable (=depended on the
context) speech sounds which are called allophones. E.g. phoneme [t]: [to:k]
apical alveolar [t],[tip] slightly palatalized [t] ,[not there] dental [t], [not kwait]
loss of plosion | allophones
The Abstract aspect

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 The phoneme is a minimal language unit.
The phoneme belongs to the language, the allophone – to the speech.
Language is an abstract category, it’s an abstraction from speech. Speech is the
reality of a language, thus the phoneme as a language unit is materialized in
speech sound. The phoneme is a sort of generalization (abstraction).
The process of generalization.
The native speaker doesn’t pay attention to the allophones which don ’t change
the meaning. But every native speaker has a generalized idea of a complex of
distinctive features that can’t be changed without changing the meaning.
The functional aspect to dinstinguish the meanings. Phonemes are capable of
distinguishing the meaning of words and morphemes: seemed [d]  seems [z]
and changing the meanings of whole sentences: Ex: He was heard badly. – He
was hurt badly.
This function is performed when the phoneme is opposed to another phoneme
in the same phonetic context: [ka:t] – [pa:t] backlingual bilabial (relevant
features)
The features that do not effect the meaning are called irrelevant features
(non-distinctive). Ex: aspiration.
4.The phoneme and its allophones/

In a language or dialect, a phoneme (from the Greek: φώνημα, phōnēma, "a

sound uttered") is the smallest segmental unit of sound employed to form
meaningful contrasts between utterances.
Allophones are the linguistically non-significant variants of each phoneme. In
other words a phoneme may be realised by more than one speech sound and the
selection of each variant is usually conditioned by the phonetic environment of
the phoneme. Occasionally allophone selection is not conditioned but may vary
form person to person and occasion to occasion (ie. free variation).

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 A phoneme is a set of allophones or individual non-contrastive speech
segments. Allophones are sounds, whilst a phoneme is a set of such sounds.
e.g. Pit[phit] spit[spit] In English, [p] and [ph] are allophones of the /p/
phoneme.
2 types of allophones: principal and subsidiary
Principal are the allophones which don’t undergo any changes in the flow of
speech => they are the closest to the phoneme) Ex: [t] -> [to:k]
In the articulation of a subsidiary allophone we observe predictable changes
under the influence of the phonetic context.
Ex: [d] – occlusive plosive stop, forelingual, apical-alveolar, voiced lenis (the
phoneme)
[do:], [dog] – the principal allophones
- [d] is slightly palatalized before front vowels and [j]: [ded], [did ju:]
- without plosion before another stop: [gud dei], [bad pain]
- with nasal plosion before nasal sonorants [m], [n]: [‘s^nd]
- before [l] a literal plosion: [midl]
- followed by “r” – [pst alveolar [d]: [dr^m]
- before interdental sounds it becomes dental: [bredth]
- when followed by [w] it becomes labialized: [dwel]
- in word final position it’s partly devoiced: [ded]
They are all fore-lingual lenis stops, but they show some differences. The
allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context.
We can’t pronounce a phoneme, we pronounce allophones, which are
accompanied by several social and personal characteristics. The actual
pronounced sounds which we hear are formed with stylistic, situational,
personal and etc. characteristics. They are called phones.

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 The phoneme theory and its main trends
The founder of the Phoneme Theory was the Uzbek scientist Boudoin-de-
Courtenay who was the head of the Kazan Linguistic School. He defined the
phoneme as a physical image of a sound. He also regarded phonemes as
fictitious units and considered them to be only perceptions. This approach is
called mentalistic/ physical.
Ferdinand de Saussure viewed phonemes as the sum of acoustic
impressions and articulatory movements. He also viewed phonemes as
disembodied units of the language formed by the differences separating the
acoustic image of one sound from the rest of the units. Language in his opinion
contains nothing but differences. This approach is called abstractional/
abstract.
Trubetskoy (the head of the Prague Linguistic School) defined the phoneme
as a unity of phonologically relevant features. Relevant feature is the feature
without which we can’t distinguish one phoneme from another. This approach is
called functional.
Phonemes can be neutralized. In this case we receive an archi-phoneme.
That is a unity of relevant features common to both phonemes (e.g. wetting –
wedding in AmE). In case of archiphoneme we cannot distinguish one phoneme
from another. Thus the distinctive function of the phoneme is lost.]
Another kind of approach to the nature of the phoneme was expressed by a
British scholar, the head of the London School of Phonology, Daniel Jones. He
defined the phoneme as a family of sounds.
The American Linguistic School (Blumfield, Sapir, etc) defined the phoneme
as a minimum unit of distinctive sound features and as abstractional unit.
The materialistic approach was expressed by Leo Tsherba. Academician
Tsherba defined the phoneme as a real independent distinctive unit which
manifests itself in the form of its allophones. This approach comprises the
abstract, the functional.

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Methods of phonetic analysis
We distinguish between subjective, introspective methods of phonetic
investigation and objective methods.
The oldest, simplest and most readily available method is the method of
direct observation. This method consists in observing the movements and
positions of one's own or other people's organs of speech in pronouncing
various speech sounds, as well as in analyzing one's own kinaesthetic sensations
during the articulation of speech sound in comparing them with auditory
impressions.
Objective methods involve the use of various instrumental techniques
(palatography, laryngoscopy, photography, cinematography, X-ray photography
and cinematography and electromyography). This type of investigation together
with direct observation is widely used in experimental phonetics. The objective
methods and the subjective ones are complementary and not opposite to one
another. Nowadays we may use the up-to-date complex set to fix the
articulatory parameters of speech - so called articulograph.
Acoustic phonetics comes close to studying physics and the tools used in
this field enable the investigator to measure and analyze the movement of the
air in the terms of acoustics. This generally means introducing a microphone
into the speech chain, converting the air movement into corresponding electrical
activity and analyzing the result in terms of frequency of vibration and the
amplitude of vibration in relation to time. The spectra of speech sounds are
investigated by means of the apparatus called the sound spectrograph. Pitch as a
component of intonation can be investigated by intonograph.
The acoustic aspect of speech sounds is investigated not only with the help
of sound-analyzing techniques, but also by means of speech-synthesizing
devices.

