Plant

Plants are the eukaryotes that form the kingdom Plantae; they
are predominantly photosynthetic. This means that they obtain
their energy from sunlight, using chloroplasts derived from
endosymbiosis with cyanobacteria to produce sugars from
carbon dioxide and water, using the green pigment chlorophyll.
Exceptions are parasitic plants that have lost the genes for
chlorophyll and photosynthesis, and obtain their energy from
other plants or fungi.

Historically, as in Aristotle's biology, the plant kingdom

encompassed all living things that were not animals, and
included algae and fungi. Definitions have narrowed since then;
current definitions exclude the fungi and some of the algae. By
the definition used in this article, plants form the clade
Viridiplantae (green plants), which consists of the green algae
and the embryophytes or land plants (hornworts, liverworts,
mosses, lycophytes, ferns, conifers and other gymnosperms,
and flowering plants). A definition based on genomes includes
the Viridiplantae, along with the red algae
Plants
and the glaucophytes, in the clade
Temporal range:
Archaeplastida.

There are about 380,000 known species of

plants, of which the majority, some
Angios Desmi
260,000, produce seeds. They range in size
perm d
from single cells to the tallest trees. Green
plants provide a substantial proportion of
the world's molecular oxygen; the sugars Moss Glauc
they create supply the energy for most of ophyt
Earth's ecosystems and other organisms, a
including animals, either consume plants
directly or rely on organisms which do so.

Char Rhodoph
Grain, fruit, and vegetables are basic
ophyt yta
human foods and have been domesticated
a
for millennia. People use plants for many
purposes, such as building materials,
ornaments, writing materials, and, in great
Fern Spirot
variety, for medicines. The scientific study
aenia
of plants is known as botany, a branch of
biology.
Scientific clas
 Domain: Eukaryot
Definition
Clade: Diaphoretic

Taxonomic history (unranked): Archa

Kingdom: Plantae
All living things were traditionally placed
H.F.Cop
into one of two groups, plants and animals.
1956
This classification dates from Aristotle
(384–322 BC), who distinguished different Superdivisions

levels of beings in his biology,[5] based on

see text
whether living things had a "sensitive soul"
or like plants only a "vegetative soul".[6]
Synonyms
Theophrastus, Aristotle's student,
Viridiplantae
continued his work in plant taxonomy and
Cavalier-Smith
classification.[7] Much later, Linnaeus
1981[1]
(1707–1778) created the basis of the
Chlorobionta
modern system of scientific classification,
Jeffrey 1982,
but retained the animal and plant
emend.
kingdoms, naming the plant kingdom the
Bremer 1985,
Vegetabilia.[7]
emend. Lewis
and McCourt
2004[2]

Chlorobiota
Kenrick and
 Crane 1997[3]
Alternative concepts
Chloroplastida
When the name Plantae or plant is applied
Adl et al., 2005
to a specific group of organisms or taxa, it [4]

usually refers to one of four concepts. From

Phyta Barkley
least to most inclusive, these four
1939 emend.
groupings are:
Holt & Uidica
Name(s) Scope Organisation Description
2007
Plants in the strictest sense include liverworts,
Land plants, also Plantae hornworts, mosses, and vascular plants, as
known as sensu Multicellular well as fossil plants similar to these surviving
Cormophyta
Embryophyta strictissimo groups (e.g., Metaphyta Whittaker, 1969,[8]
Plantae Margulis, 1971[9]). Endlicher, 1836
Plants in a strict sense include the green
algae, and land plants that emerged within Cormobionta
them, including stoneworts. The relationships

Green plants, also

between plant groups are still being worked
out, and the names given to them vary
Rothmaler,
known as Some
Plantae considerably. The clade Viridiplantae
Viridiplantae,
sensu
unicellular,
encompasses a group of organisms that have 1948
Viridiphyta, some
stricto cellulose in their cell walls, possess
Chlorobionta or multicellular
Chloroplastida
chlorophylls a and b and have plastids bound
Euplanta
by only two membranes that are capable of
photosynthesis and of storing starch. This
clade is the main subject of this article (e.g.,
Barkley, 1949
Plantae Copeland, 1956[10]).

