CAPACITORS and Inductors

Capacitor: Introduction

A capacitor is a two-terminal, electrical component. Along

with resistors and inductors, they are one of the most
fundamental passive components we use.
What makes capacitors special
is their ability to store energy;
they're like a fully charged
electric battery. Caps, as we
usually refer to them, have all
sorts of critical applications in
circuits. Common applications
include local energy storage,
voltage spike suppression, and
complex signal filtering.
Circuit Symbols
There are two common ways to draw a capacitor in a schematic.
They always have two terminals, which go on to connect to the
rest of the circuit. The capacitors symbol consists of two parallel
lines, which are either flat or curved; both lines should be
parallel to each other, close, but not touching (this is actually
representative of how the capacitor is made. Hard to describe,
easier to just show
 Capacitance Units

Not all capacitors are created equal. Each capacitor is built to have a
specific amount of capacitance. The capacitance of a capacitor tells
you how much charge it can store, more capacitance means more
capacity to store charge. The standard unit of capacitance is called
the farad, which is abbreviated F.
It turns out that a farad is a lot of capacitance, even 0.001F (1
milifarad -- 1mF) is a big capacitor. Usually you'll see capacitors
rated in the pico- (10−12) to microfarad (10−6 ) range.
 Prefixes

Prefix Name Abbreviation Weight Equivalent Farads

Picofarad pF 10-12
10-12 0.000000000001 F
Nanofarad nF 10-9 0.000000001 F
Microfarad µF 10-6 0.000001 F
Milifarad mF 10-3 0.001 F
Kilofarad kF 103 1000 F

When you get into the farad to kilofarad range of

capacitance, you start talking about special caps
called super or ultra-capacitors.
How a Capacitor Is Made

The schematic symbol for a capacitor actually

closely resembles how it's made. A capacitor is
created out of two metal plates and an insulating
material called a dielectric. The metal plates are
placed very close to each other, in parallel, but the
dielectric sits between them to make sure they don't
touch.

Your standard capacitor

sandwich: two metal
plates separated by an
insulating dielectric.
Capacitance

The dielectric can be made out of all sorts of insulating materials: paper, glass,
rubber, ceramic, plastic, or anything that will impede the flow of current.
The plates are made of a conductive material: aluminum, tantalum, silver, or other
metals. They're each connected to a terminal wire, which is what eventually
connects to the rest of the circuit.
The capacitance of a capacitor -- how many farads it has -- depends on how it's
constructed. More capacitance requires a larger capacitor. Plates with more
overlapping surface area provide more capacitance, while more distance between
the plates means less capacitance. The material of the dielectric even has an effect
on how many farads a cap has. The total capacitance of a capacitor can be
calculated with the equation:
Where εr is the dielectric's relative permittivity (a constant value
determined by the dielectric material), A is the amount of area the plates
overlap each other, and d is the distance between the plates.
Where εr is the dielectric's relative permittivity (a
constant value determined by the dielectric
material), A is the amount of area the plates overlap
each other, and d is the distance between the plates.
 How a Capacitor Works

Electric current is the flow of electric charge, which is what electrical

components harness to light up, or spin, or do whatever they do. When
current flows into a capacitor, the charges get "stuck" on the plates because
they can't get past the insulating dielectric. Electrons -- negatively charged
particles -- are sucked into one of the plates, and it becomes overall
negatively charged. The large mass of negative charges on one plate pushes
away like charges on the other plate, making it positively charged.
The positive and negative charges on each of these plates attract
each other, because that's what opposite charges do. But, with the
dielectric sitting between them, as much as they want to come
together, the charges will forever be stuck on the plate (until they
have somewhere else to go). The stationary charges on these plates
create an electric field, which influence electric potential
energy and voltage. When charges group together on a capacitor like
this, the cap is storing electric energy just as a battery might store
chemical energy.
 Charging and Discharging

When positive and negative charges coalesce on the capacitor plates, the capacitor
becomes charged. A capacitor can retain its electric field -- hold its charge -- because the
positive and negative charges on each of the plates attract each other but never reach each
other.
At some point the capacitor plates will be so full of charges that they just can't accept any
more. There are enough negative charges on one plate that they can repel any others that try
to join. This is where the capacitance (farads) of a capacitor comes into play, which tells you
the maximum amount of charge the cap can store.
If a path in the circuit is created, which allows the charges to find another path to each other,
they'll leave the capacitor, and it will discharge.
For example, in the circuit below, a battery can be used to induce an electric potential across
the capacitor. This will cause equal but opposite charges to build up on each of the plates,
until they're so full they repel any more current from flowing. An LED placed in series with the
cap could provide a path for the current, and the energy stored in the capacitor could be used
to briefly illuminate the LED.
Charging and discharging
Calculating Charge, Voltage, and
Current