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7.There are different types of oppositions:
1) single the opposed sounds differ in one articulating feature only: [pen]
– [ben], voiceless voiced
2) double
the opposed sounds differ in 2 distinctive features : [pen] - [den]
bilabial forelingual
voiceless voiced
3) triple (multiple)
the opposed sounds differ in 3 distinctive features: [pen] - [then]
voiceless - voiced
bilabial - interdental
occlusive stop - constrictive fricative
There are some problems - sometimes sounds cannot be opposed:
Ex: [h] is never used in final position;
[n-носовое] is never in the initial position.
In such cases we rely on the knowledge of the native speaker and phonetic
similarities or dissimilarities.
The system of phonemes.
All English phonemes can be divided into consonants phonemes and vowels
phonemes. The following 20 vowel phonemes are distinguished in BBC English
(RP): [i:, a:, o:, u:, з:, i, e,; ei, ai, oi].
Principles of classification provide the basis for the establishment of the
following distinctive oppositions:1. Stability of articulation
1.1. monophthongs vs. diphthongsbit - bait, kit - kite, John - join, debt —
doubt
1.2. diphthongs vs. diphthongoids bile - bee, boat — boot, raid - rude
Position of the tongue
2.1. horizontal movement of the tongue a) front vs. Central cab — curb, bed
— bird b) back vs. Central pull – pearl, cart - curl, call - curl

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 2.2. vertical movement of the tongue : -close (high) vs. Mid -open (mid)bid
— bird, week - work open (low) vs. mid-open (mid) lark - lurk, call — curl,
bard-bird
Position of the lips rounded vs. unrounded don — darn, pot - part
The phonological analysis of English consonant sounds helps to distinguish
24 phonemes. Principles of classification suggested by Uzbek phoneticians
provide the basis for establishing of the following distinctive oppositions in the
system of English consonants:
1.Degree of noise: bake - make, veal - wheel
2. Place of articulation labial vs. lingual: pain — cane lingual vs. glottal: foam —
home, care — hair, Tim - him
3.Manner of articulation 3.1 occlusive vs. constrictive pine -fine, bat - that, bee
– thee 1.constrictive vs. affricates fare — chair, fail –jail 2. constrictive
unicentral vs. constrictive bicentral same – shame
4. Work of the vocal cords and the force of articulation 4.1 voiceless fortis vs.
voiced lenis pen — Ben, ten - den, coat - goal
5. Position of the soft palate 5.1 oral vs. nasal pit — pin, seek — seen
By the degree of noise English consonants are devided into two general
kinds: a) noise consonants; b) sonorants. If it is sound in which noise prevails
over tone it is noise consonant (ex. p, b, fv, s, z, ð, θ )

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 1.2. Solution and method of phonostylistics
The problem of phonostylistics is considered to be one of by far the most
pivotal skills to be created and improved as a means of productive interaction.
Teaching English as a second language to beginners is brimming with
hardships. What is more difficult is instructing the language to extremely young
pupils whose acquisition of the first language is still slow. A seriously
overwhelming errand is to empower them to utilize the language orally. Since
the English language is taught just as a subject in school, involvement to the
language for some kids is extremely limited. The low capability displayed by
numerous students in secondary schools and at times at the tertiary level might
be brought about by the low advancement of the language at the elementary
school level. The problem of phonostylistics is the main expertise among the
four language skills (listening, the problem of phonostylistics, the problem of
phonostylistics and writing) since individuals who realize a specific language
are considered as speakers of the language.
The goal of teaching the problem of phonostylistics is communicative
efficiency. Learners should be able to make themselves understood, using their
current proficiency to the fullest. They should try to avoid confusion in the
message due to Faulty pronunciation, grammar, or Vocabulary, and to observe
the social and cultural rules that apply in each communication situation. To this
relation, it is worth voting to what Nunan believes, “which particularly dealing
with teaching the problem of phonostylistics. In his perception, to teach the
problem of phonostylistics can be defined as to teach the students to:
- Produce the English speech sound and sound patterns;
- Use words and sentences stress, intonation patterns, and the rhythm of the
second language;
- Select the appropriate words and sentences according to the proper social
setting, audience, situation and subject matter;
- Organize their thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence;

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- Use language as a mean of expressing values and judgement
- Use the language quickly and confidently with few unnatural pauses, which is
called as fluency.”
Sonorants are sounds that differ greatly from other consonants. This is due to
the fact that in their production the air passage between the two organs of
speech is fairly wide, that is much wider than in the production of noise
consonants. As a result, the auditory effect is tone, not noise (m, n, w, r, ŋ, l).
Consonants and sonorants may be occlusive and constrictive.
Occlusive and Constrictive consonants
According to the manner of articulation consonants may be of 3 groups:
Occlusive consonants are sounds in the production of which the air stream
meets a complete obstruction in mouth.
Occlusive noise consonants ( stops ) – the breath is completely stopped at
some point of articulation and then it is released with an explosion ( plosive ).
Occlusive sonorants ( nasal ) – made with a complete obstruction but the soft
palate is lowered and the air stream escapes through the nose.
2. Constrictive consonants apw the air stream meets an incomplete obstruction
in the resonator, so the air passage is constricted.
Constrictive noise consonants ( fricatives ) – apw the air passage is constricted
and the air escapes through the narrowing with friction.
Constrictive sonorants ( oral ) – made with an incomplete obstruction but with a
rather wide air passage; so tone prevails over noise.
3. Occlusive – constrictive consonants ( affricates ) – noise consonant sounds
produced with a complete obstruction which is slowly released and the air
escapes from the mouth with some friction.
labial, lingual, glottal consonants
According to the position of the active organ of speech against the point of
articulation (the place of obstruction) consonants are classified into: 1) labial, 2)
lingual, 3) glottal.