Plants in a broad sense comprise the green Telomobionta

plants listed above plus the red algae

Archaeplastida, Some
(Rhodophyta) and the glaucophyte algae Takhtajan,
(Glaucophyta) that store Floridean starch
also known as Plantae unicellular,
Plastida or sensu lato some
outside the plastids, in the cytoplasm. This
clade includes all of the organisms that eons
1964
Primoplantae multicellular
ago acquired their primary chloroplasts
directly by engulfing cyanobacteria (e.g., Embryobionta
Plantae Cavalier-Smith, 1981[11]).

Plants in the widest sense included the Cronquist et

Some unrelated groups of algae, fungi and bacteria
Plantae
Old definitions of
sensu
unicellular, on older, obsolete classifications (e.g. Plantae
al., 1966
plant (obsolete) some or Vegetabilia Linnaeus 1751,[12] Plantae
amplo
multicellular Haeckel 1866,[13] Metaphyta Haeckel, 1894,[14]
Plantae Whittaker, 1969[8]).
 Metaphyta
Evolution
Whittaker,
1969
Diversity

The desmid Cosmarium

botrytis is a single cell.

The coast redwood Sequoia

sempervirens is up to 380
feet (120 m) tall.

There are about 382,000 accepted species of plants,[15] of which

the great majority, some 283,000, produce seeds.[16] The table
below shows some species count estimates of different green
plant (Viridiplantae) divisions. About 85–90% of all plants are
flowering plants. Several projects are currently attempting to
collect records on all plant species in online databases, e.g. the
World Flora Online.[15][17]

Plants range in scale from single-celled organisms such as

desmids (from 10 micrometres across) and picozoa (less than 3
micrometres across),[18][19] to the largest trees (megaflora) such
as the conifer Sequoia sempervirens (up to 380 feet (120 m) tall )
and the angiosperm Eucalyptus regnans (up to 325 feet (99 m)
tall ).[20]

Diversity of living green plant (Viridiplantae) divisions by number of species

Informal group Division name Common name No. of described living species
[21][22]
Green algae Chlorophyta Green algae (chlorophytes) 3800–4300
[23][24]
Charophyta Green algae (e.g. desmids & stoneworts) 2800–6000
[25]
Bryophytes Marchantiophyta Liverworts 6000–8000
[26]
Anthocerotophyta Hornworts 100–200
[27]
Bryophyta Mosses 12000
[28]
Pteridophytes Lycopodiophyta Clubmosses 1200
[28]
Polypodiophyta Ferns, whisk ferns & horsetails 11000
[29]
Spermatophytes Cycadophyta Cycads 160
(seed plants) [30]
Ginkgophyta Ginkgo 1
[28]
Pinophyta Conifers 630
[28]
Gnetophyta Gnetophytes 70
[31]
Angiospermae Flowering plants 258650

The naming of plants is governed by the International Code of

Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants[32] and the
International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants.[33]

Evolutionary history

The ancestors of land plants evolved in water. An algal scum

formed on the land
1,200 (https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=1,200) million years ago,
but it was not until the Ordovician, around
450 (https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=450) million years ago,
that the first land plants appeared, with a level of organisation
like that of bryophytes.[34][35] However, evidence from carbon
isotope ratios in Precambrian rocks suggests that complex
plants developed over 1000 mya.[36]

Primitive land plants began to diversify in the late Silurian,

around
420 (https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=420) million years ago.
Bryophytes, club mosses, and ferns then appear in the fossil
record.[37] Early plant anatomy is preserved in cellular detail in
an early Devonian fossil assemblage from the Rhynie chert.
These early plants were preserved by being petrified in chert
formed in silica-rich volcanic hot springs.[38]

By the end of the Devonian, most of the basic features of plants

today were present, including roots, leaves and secondary wood
in trees such as Archaeopteris.[39][40] The Carboniferous Period
saw the development of forests in swampy environments
dominated by clubmosses and horsetails, including some as
large as trees, and the appearance of early gymnosperms, the
first seed plants.[41] The Permo-Triassic extinction event
radically changed the structures of communities.[42] This may
have set the scene for the evolution of flowering plants in the
Triassic
(~200 (https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=200) million years ago),
with an adaptive radiation in the Cretaceous so rapid that
Darwin called it an "abominable mystery".[43][44][45] Conifers
diversified from the Late Triassic onwards, and became a
dominant part of floras in the Jurassic.[46][47]