A capacitor's capacitance -- how many farads it has -- tells you how

much charge it can store. How much charge a capacitor
is currently storing depends on the potential difference (voltage)
between its plates. This relationship between charge, capacitance,
and voltage can be modeled with this equation:

Q = CV

Charge (Q) stored in a capacitor is the product of its

capacitance (C) and the voltage (V) applied to it.
Current through the Capacitor
the amount of current through a capacitor depends on both the
capacitance and how quickly the voltage is rising or falling. If the
voltage across a capacitor swiftly rises, a large positive current will be
induced through the capacitor. A slower rise in voltage across a
capacitor equates to a smaller current through it. If the voltage across
a capacitor is steady and unchanging, no current will go through it.
The equation for calculating current through a capacitor is:
 Types of capacitors
There are all sorts of capacitor types out there, each with certain features and
drawbacks which make it better for some applications than others.
When deciding on capacitor types there are a handful of factors to consider:
• Size - Size both in terms of physical volume and capacitance. It's not uncommon
for a capacitor to be the largest component in a circuit. They can also be very
tiny. More capacitance typically requires a larger capacitor.
• Maximum voltage - Each capacitor is rated for a maximum voltage that can be
dropped across it. Some capacitors might be rated for 1.5V, others might be
rated for 100V. Exceeding the maximum voltage will usually result in destroying
the capacitor.
Types of capacitors
• Leakage current - Capacitors aren't perfect. Every cap is prone to leaking some
tiny amount of current through the dielectric, from one terminal to the other.
This tiny current loss (usually nanoamps or less) is called leakage. Leakage
causes energy stored in the capacitor to slowly, but surely drain away.
• Equivalent series resistance (ESR) - The terminals of a capacitor aren't 100%
conductive, they'll always have a tiny amount of resistance (usually less than
0.01Ω) to them. This resistance becomes a problem when a lot of current runs
through the cap, producing heat and power loss.
• Tolerance - Capacitors also can't be made to have an exact, precise
capacitance. Each cap will be rated for their nominal capacitance, but,
depending on the type, the exact value might vary anywhere from ±1% to ±20%
of the desired value.
Ceramic Capacitors

The most commonly used and produced capacitor out there is the ceramic capacitor.
The name comes from the material from which their dielectric is made.
Ceramic capacitors are usually both physically and capacitance-wise small. It's hard
to find a ceramic capacitor much larger than 10µF. A surface-mount ceramic cap is
commonly found in a tiny 0402 (0.4mm x 0.2mm), 0603 (0.6mm x 0.3mm) or 0805
package. Through-hole ceramic caps usually look like small (commonly yellow or red)
bulbs, with two protruding terminals.

Two caps in a through-hole,

radial package; a 22pF cap
on the left, and a 0.1µF on the
right. In the middle, a tiny
0.1µF 0603 surface-mount
cap.
These caps are well-suited for high-frequency
coupling and decoupling applications.
Aluminum and Tantalum Electrolytic
Electrolytics are great because they can pack a lot of capacitance
into a relatively small volume. If you need a capacitor in the range
of 1µF-1mF, you're most likely to find it in an electrolytic form.
They're especially well suited to high-voltage applications because
of their relatively high maximum voltage ratings.
Aluminum electrolytic capacitors, the most popular of the
electrolytic family, usually look like little tin cans, with both leads
extending from the bottom.
electrolytic caps are usually polarized. They have a positive pin --
the anode -- and a negative pin called the cathode. When voltage is
applied to an electrolytic cap, the anode must be at a higher voltage
than the cathode. The cathode of an electrolytic capacitor is usually
identified with a '-' marking, and a colored strip on the case. The leg
of the anode might also be slightly longer as another indication. If
voltage is applied in reverse on an electrolytic cap, they'll fail
spectacularly (making a pop and bursting open), and permanently.
After popping an electrolytic will behave like a short circuit.
Supercapacitors