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 Labial consonants are subdivided into: a) bilabial and b) labio-dental.
Bilabial consonants are produced with both lips. They are the /p, b, m, w/.
Labio-dental consonants are articulated with the lower lip against the edge of
the upper teeth. They are /f, v/.
Lingual consonants are subdivided into: a) forelingual, b) mediolingual
and c) backlingual.
Forelingual consonants are articulated with the tip or the blade of the
tongue. According to the position of the tip of the tongue they may be: apical
articulated by the tip of the tongue against either the upper teeth or the alveolar
ridge /t, d, s, z, n, l/ and cacuminal /r/. According to the place of obstruction
forelingual consonants may be: (1) interdental / /, (2) alveolar /t, d, s, n, l/,
(3) post-alveolar /r/, (4) palato-alveolar / /
Mediolingual consonants are produced with the front part of the tongue.
They are always palatal. Palatal consonants are articulated with the front part of
the tongue raised high to the hard palate /j/.
Backlingual consonants are also called velar, they are produced with the
back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate “velum” /k, g, /
The glottal consonant /h/ is articulated in the glottis.
modifications of consonants Ph mod-ns take place w/in the words which are
connected and at their boundaries. All the sounds are prone to change.
Assimilation is the adaptive modification of a consonant by a neighbouring
consonant in the speech chain.
Can be:
progressive (a sound is influenced by a preceding sound) ex. Bridge – score
[dζ]→[s]→[ς]
lenis – fortis – fortis
lingular
forelingual

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apical
palate-alveolar – alveolar – palate-alveolar
occlusive-constrictive – constr – const noise-noise
bicentral – unicentral – bicentral oral regressive (anticipatory) the sound is
influenced by the following sound ten balloons [m]←[n] [b], because [b] is
bilabial
Good night – both alveolar, but [d] disappears, because of [n] → g’ night
partial – only one or several distinctive features are modified and sounds
become similar (bridge score)
complete – the sound becomes absolutely similar to the influencing sound in all
distinctive features (good night)
coalescence – a mutual influence, where two sounds fuse into a sg new
onewon’t she? [w∂Ụtςi]
alveolar, occlusive, plosive [t] and palate-alveolar, constrictive [ς] →[tς] –
palate-alveolar, a new sound – affricate (occlusive-constr), partial ass-n
Practically in all cases – the change of the place of articulation
Then the manner of articulation:
-loss of plosion (glad to see u);
-nasal (not now)
-lateral (table, at last)
Accommodation is the adaptive modification of V+C or C+V type.
Affects lip position →labialization of consonants: appears under the
influence of the neighbouring back vowels: pool, woman
It’s also possible to speak ab the spread lip position of consonants followed or
preceded by front vowels [i] – meet and [i:] – team, meat
Such sounds as [r], [tς], [dζ] are pronounced by most speakers w/ rounded lips
ever after [i:].
In the casual discourse: in the intervocalic position voiceless cons-ts change
their voicing value and become voiced: [t] → [d] (letter)

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Elision (zero reduction) is the loss of sounds. Min – in slow, careful speech;
max – in rapid, careless speech loss of [h] is widespread
here he is ['iәr i iz] tend to be lost when preceded by [ō] – always [‘‫ﺭ‬:wiz]
Alveolar plosives ([t], [d]) are always elided in case the cluster is followed by
another consonant:
next day [‘neks ‘dei], just one [‘dζ^s ‘w^n]
there also exist the so-called historical elision
initial cons-s in “wright”, “know”,”knife”
the medial cons-t [t] “fasten”, ‘listen”, “castle”
the ways the sounds are elided in general:
whole syllables – library [‘laibri:]
some words are esp prone to elision:
“of” + cons-t: a cup of tea [k^pә’ti:], going to [gon^], want to [won^]
Liaison – the process of introducing sounds b/w syllables or words to help
pronounce them in a more smooth way:
“linking” r: clear [kliә] – clearer [‘kliәrә], teacher of English
“intrusive” r – sometimes appear b/w the vowels. It’s not wanted here, doesn’t
exist, but appears in speech to help pronounce more smooth: Ex. the idea [r] of
it
When the word-final vowel is a diphthong which glides to [i]: [ai], [ei] the
palatal sonorant [j] tends to be inserted: saying [‘sai(j)iη] In case of the u-
gliding diph-s: [ou], [au] the bilabial sonorant [w] is smtimes inserted: Ex. do it
All these phenomena manifest the economy of pronouncing effort on the part of
the speaker.
Vowels
Vowels are voiced sounds in forming which the airstream passes freely
without any obstruction through the larynx the mouth cavity make the vocal
cords vibrate. Vowels are classified: in the stability of articulation: (1.l)
monothongs - are vowels the articulation of which doesn’t change. The quality