By the Conifers
In the
Cross- Devonian, became Adaptive
Carbonifer
section of plants had diverse radiation
ous,
a stem of adapted and often in the
horsetails
Rhynia, an to land dominant Cretaceou
such as
early land with roots in the s created
Asterophyl
plant, and Jurassic. many
lites
preserved woody Cone of flowering
proliferate
in Rhynie stems. Araucaria plants,
d in
chert from mirabilis. such as
swampy
the early Sagaria in
forests.
Devonian the
Ranuncula
ceae.
Phylogeny

In 2019, a phylogeny based on genomes and transcriptomes

from 1,153 plant species was proposed.[48] The placing of algal
groups is supported by phylogenies based on genomes from the
Mesostigmatophyceae and Chlorokybophyceae that have since
been sequenced. Both the "chlorophyte algae" and the
"streptophyte algae" are treated as paraphyletic (vertical bars
beside phylogenetic tree diagram) in this analysis, as the land
plants arose from within those groups.[49][50] The classification of
Bryophyta is supported both by Puttick et al. 2018,[51] and by
phylogenies involving the hornwort genomes that have also
since been sequenced.[52][53]
 Rhodophyta

Archaeplastida
 Glaucophyta

Physiology

Plant cells

Plant cell structure

Plant cells have distinctive features that other eukaryotic cells

(such as those of animals) lack. These include the large water-
filled central vacuole, chloroplasts, and the strong flexible cell
wall, which is outside the cell membrane. Chloroplasts are
derived from what was once a symbiosis of a non-
photosynthetic cell and photosynthetic cyanobacteria. The cell
wall, made mostly of cellulose, allows plant cells to swell up with
water without bursting. The vacuole allows the cell to change in
size while the amount of cytoplasm stays the same.[54]
Plant structure Chlorophyta

Anatomy of a seed plant. 1. Shoot

system. 2. Root system. 3.
Hypocotyl. 4. Terminal bud. 5. Leaf
blade. 6. Internode. 7. Axillary bud.
8. Petiole. 9. Stem. 10. Node. 11.
Tap root. 12. Root hairs. 13. Root
tip. 14. Root cap

Most plants are multicellular. Plant cells differentiate into

multiple cell types, forming tissues such as the vascular tissue
with specialized xylem and phloem of leaf veins and stems, and
organs with different physiological functions such as roots to
absorb water and minerals, stems for support and to transport
water and synthesized molecules, leaves for photosynthesis,
Viridiplantae
(green plants) [55]
and flowers for reproduction.

Photosynthesis

Plants photosynthesize, manufacturing food molecules (sugars)

using energy obtained from light. Plant cells contain chlorophylls
inside their chloroplasts, which are green pigments that are
used to capture light energy. The end-to-end chemical equation
for photosynthesis is:[56]
 Prasinococcales

This causes plants to release oxygen into the atmosphere.

Green plants provide a substantial proportion of the world's
molecular oxygen, alongside the contributions from
photosynthetic algae and cyanobacteria.[57][58][59]

Plants that have secondarily adopted a parasitic lifestyle may

lose the genes involved in photosynthesis and the production of
chlorophyll.[60]

Growth and repair

Growth is determined by the interaction of a plant's genome

with its physical and biotic environment.[61] Factors of the
physical or abiotic environment include temperature, water,
light, carbon dioxide, and nutrients in the soil.[62] Biotic factors
that affect plant growth include crowding, grazing, beneficial
symbiotic bacteria and fungi, and attacks by insects or plant
diseases.[63]

Frost and dehydration can damage or kill plants. Some plants

have antifreeze proteins, heat-shock proteins and sugars in
their cytoplasm that enable them to tolerate these stresses.[64]
Plants are continuously exposed to a range of physical and
biotic stresses which cause DNAMesostigmatophyceae
damage, but they can tolerate
and repair much of this damage.[65]
Chlorokybophyceae

Spirotaenia
Reproduction
Klebsormidiales
Plants reproduce to generate offspring, whether sexually,
Chara
involving gametes, or asexually, involving ordinary growth. Many
plants use both mechanisms.[66]
Coleochaetales

Sexual Zygnematophyceae

Hornwort

Bryophytes Liverwo

Alternation of generations between a haploid (n)

gametophyte (top) and a diploid (2n) sporophyte Mosses
(bottom), in all types of plant