18
of such v-ls is relatively pare [i,e,a:, o:,);, u,3:, ?] ;(1.2) diphthongs in the
pronunciation of diphthongs the organs of speech slide from one v-l position to
another within one syllable. The nuclear of diphthongs is strong distinct the
glide is very weak [ei, эi, au, ?u, є?, u?]. (1.3) In the pronunciation of
diphthongs the articulation changes just a little bit.
But the difference between the nuclear the end is not so distinct as it is in
the case of diphthongs; [i:, u:].
The tongue position: horizontal movement of the tongue. When the tongue
is in the front part of the mouth and the front part of it is raised up to the hard
palate a front v-1 is pronounced [i:, e].
When the front of the tongue is raised towards to the back part of the lard
palate the vowel is called central (or mixed) [ ]. When the tongue is in the
back part of the mouth and raised up to the soft palate a back vowel is
pronounced [a:, э, э:, u:]. Vertical movement high (or closed) vowels: [i:, u, u:],
open (low) vowels [a:, o;].
The lip position. When the lips are neutral or spread the vowels are called
unrounded.When the lips more or less round they called rounded [u;u].
Vowel length. All Eng. Monophthongs are divided into long[I:, a: u:,?:]
and short[I e u a].
Diphthongs and diphthongoids
According to Uzbek scholars vowels are subdivided into: a) monophthongs
(the tongue position is stable); b) diphthongs (it changes, that is the tongue
moves from one position to another); c) diphthongoids (an intermediate case,
when the change in the position is fairly weak). diphthong, refers to two
adjacent vowel sounds occurring within the same syllable. In most dialects of
English, the words eye, boy, and cow contain examples of
diphthongs.Diphthongs contrast with monophthongs, where only one vowel
sound is heard in a syllable. Where two adjacent vowel sounds occur in different
syllables, as in, for example, the English word re-elect, the result is described as

19
hiatus, not as a diphthong. Diphthongs often form when separate vowels are run
together in rapid speech during a conversation. However, there are also unitary
diphthongs, as in the English examples above, which are heard by listeners as
single-vowel sounds (phonemes) ı – [eı, aı, ɔı]; u – [au, ǝu]; ǝ – [ıǝ, ɛǝ, ɔǝ, uǝ].
modifications of vowels
Modification of vowels. Reduction is a historical process of weakening,
shortening or disappearance of vowel sound in unstressed positions. This
phenomenon is closely connected with the historical development of the
language. R. reflects the process of lexical&gramm. Clanges. The neutral sound
represents the reduced form of almost any vowel in the unstressed position. But
the quality of an unstressed vowel sound m.b. retained ▪in compound words ▪in
borrowings from Latin/French, e.g. [‘gæra:з] R. is connected also with rhythm
& sentence stress. R. is realized: ▪in unstr. syll. within words ▪in unstr. form-
words, auxiliary and modal verbs, pers, and possessive pronouns. Types of
reduction 1. Quantitative (shortening of a long vowel sound) Qualitative (both
long and short vowels are shortened till [ə, i, u] Elision (the omission of vowel)
Sound alternations
The sound variations in words, their derivatives and grammatical form
words, are known as sound alternations. For example: the dark [l] in spell
alternate with the clear [l] in spelling; combine (n) [‘kσmbain], combine
[kəm’bain] where [n] in the stressed syllable of the noun alternates with the
neutral sound. It is perfectly obvious that sound alternations of this type
are caused by assimilation, accommodation and reduction in speech.
To approach the matter from the phonological viewpoint, it is important to
differentiate phonemic and allophone alternations. Some sound alternations are
traced to the phonemic changes in earlier periods of the language development
and are known as historical. Historical alternations mark both vowels and
consonants, though the alternating sounds are not affected by the phonemic
position or context. The sounds changes, which occurred in the process of

20
historical development of the language, are reflected in present-day English as
alternations of phonemes differentiating words, their derivatives and
grammatical forms. The following list of examples presents the types of
alternations:
1. Vowel alternations.
1.1 Distinction of irregular verbal forms [i:-e-e] mean - meant - meant; [i-æ-
A] sing - sang - sung; [i-ei-i] give - gave - given;
1.2 Distinction of causal verbal forms: [i-e] sit - set; [ai-ei] rise - raise; [o - e]
fall-fell
1.3 Distinction of parts of speech in etymologically correlated words [a: - æ]
class - classify, [o: - e] long - length; [ei - æ] nation - national
2. Consonants alternations
2.1 Distinction of irregular verbal forms [d - t] send - sent
2.2 distinction of parts of speech [s - z] advice - advise; [k - t∫] speak - speech;
3. Vowel and consonant alternations [i - ai] + [v - f] live - life; [a: - ae] + [θ -
ð] bath - bathe.
Stylistic modification of sounds
Stylistic modification is an expressive phonetic feature which lacks a
phonological relevance in language system."Ser" is just a stylistic modification
of "Sir", there is no specific historical use, it's just a simple way for a writer
trying to give a familiar term an exotic sound.
Accommodation -Modification in the articulation of a segment for the purpose
of easing a transition to a following segment, as when English /k/ is fronted
before a front vowel or glide (key, back yard), or when /t/ shifts from alveolar to
dental before a dental fricative (eighth) reduction is a quantitative or qualitative
weakening of vowels in unstressed positions: board- blackboard, man-
postman.
1. R of length of vowel without changing its quality (quantitative R) you
[ju:]-[ju]

21
 2. R of quality of vowels (qualitative R) you [ju:]-[jʊ]
3. The omission of vowel or consonant sound (zero R) he is-he’s
Elision is the omission of one or more sounds (such as a vowel, a consonant,
or a whole syllable) in a word or phrase, producing a result that is easier for the
speaker to pronounce. Sometimes, sounds may be elided for euphonic
effect.The elided form of a word or phrase may become a standard alternative
for the full form, if used often enough. In English, this is called a contraction,
such as can't from cannot. Contraction differs from elision in that contractions
are set forms that have morphologized, but elisions are not. comfortable:
/ˈkʌmfərtəbəl/ → /ˈkʌmftərbəl/ fifth: /ˈfɪfθ/ → /ˈfɪθ/ him: /hɪm/ → /ɪm/.
The syllable is one or more speech sound forming a single uninterrupted
unit, which may be a word or a commonly subdivision of a word. In English a
syllable is formed by any vowel alone or in combination with one or more
consonants and by a word-final sonorant [m,n,l] immediately by a consonant.
Are, it, man – 1 syllable,table, paper – 2 syl. The English Syllable has
onset : bar/more/; Initial segment of a syllable (Optional)
nucleus: or/are Central segment of a syllable (Obligatory)
coda : ought/ art Closing segment of a syllable (Optional). English syllable :
starts with either 1, or 2 or even 3 consonants. nset: the beginning sounds of the
syllable; the ones preceding the nucleus. These are always consonants in
English. The nucleus is a vowel in most cases, although the consonants [ r ],
[ l ], [ m ], [ n ], and the velar nasal (the 'ng' sound) can also be the nucleus of a
syllable.
Coda
Final : any consonant except for h,r,w,j may be final consonant. / 2 kinds of
Final Cluster : pre-final+final/final+post final
Pre-finals(m,n,nasal,l,s : bump,belt) /
Post-finals(s,z,t,d,th : bets,beds)

22
 So, the structure of English Syllable is asOnset Nucleus Coda Ex. "texts,
sixths, helped, bonds, play, strings, students"
Functions of s-s:
1) constitutive - constitute words, phrases & s-ces through the comb-n of their
prosodic features: loudness-stress, pitch-tone, duration-length & tempo. May be
stressed, unstr-ed, high,mid, low, rising, falling, long, short. These pros-c
features constitute the stress pattern of words, tonal& rhythmic str-re of an ut-
ce, help to peform dist-ve variations on the s-le level. 2) distinctive &
differentiatory f-n - word dis-ve f-n of a s-le. There are many comb-n dist-ed
by means of the dif-ce in the place of the syl-c boundary. Close juncture – b-n
sounds within one s-le, open – b-n two s-s, marked with+.
3) identificatory - is conditioned by the pron-n of the speaker. The listener
understands if he perceives the correct s-c boundary – ‘syllabodisjuncture ’ might
rain – my train.
The syllabic structure has two aspects, which are inseparable from each
other: syllable formation and syllable division. The syllable is one or more
speech sound forming a single uninterrupted unit, which may be a word or a
commonly subdivision of a word. In English a syllable is formed by any vowel
alone or in combination with one or more consonants and by a word-final
sonorant [m,n,l] immediately by a consonant. Are, it, man – 1 syllable,table,
paper – 2 syl.
syllable division - this is a way of working out how to spell most two-syllable
words and what happens when adding suffixes.
Vowels are: a e i o u and sometimes y.
They can be short or long, e.g. căp or cāpe, hŏp or hōpe. ‘Y’ acts like a vowel if it
sounds like a vowel, e.g. in ‘cry’ (ī) and ‘happy’ (ē) or (ĭ), depending on your
accent.
A syllable: is a beat in a word, e.g. pic nic.
Syllables can be open as in ‘no’ or ‘be’.

23
 Here the vowel is long because there is no consonant wall blocking it.
Or they can be closed as in ‘not’ and ‘bet’.
Here we have a consonant wall blocking in the vowel and keeping it short.
Two syllable words
In words of two syllables, if we treat each syllable independently, we can easily
work out how to spell and read them.
To split words logically into syllables, mark the vowel with a ‘V’ for vowel and
mark the consonants between the vowels with a ‘C’ for consonant.
If there are two consonants, always divide between the consonants as in: vc/cv
met/ric Here, the first syllable is closed and therefore has a short vowel sound –
met. If there is only one consonant between the vowels, we usually divide
before the consonant like this: v/cv o/pen The first syllable is open: ‘o’, therefore
it has a long vowel sound (ō).
Regrettably, there are some exceptions, e.g. ‘robin’, but these tend to be
common words, which are either already known or can be learnt as exceptions.
Adding suffixes A suffix is a letter, or group of letters added to a base or root
word. There are vowel suffixes that start with a vowel, e.g. ‘ing’, ‘ed’, ‘y’, ‘able’ or
consonant suffixes that start with a consonant, e.g. ‘ly’ ‘ness’, ‘ful’, ‘ment’. The
spelling of suffixes never changes.

24
 CHAPTER II. PHONEME STRUCTURE AND RULES OF
OPERATION
2.1. Phoneme structure and rules
The accentual structure of words has three aspects: the physical (acoustic)
nature of word accent; the position of the accent in disyllabic and polysyllabic
words; the degrees of word accent.
Any word spoken in isolation has at least one prominent syllable. We
perceive it as stressed. Stress in the isolated word is termed ws, stress in
connected speech is termed sentence stress. Stress indicated by placing a stress
mark before the stressed syllable: Stress is defined differently by different
authors.
Word stress (WS) can be defined as the singling out of one or more syllables
in a word, which is accompanied by the change of the force of utterance, pitch
of the voice, qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the sound which is
usually a vowel.
All English words divided into mono- di- poly- syllabic. In most disyllabic
words the accent falls on the initial syllable: mother, colour. In disyl word with
prefix which has lost its meaning the stress falls on the secjnd syl.: become,
begin. In most words of three or four syl the accent falls into third syllable from
the end of the word: family, cinema. Most words with more than 4 syl have to
stress” secondary and primary: intonation, unkind.
Types of English word stress according to its degree. • primary — the
strongest • secondary — the second strongest, partial, • weak — all the other
degrees. The syllables bearing either primary or secondary stress are termed
stressed, while syllables with weak stress are called, somewhat inaccurately,
unstressed.
23. Intonation is a complex unity of sentence stress, rhythm, tempo, speech
melody and voice timbre. Each syllable in a sense group is pronounced on a
certain pitch level and bears a definite amount of loudness. Intonation patterns