When reproducing sexually, plants have complex lifecycles

Lycophytes
involving alternation of generations. One generation, the
Embryophytes
(land plants)
sporophyte, which is diploid (with 2 sets of chromosomes), gives Fern
rise to the next generation, the gametophyte, which is haploid
Gy
(with one set of chromosomes). Some plants also reproduce
asexually via spores. In some non-flowering plants such as
Spermatophytes
mosses, the sexual gametophyte forms most of the (seed plants)
visible An

plant.[67] In seed plants (gymnosperms and flowering plants), the

sporophyte forms most of the visible plant, and the
gametophyte is very small. Flowering plants reproduce sexually
using flowers, which contain male and female parts: these may
be within the same (hermaphrodite) flower, on different flowers
on the same plant, or on different plants. The pollen produces
male gametes that enter the ovule to fertilize the egg cell of the
female gametophyte. Fertilization takes place within the carpels
or ovaries, which develop into fruits that contain seeds. Fruits
may be dispersed whole, or they may split open and the seeds
dispersed individually.[68]

Asexual

Ficinia spiralis spreads asexually

with runners in the sand.

Plants reproduce asexually by growing any of a wide variety of

structures capable of growing into new plants. At the simplest,
plants such as mosses or liverworts may be broken into pieces,
each of which may regrow into whole plants. The propagation of
flowering plants by cuttings is a similar process. Structures such
as runners enable plants to grow to cover an area, forming a
clone. Many plants grow food storage structures such as tubers
or bulbs which may each develop into a new plant.[69]
Some non-flowering plants, such as many liverworts, mosses
and some clubmosses, along with a few flowering plants, grow
small clumps of cells called gemmae which can detach and
grow.[70][71]

Disease resistance

Plants use pattern-recognition receptors to recognize

pathogens such as bacteria that cause plant diseases. This
recognition triggers a protective response. The first such plant
receptors were identified in rice[72] and in Arabidopsis
thaliana.[73]

Genomics

Plants have some of the largest genomes among all

organisms.[74] The largest plant genome (in terms of gene
number) is that of wheat (Triticum aestivum), predicted to
encode ≈94,000 genes[75] and thus almost 5 times as many as
the human genome. The first plant genome sequenced was that
of Arabidopsis thaliana which encodes about 25,500 genes.[76] In
terms of sheer DNA sequence, the smallest published genome
is that of the carnivorous bladderwort (Utricularia gibba) at 82
Mb (although it still encodes 28,500 genes)[77] while the largest,
from the Norway spruce (Picea abies), extends over 19.6 Gb
(encoding about 28,300 genes).[78]

Ecology

Distribution

A map of a classification of the world's vegetation into biomes. Those named here include
tundra, taiga, temperate broadleaf forest, temperate steppe, subtropical rainforest,
Mediterranean vegetation, monsoon forest, arid desert, xeric shrubland, dry steppe,
semiarid desert, grass savanna, tree savanna, subtropical and tropical dry forest, tropical
rainforest, alpine tundra, and montane forests. Shown in gray is "ice sheet and polar
desert" devoid of plants.

Plants are distributed almost worldwide. While they inhabit

several biomes which can be divided into a multitude of
ecoregions,[79] only the hardy plants of the Antarctic flora,
consisting of algae, mosses, liverworts, lichens, and just two
flowering plants, have adapted to the prevailing conditions on
that southern continent.[80]

Plants are often the dominant physical and structural

component of the habitats where they occur. Many of the
Earth's biomes are named for the type of vegetation because
plants are the dominant organisms in those biomes, such as
grassland, savanna, and tropical rainforest.[81]

Primary producers

The photosynthesis conducted by land plants and algae is the

ultimate source of energy and organic material in nearly all
ecosystems. Photosynthesis, at first by cyanobacteria and later
by photosynthetic eukaryotes, radically changed the
composition of the early Earth's anoxic atmosphere, which as a
result is now 21% oxygen. Animals and most other organisms
are aerobic, relying on oxygen; those that do not are confined to
relatively rare anaerobic environments. Plants are the primary
producers in most terrestrial ecosystems and form the basis of
the food web in those ecosystems.[82] Plants form about 80% of
the world biomass at about 450 gigatonnes (4.4 × 1011 long tons;
5.0 × 1011 short tons) of carbon.[83]

Ecological relationships

Numerous animals have coevolved with plants; flowering plants

have evolved pollination syndromes, suites of flower traits that
favour their reproduction. Many, including insect and bird
partners, are pollinators, visiting flowers and accidentally
transferring pollen in exchange for food in the form of pollen or
nectar.[84]