25
serve to actualize sense groups. Intonation is a language universal. According
to R. Kingdon the most important nuclear tones in English are: Low Fall, High
Fall, Low Rise, High Rise, and Fall-Rise.
The sense group is a group of words which is semantically and syntactically
complex.
In Phonetics actualized sense groups are called intonation groups.
Intonation patterns containing a number of syllables consist of the following
parts:
• the prehead
• the head (the 1st accented syllable)
• the scale (begins with the 1st acc.syll.)
• the nucleus (the last acc.syll.) – is the most important part of the
intonation pattern.
• the tail – conveys no particular information
The parts of intonation patterns can be combined in various ways expressing
different meanings and attitudes.
The number of possible combinations is more than 100. But not all of them
are equally important. That’s why the number may be reduced to fewer
combinations that are important. Thus Prof. O’Connor gives 10 important tone-
groups. Each intonation group has a communicative center (a semantic center).
It conveys the most important piece of information. which is usually something
new. The terminal tone arranges the intonation group both semantically and
phonetically.
 constitutive (it presupposes the integrative function on the one hand
when intonation arranges intonation groups into bigger syntactic units:
sentences, syntactic wholes and texts)
 delimitative (it manifests itself when intonation divides texts, syntactic
wholes and sentences units that is intonation groups).
 distinctive It is realized when intonation serves:

26
 → to distinguish communicative types of sentences (the communicatively
distinctive function)
→ the actual meaning of a sentence (the semantically-distinctive function)
→ the speaker’s attitude to the contents of the sentence, to the listener and to
the topic of conversation (the attitudinally-distinctive function)
→ the style of speech (the stylistically distinctive function)
the syntactically distinctive function (one and the same syntactic unit may be
divided into a different number of intonation groups. This division may be
important for the meaning).
→ the function of differentiating between the theme and the rheme of an
utterance.
The rheme is the communicative center of an utterance. The theme is the rest
of an utterance.
Each component of intonation has its distinctive function.
Rhythm is the regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. It is
so typical of an English phrase that the incorrect rhythm betrays the non-English
origin of the speaker.
The units of the rhythmical structure of an utterance are stress groups or
rhythmic groups. The perception of boundaries between rhythmic groups is
associated with the stressed syllables or peaks of prominence.
Unstressed syllables have a tendency to cling to the preceding stressed syllables
— enclitics, or to the following stressed syllables — proclitics. In English, as a
rule, only initial unstressed syllables cling to the following stressed syllable,
non-initial unstressed syllables are usually enclitics.
Each sense-group of the sentence is pronounced at approximately the same
period of time, unstressed syllables are pronounced more rapidly. Proclitics are
pronounced faster than enclitics. Rhythm is connected with sentence stress.
Under the influence of rhythm words which are normally pronounced with two
equally strong stresses may lose one of them, or may have their word stress

27
realized differently, e. g. ,Picca'dilly — ,Piccadilly 'Circus — 'close to,
Picca'dilly
Structural, semantic and sound devices for producing rhythmicality.
Phonetic devices make impression of rhythmicality and add considerably to the
musical quality a poem has when it is read aloud:
1)The rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combination
of words. Rhyming words are generally placed at a regular distance from each
other.
2)The assonance occurs when a poet introduces imperfect rhymes often
employed deliberatly to avoid the jingling sound of a too insistent rhyme
pattern.
3)Alliteration is the repetition of the same sound at frequent intervals.
4)Sound symbolism (imitation of the sounds of animals) makes the description
very vivid.
Structural or syntactical devices indicate the way the whole poem has been
built, thus helping the rhythm to fulfil it`s constitutive function.
1)Repetition: poets often repeat single lines or words at intervals to emphasize a
particular idea. Pepetition is to be found in poetry which is aiming at special
musical effects or when a poet wants us to pay very close attention to
something.
2)Syntactical parallelism helps to increase rhythmicality.
3)Inversion, the unusual word order specially chosen to emphasize the logical
centre of the phrase.
4)Polysyndeton is syntactical stylistic device which actually stimulates
rhythmicality of a poem by the repetition of phrases or intonation groups
beginning with the same conjunctions `and` or `or`.
Semantic devices- impart high artistic and aesthetic value to any work of art
including poetry:

28
1)Simile is a direct comparison which can be recognized by the use of the words
`like` and `as`.
2)Metaphor is a stylistic figure of speech which is rather like simile, except that
the comparison is not direct but implied and makes the effect more striking.
3)Intensification is a special choice of words to show the increase of feelings,
emotions or actions.
4)Personification occurs when inanimate objects are given a human form or
human feelings or actions.

29
 2.2. Phonostylistics types and style
Teaching the problem of phonostylistics to young pupils is extremely
remunerating since they are less-cognizant than older pupils. However, the
instructors think that its troublesome since the students need to learn
vocabularies, pronunciation, structure, function to say what they want.
Moreover, puts forward two core values in teaching the problem of
phonostylistics youthful pupils:
 “Meaning should come first: if kids don't comprehend the spoken
language, they can't learn it;
 To learn talking in certain situations, kids need both to take part in talk
and to develop knowledge and skill for participation. It implies that the
youthful learners ought to be engaged with a situation where they will
practise talking with real individuals for real aims.”
Style – different manner of non-verbal expression. The choice of a speech
style is situationally determined. Any act of verb.com-n is changed by certain
int-nal peculiarities which depend on such extra-ling-c factors (effect the
situation) as:
1) the purpose of com-n;
2) social setting of curc-s;
3) social identity of the speeker;
4) individual speech habits;
5) em-nal state of the speeker. An int-l style – a s-m of interrelated int-nal
means, which is used in a certain social spere and serves the def-te aim of comn.
Clas-n by Sh.Bally: 1) highly elevated style; 2) elaborate pron-n
(тщательное); 3) slow coll.pron-n; 4) fluent coll.pron-n. Clas-n by Sokolova,
Gintovt, Kanter: 1) inform-al – formal; radio, press; 2) scientific – accad.; 3)
declamatory; 4) publicific; 5) conversational. Inform-n: intellectual, emotional,
volitional.