Many animals disperse seeds that are adapted for such

dispersal. Various mechanisms of dispersal have evolved. Some
fruits offer nutritious outer layers attractive to animals, while the
seeds are adapted to survive the passage through the animal's
gut; others have hooks that enable them to attach to a
mammal's fur.[85]Myrmecophytes are plants that have coevolved
with ants. The plant provides a home, and sometimes food, for
the ants. In exchange, the ants defend the plant from herbivores
and sometimes competing plants. Ant wastes serve as organic
fertilizer.[86]

The majority of plant species have fungi associated with their

root systems in a mutualistic symbiosis known as mycorrhiza.
The fungi help the plants gain water and mineral nutrients from
the soil, while the plant gives the fungi carbohydrates
manufactured in photosynthesis.[87] Some plants serve as
homes for endophytic fungi that protect the plant from
herbivores by producing toxins. The fungal endophyte
Neotyphodium coenophialum in tall fescue grass has pest status
in the American cattle industry.[88]
Many legumes have Rhizobium nitrogen-fixing bacteria in
nodules of their roots, which fix nitrogen from the air for the
plant to use; in return, the plants supply sugars to the
bacteria.[89] Nitrogen fixed in this way can become available to
other plants, and is important in agriculture; for example,
farmers may grow a crop rotation of a legume such as beans,
followed by a cereal such as wheat, to provide cash crops with a
reduced input of nitrogen fertilizer.[90]

Some 1% of plants are parasitic. They range from the semi-

parasitic mistletoe that merely takes some nutrients from its
host, but still has photosynthetic leaves, to the fully-parasitic
broomrape and toothwort that acquire all their nutrients
through connections to the roots of other plants, and so have no
chlorophyll. Full parasites can be extremely harmful to their
plant hosts.[91]

Plants that grow on other plants, usually trees, without

parasitizing them, are called epiphytes. These may support
diverse arboreal ecosystems. Some may indirectly harm their
host plant, such as by intercepting light. Hemiepiphytes like the
strangler fig begin as epiphytes, but eventually set their own
roots and overpower and kill their host. Many orchids,
bromeliads, ferns, and mosses grow as epiphytes.[92] Among the
epiphytes, the bromeliads accumulate water in their leaf axils;
these water-filled cavities can support complex aquatic food
webs.[93]

Some 630 species of plants are carnivorous, such as the Venus

flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) and sundew (Drosera species). They
trap small animals and digest them to obtain mineral nutrients,
especially nitrogen and phosphorus.[94]
 Humming Seed Legumes
Bee bird dispersal have root A sundew
gathering visiting a by nodules leaf with
pollen flower for animals: containing sticky
(orange nectar many symbiotic hairs
pollen hooked Rhizobium curling to
basket on Geum nitrogen trap and
its leg) urbanum fixing digest a fly

fruits bacteria.

attached
to a dog's
fur

Competition

Competition for shared resources reduces a plant's growth.[95][96]

Shared resources include sunlight, water and nutrients. Light is a
critical resource because it is necessary for photosynthesis.[95]
Plants use their leaves to shade other plants from sunlight and
grow quickly to maximize their own expose.[95] Water too is
essential for photosynthesis; roots compete to maximize water
uptake from soil.[97] Some plants have deep roots that are able
to locate water stored deep underground, and others have
shallower roots that are capable of extending longer distances
to collect recent rainwater.[97] Minerals are important for plant
growth and development.[98] Common nutrients competed for
amongst plants include nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium.[99]

Importance to humans

Food

Harvesting oats with a

combine harvester

Human cultivation of plants is the core of agriculture, which in

turn has played a key role in the history of world civilizations.[100]
Humans depend on plants for food, either directly or as feed in
animal husbandry. Agriculture includes agronomy for arable
crops, horticulture for vegetables and fruit, and forestry for
timber.[101][102] About 7,000 species of plant have been used for
food, though most of today's food is derived from only 30
species. The major staples include cereals such as rice and
wheat, starchy roots and tubers such as cassava and potato,
and legumes such as peas and beans. Vegetable oils such as
olive oil and palm oil provide lipids, while fruit and vegetables
contribute vitamins and minerals to the diet.[103] Coffee, tea,
and chocolate are major crops whose caffeine-containing
products serve as mild stimulants.[104] The study of plant uses by
people is called economic botany or ethnobotany.[105]

Medicines

A medieval physician
preparing an extract from a
medicinal plant, from an
Arabic Dioscorides, 1224