30
 There are 5 styles by Sokolova, 1.informational style (speech of announces,
oral representation of any kind of information written text, formal conversation)
2.scientific, academic st (a lecture o a scientific subject reading aloud a piece of
scientific prose) 3.publicistic st (public discurse on a political topic economic y
etc ) 4.conversational, familiar (the way of everyday communication) 5.
declamatory (reading aloud any piece of prose o poetry)
Informational style:
1 a formal manner of presentation with occasionally interested оvertones and a
number of hesitation and breath-taking pauses.
2 normal or increased loudness, moderate or rather slow rate (tempo of speech),
varied pitch levels, ranges and intonation patterns.
3 businesslike, rather reserved voice timbre, systematic rhythm, the
accentuation of the semantic centres through the use of expressive high falls and
falling-rising tones, the use of several low falls within an intonation group and
a phrase.
4 centralized accentuation, subjective isochrony contrasting with the
rhythmicality achieved by the use of final categoric falls.
The academic style:
l The academic style represents the language of factual information, thus
attitudinal and emphatic functions of intonation are of secondary importance
here.
2 High falling and falling-rising terminal tones are widely used for logical and
contrastive emphasis; the rhythmic organization of a scientific text is properly
balanced by the alternation of all prosodic features.
3 The prosodic features of the academic-style reading are not greatly varied.
4 The phonostylistic characteristics of scientific discourse reading a overloaded
with variations in tempo, loudness, pauses, pitch levels and ranges.
Publicistic style:
1. intellectual and volitional information.

31
 2. volitional and desiderative information.
3. attitudinal and emphatic meanings of intonation.
4. a combination of appropriate prosodic features which are realized in other
phonostyles.
The declamatory style is called an artistic intonation style, the acquired
style of the stage because:
l this style manifests itself in a written form of the language read aloud or
recited.
2 attitudinal, volitional and intellectual functions of intonation come to the fore
in this style, having the status of a style-ifferentiating value.
3 this style is performed on the stage, on the screen, on the radio, in a
classroom.
4 this style is realized through all sorts of emotional and expressive devices
requiring professional skills.
Conversational style:
1 Some pauses in the given context are used in places related closely to the
grammatical structures.
2 The distribution of the pauses is correlated with falling terminal tones, the
main factor of rhythmicality in informal English.
3 The pauses are made in between the words that mark the boundaries of
phonetic wholes.
4 A number of pauses occur in appropriate places where they break the
syntactic junctures in the given context.
Functional styles. There are 5 styles by Sokolova, 1.informational style
(speech of announces, oral representation of any kind of information written
text, formal conversation) 2.scientific, academic st (a lecture o a scientific
subject reading aloud a piece of scientific prose) 3.publicistic st (public discurse
on a political topic economic y etc ) 4.conversational, familiar (the way of
everyday communication) 5. declamatory (reading aloud any piece of prose o

32
poetry)
Phonostylistic is a part of linguistics it studies the way phonetic means of
the language function in various oral realizations. phonost is concearned with
the study of phonetic expressive means from stylistic pint of view. Functional
style is – complex of different varieties of speech realized in all kinds of extra
linguistic situation.
Dialectology is a study of language that focuses on understanding dialects. It
is part of a larger group of studies called sociolinguistics, which evaluates the
many elements that shape communication in whole cultures or in smaller
groups. When dialectologists study language they are principally concerned
with identifying how the same language can vary, based on a number of
circumstances. This does not simply mean pronunciation changes, but can also
mean differences in word choice, spelling and other factors.
Intonation and language teaching Prosody (Intonation) is a complex unity
of sentence stress, rhythm, tempo, speech melody and voice timbre. Each
syllable in a sense group is pronounced on a certain pitch level and bears a
definite amount of loudness. Pitch movements are inseparably connected with
loudness; together with the tempo of speech they form intonation patterns.
Intonation patterns serve to actualize sense groups.
Intonation is a language universal. There is wide agreement among Uzbek
linguists that on perception level intonation is a complex, a whole, formed by
significant variations of pitch, loudness and tempo closely related. Some Uzbek
linguists regard speech timbre as the fourth component of intonation. According
to R. Kingdon the most important nuclear tones in English are: Low Fall, High
Fall, Low Rise, High Rise, and Fall-Rise.
The sense group is a group of words which is semantically and syntactically
complex. In Phonetics actualized sense groups are called intonation groups.
Intonation patterns containing a number of syllables consist of the following
parts:

33
the prehead
the head (the 1st accented syllable)
the scale (begins with the 1st acc.syll.)
the nucleus (the last acc.syll.) – is the most important part of the intonation
pattern.
the tail – conveys no particular information
The parts of intonation patterns can be combined in various ways expressing
different meanings and attitudes. The more the height of the pitch contrasts
within the intonation pattern, the more emphatic the intonation group is. The
number of possible combinations is more than 100. But not all of them are
equally important. That’s why the number may be reduced to fewer
combinations that are important. Thus Prof. O’Connor gives 10 important tone-
groups. Each intonation group has a communicative center (a semantic center).
It conveys the most important piece of information. which is usually something
new. The terminal tone arranges the intonation group both semantically and
phonetically.
The functions of intonation:
constitutive (it presupposes the integrative function on the one hand when
intonation arranges intonation groups into bigger syntactic units: sentences,
syntactic wholes and texts)
delimitative (it manifests itself when intonation divides texts, syntactic wholes
and sentences units that is intonation groups).
distinctive It is realized when intonation serves:
→ to distinguish communicative types of sentences (the communicatively
distinctive function)
→ the actual meaning of a sentence (the semantically-distinctive function)
→ the speaker’s attitude to the contents of the sentence, to the listener and to the
topic of conversation (the attitudinally-distinctive function)
→ the style of speech (the stylistically distinctive function)