Medicinal plants are a primary source of organic compounds,

both for their medicinal and physiological effects, and for the
industrial synthesis of a vast array of organic chemicals.[106]
Many hundreds of medicines, as well as narcotics, are derived
from plants, both traditional medicines used in herbalism[107][108]
and chemical substances purified from plants or first identified
in them, sometimes by ethnobotanical search, and then
synthesised for use in modern medicine. Modern medicines
derived from plants include aspirin, taxol, morphine, quinine,
reserpine, colchicine, digitalis and vincristine. Plants used in
herbalism include ginkgo, echinacea, feverfew, and Saint John's
wort. The pharmacopoeia of Dioscorides, De materia medica,
describing some 600 medicinal plants, was written between 50
and 70 CE and remained in use in Europe and the Middle East
until around 1600 CE; it was the precursor of all modern
pharmacopoeias.[109][110][111]

Nonfood products

Timber in storage for later

processing at a sawmill

Plants grown as industrial crops are the source of a wide range

of products used in manufacturing.[112] Nonfood products
include essential oils, natural dyes, pigments, waxes, resins,
tannins, alkaloids, amber and cork. Products derived from plants
include soaps, shampoos, perfumes, cosmetics, paint, varnish,
turpentine, rubber, latex, lubricants, linoleum, plastics, inks, and
gums. Renewable fuels from plants include firewood, peat and
other biofuels.[113][114] The fossil fuels coal, petroleum and
natural gas are derived from the remains of aquatic organisms
including phytoplankton in geological time.[115] Many of the coal
fields date to the Carboniferous period of Earth's history.
Terrestrial plants also form type III kerogen, a source of natural
gas.[116][117]

Structural resources and fibres from plants are used to construct

dwellings and to manufacture clothing. Wood is used for
buildings, boats, and furniture, and for smaller items such as
musical instruments and sports equipment. Wood is pulped to
make paper and cardboard.[118] Cloth is often made from cotton,
flax, ramie or synthetic fibres such as rayon, derived from plant
cellulose. Thread used to sew cloth likewise comes in large part
from cotton.[119]

Ornamental plants

A rose espalier at
Niedernhall in Germany

Thousands of plant species are cultivated for their beauty and to

provide shade, modify temperatures, reduce wind, abate noise,
provide privacy, and reduce soil erosion. Plants are the basis of a
multibillion-dollar per year tourism industry, which includes
travel to historic gardens, national parks, rainforests, forests with
colourful autumn leaves, and festivals such as Japan's[120] and
America's cherry blossom festivals.[121]
Plants may be grown indoors as houseplants, or in specialized
buildings such as greenhouses. Plants such as Venus flytrap,
sensitive plant and resurrection plant are sold as novelties. Art
forms specializing in the arrangement of cut or living plant
include bonsai, ikebana, and the arrangement of cut or dried
flowers. Ornamental plants have sometimes changed the course
of history, as in tulipomania.[122]

In science

Barbara McClintock used

maize to study inheritance
of traits.

The traditional study of plants is the science of botany.[123] Basic

biological research has often used plants as its model
organisms. In genetics, the breeding of pea plants allowed
Gregor Mendel to derive the basic laws governing
inheritance,[124] and examination of chromosomes in maize
allowed Barbara McClintock to demonstrate their connection to
inherited traits.[125] The plant Arabidopsis thaliana is used in
laboratories as a model organism to understand how genes
control the growth and development of plant structures.[126]
Tree rings provide a method of dating in archeology, and a
record of past climates.[127] The study of plant fossils, or
Paleobotany, provides information about the evolutions of
plants, paleogeographical reconstructions, and past climate
change. Plant fossils can also help determine the age of
rocks.[128]

In mythology, religion, and culture

Plants including trees appear in mythology, religion, and

literature.[129][130][131] In multiple Indo-European, Siberian, and
Native American religions, the world tree motif is depicted as a
colossal tree growing on the earth, supporting the heavens, and
with its roots reaching into the underworld. It may also appear
as a cosmic tree or an eagle and serpent tree.[132][133] Forms of
the world tree include the archetypal tree of life, which is in turn
connected to the Eurasian concept of the sacred tree.[134]
Another widespread ancient motif, found for example in Iran,
has a tree of life flanked by a pair of confronted animals.[135]

Flowers are often used as memorials, gifts and to mark special

occasions such as births, deaths, weddings and holidays. Flower
arrangements may be used to send hidden messages.[136]
Plants and especially flowers form the subjects of many
paintings.[137][138]
Negative effects

The musk thistle is

an invasive species
in Texas.