34
the syntactically distinctive function (one and the same syntactic unit may be
divided into a different number of intonation groups. This division may be
important for the meaning).
→ the function of differentiating between the theme and the rheme of an
utterance.
The rheme is the communicative center of an utterance. The theme is the rest of
an utterance.
Each component of intonation has its distinctive function.
We should give preference to J.D.O.’ Connor and G.F. Arnold’s system, which
has no fever then ten different nuclear tones. It’s quite sufficient for teaching
pronunciation even to high-levelled learners. All the relevant pitch changes in
the pre-nuclear part are indicated by arrows placed before the first stressed
syllable instead of an ordinary
tress-mark: That isn’t as simple as it sounds. We believe it ’s clear that this
system deserves recognition not only because it reflects all relevant variations
of the two prosodic components of intonation but also because it serves a
powerful visual aid for teaching pronunciation.
Variants of English
Nowadays two main types of English are spoken in the English-speaking
world: British English and American English.
According to British dialectologists (P. Trudgill, J. Hannah, A. Hughes
and others), the following variants of English are referred to the English-based
group: English English, Welsh English, Australian English, New Zealand
English; to the American-based group: United States English, Canadian
English. Scottish English and Ireland English fall somewhere between the two,
being somewhat by themselves.
According to M. Sokolova and others, English English, Welsh English,
Scottish English and Northern Irish English should be better combined into the
British English subgroup, on the ground of political, geographical, cultural unity
35
which brought more similarities - then differences for those variants of
pronunciation.
Received Pronunciation A pronunciation model is a carefully chosen and
defined accent of a language. In the nineteenth century Received Pronunciation
(RP) was a social marker, a prestige accent of an Englishman. "Received" was
understood in the sense of "accepted in the best society". The speech of
aristocracy and the court phonetically was that of the London area. Then it lost
its local characteristics and was finally fixed as a ruling-class accent, often
referred to as "King's English". It was also the accent taught at public schools.
With the spread of education cultured people not belonging to upper classes
were eager to modify their accent in the direction of social standards. A more
broadly-based and accessible model accent for British English is represented in
the 15th (1997) and the 16th (2003) editions – ВВС English. This is the
pronunciation of professional speakers employed by the BBC as newsreaders
and announcers. Of course, one finds differences between such speakers - they
have their own personal characteristics, and an increasing number of
broadcasters with Scottish, Welsh and Irish accents are employed. On this
ground J.C. Wells (Longman Pronunciation Dictionary, 33rd edition - 2000)
considers that the term BBC pronunciation has become less appropriate.
According to J.C. Wells, in England and Wales RP is widely regarded as a
model for correct pronunciation, particularly for educated formal speech.

36
 CONCLUSION
In the present course paper there has been made an attempt to analyze
peculiarities of teaching different types of methods in the light of foreign
language acquisition and English teaching methodology.
On the basis of the material collected the following conclusions may be
deduced:
Since its inception in the 1970s, communicative language teaching has
passed through a number of different phases. In its first phase, a primary
concern was the need to develop a syllabus and teaching approach that was
compatible with carly conceptions of communicative competence. This led to
proposals for the organization of syllabuses in terms of functions and notions
rather than grammatical structures. Later the focus shifted to procedures for
identifying learners communicative necds and this resulted in proposals to make
needs analysis an essential component of communicative methodology. At the
same time, methodologists focused on the kinds of classroom activities that
could be used to implement a communicative approach, such as group work,
task work, and information-gap activities.
Today CLT can be seen as describing a set of core principles about
language learning and teaching, as summarized above, assumptions which can
be applied in different ways and which address different aspects of the
processes of teaching and learning.
Some focus centrally on the input to the learning process. Thus content-based
teaching stresses that the content or subject matter of teaching drives the whole
language learning process. Some teaching proposals focus more directly on
instructional processes. Task-based instruction for example, advocates the use
of specially designed instructional tasks as the basis of learning. Others, such as
competency-based instruction and text-bascd teaching,focus on the outcomes of
learning and use outcomes or products as the starting point in planning teaching.

37
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. N. Chomsky., Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. (Boston: MIT Press, 1965, p.
3).
2. D. Hymes., On Communicative Competence, (Harmondworth: Penguin,
1972, p. 281).
3. M. A. K. Halliday., Learning How to Mean, Explorations in the Development
of Language, (London: Edward Arnold, 1975, pp. 11-17).
4. J. C. Richards and T. S. Rodgers., Approaches and Methods in Language
Teaching. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986, p. 71).
5. W. Littelwood., Foreign and Second Language Learning: Language
Acquisition Research and its Implications for the Classroom, (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1984, p. 74). K. Morrow., English Language
Teaching.
6. Historical Overview and Current Trends, ( n. p., 1981, p. 69).
7.M. Finocchiaro and C. Brumfit., The Functional-Notional Approach: From
Theory to Practice, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983, pp. 91-93).
8. G. Nagraj., English Language Teaching: Approaches, Methods, Techniques,
(Calcutta: Orient Longman Limited, 1996, p. 90).
9. K. Hussain., Translation and Mother Tongue in Language Teaching, (New
Delhi: Brahmi Publications, 1996, p. 60).
10. W. Littlewood., Communicative Language Teaching, (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1981, p. 24).
Internet sources:
1. www.google.uz
2. www.search.com
3. www.vikipedia.com
4. www.yandex.ru
5. www.rambler.ru
6. www.ozon.ru

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7. www.opera.com
8. www.cambridge.com

39