Weeds are commercially or aesthetically undesirable plants

growing in managed environments such as in agriculture and
gardens.[139] People have spread many plants beyond their
native ranges; some of these plants have become invasive,
damaging existing ecosystems by displacing native species, and
sometimes becoming serious weeds of cultivation.[140]

Some plants that produce windblown pollen, including grasses,

invoke allergic reactions in people who suffer from hay fever.[141]
Many plants produce toxins to protect themselves from
herbivores. Major classes of plant toxins include alkaloids,
terpenoids, and phenolics.[142] These can be harmful to humans
and livestock by ingestion[143][144] or, as with poison ivy, by
contact.[145] Some plants have negative effects on other plants,
preventing seedling growth or the growth of nearby plants by
releasing allopathic chemicals.[146]
See also

Plant identification

References

1. Cavalier-Smith, Tom (1981). "Eukaryote kingdoms: Seven or nine?".

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Further reading

General:

Evans, L.T. (1998). Feeding the Ten Billion – Plants and

Population Growth. Cambridge University Press. Paperback,
247 pages. ISBN 0-521-64685-5.

Kenrick, Paul & Crane, Peter R. (1997). The Origin and Early
Diversification of Land Plants: A Cladistic Study. Washington,
D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1-56098-730-8.

Raven, Peter H.; Evert, Ray F.; & Eichhorn, Susan E. (2005).
Biology of Plants (7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and
Company. ISBN 0-7167-1007-2.

Taylor, Thomas N. & Taylor, Edith L. (1993). The Biology and

Evolution of Fossil Plants. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
ISBN 0-13-651589-4.

Species estimates and counts:

International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural

Resources (IUCN) Species Survival Commission (2004). IUCN
 Red List The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (https://ww
w.iucnredlist.org/) .

Prance, G. T. (2001). "Discovering the Plant World". Taxon. 50

(2, Golden Jubilee Part 4): 345–359. doi:10.2307/1223885 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.2307%2F1223885) . JSTOR 1223885 (https://
www.jstor.org/stable/1223885) .

External links

Index Nominum Algarum (https://ucjeps.berk The

Wikibook
eley.edu/INA.html)
Dichotomous
Interactive Cronquist classification (https://we Key has a
page on the
b.archive.org/web/20060210225113/https://fl topic of:
orabase.calm.wa.gov.au/phylogeny/cronq88.h Plantae

tml) . Archived 10 February 2006.

Plant Resources of Tropical Africa (https://web.archive.org/we

b/20100611054707/https://www.prota.org/uk/about+prota/) .
Archived 11 June 2010.

Tree of Life (https://tolweb.org/Green_plants) . Archived (http

s://web.archive.org/web/20220309093200/http://tolweb.org/
Green_plants) 9 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine.

Botanical and vegetation databases

African Plants Initiative database (https://www.ville-ge.ch/mu
sinfo/bd/cjb/africa/recherche.php?langue=an)

Australia (https://www.anbg.gov.au/cpbr/databases/)

Chilean plants at Chilebosque (https://www.chilebosque.cl/)

e-Floras (Flora of China, Flora of North America and others) (ht

tps://www.efloras.org/index.aspx) . Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20220219200600/http://www.efloras.org/index.
aspx) 19 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine.

Flora Europaea (https://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/FE/fe.html)

Flora of Central Europe (https://www.floraweb.de/) (in

German)

Flora of North America (https://www.efloras.org/flora_page.as

px?flora_id=1) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220
219202016/http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=
1) 19 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine.

List of Japanese Wild Plants Online (https://www.alpine-plant

s-jp.com/botanical_name/list_of_japanese_wild_plants_abelia
_buxus.htm) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2022031
6094850/http://www.alpine-plants-jp.com/botanical_name/li
st_of_japanese_wild_plants_abelia_buxus.htm) 16 March
2022 at the Wayback Machine.
 Meet the Plants-National Tropical Botanical Garden (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20070616151737/https://ntbg.org/plants/
choose_a_plant.php) . Archived 16 June 2007.

Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center – Native Plant

Information Network at University of Texas, Austin (https://ww
w.wildflower.org/)

United States Department of Agriculture (https://plants.usda.

gov/) not limited to continental US species.

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