If you're looking for a capacitor made to store energy, look no further

than supercapacitors. These caps are uniquely designed to
have very high capacitances, in the range of farads.
While they can store a huge amount of charge, supercaps can't deal
with very high voltages. This 10F supercap is only rated for 2.5V max.
Any more than that will destroy it. Super caps are commonly placed in
series to achieve a higher voltage rating (while reducing total
capacitance).
The main application for supercapacitors is in storing and releasing
energy, like batteries, which are their main competition. While
supercaps can't hold as much energy as an equally sized battery, they
can release it much faster, and they usually have a much longer
lifespan.
 Others
Electrolytic and ceramic caps cover about 80% of the capacitor types out there (and
supercaps only about 2%, but they're super!). Another common capacitor type is
the film capacitor, which features very low parasitic losses (ESR), making them great
for dealing with very high currents.
There's plenty of other less common capacitors. Variable capacitors can produce a
range of capacitances, which makes them a good alternative to variable resistors in
tuning circuits. Twisted wires or PCBs can create capacitance (sometimes undesired)
because each consists of two conductors separated by an insulator. Leyden Jars -- a
glass jar filled with and surrounded by conductors -- are the O.G. of the capacitor
family. Finally, of course, flux capacitors (a strange combination of inductor and
capacitor)
Combination of capacitors: Capacitors in
Series/Parallel

Much like resistors, multiple capacitors can be combined in series or

parallel to create a combined equivalent capacitance. Capacitors,

however, add together in a way that's completely the opposite of

resistors.
Capacitors in Parallel
When capacitors are placed in parallel with one another the total
capacitance is simply the sum of all capacitances. This is analogous to
the way resistors add when in series.

So, for example, if you had three

capacitors of values 10µF, 1µF,
and 0.1µF in parallel, the total
capacitance would be 11.1µF
(10+1+0.1).
Capacitors in Series

Much like resistors are a pain to add in parallel, capacitors get funky
when placed in series. The total capacitance of N capacitors in series
is the inverse of the sum of all inverse capacitances.

If you only have two capacitors in series, you can

use the "product-over-sum" method to calculate the
total capacitance:
Series Combintion ….

Taking that equation even further, if you have two

equal-valued capacitors in series, the total
capacitance is half of their value. For example
two 10F supercapacitors in series will produce a
total capacitance of 5F (it'll also have the benefit of
doubling the voltage rating of the total capacitor,
from 2.5V to 5V).
 Application Examples
There are tons of applications for this nifty little (actually they're usually pretty large) passive
component. To give you an idea of their wide range of uses, here are a few examples:

Decoupling (Bypass) Capacitors

A lot of the capacitors you see in circuits, especially those featuring an integrated circuit, are
decoupling. A decoupling capacitor's job is to supress high-frequency noise in power supply
signals. They take tiny voltage ripples, which could otherwise be harmful to delicate ICs, out of
the voltage supply.
In a way, decoupling capacitors act as a very small, local power supply for ICs (almost like
an uninterruptible power supply is to computers). If the power supply very temporarily drops its
voltage (which is actually pretty common, especially when the circuit it's powering is constantly
switching its load requirements), a decoupling capacitor can briefly supply power at the correct
voltage. This is why these capacitors are also called bypass caps; they can temporarily
act as a power source, bypassing the power supply.
 Decoupling caps
Decoupling capacitors connect between the power source (5V, 3.3V, etc.)
and ground. It's not uncommon to use two or more different-valued, even
different types of capacitors to bypass the power supply, because some
capacitor values will be better than others at filtering out certain frequencies
of noise.
In this schematic, three decoupling capacitors are used to help reduce the
noise in an accelerometer's voltage supply. Two ceramic 0.1µF and one
tantalum electrolytic 10µF split decoupling duties.
While it seems like this might create a short from power to ground, only
high-frequency signals can run through the capacitor to ground. The
DC signal will go to the IC, just as desired. Another reason these are
called bypass capacitors is because the high frequencies (in the kHz-
MHz range) bypass the IC, instead running through the capacitor to get
to ground.
Here's the physical circuit layout from the schematic
above. The tiny, black IC is surrounded by two 0.1µF
capacitors (the brown caps) and one 10µF electrolytic
tantalum capacitor (the tall, black/grey rectangular
cap).
To follow good engineering practice, always add at
least one decoupling capacitor to every IC. Usually
0.1µF is a good choice, or even add some 1µF or
10µF caps. They're a cheap addition, and they help
make sure the chip isn't subjected to big dips or
spikes in voltage.
Examples
 Signal Filtering
• When a fluctuating signal with a dc component is sent through a
capacitor, the capacitor removes the dc component yet allows the ac
component through.
• A capacitor can be used to divert unwanted fluctuating signals to
ground
 Exercises
1. How much charge is stored by a 0.1 μF capacitor charged to
50 V?
2. What is the importance of capacitors in IC circuits
3. What is unit of capacitance
4. Give two applications of capacitors
5. Would you place the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor closer
together or farther apart to increase their capacitance
6. If you wish to store a large amount of charge in a capacitor
bank, would you connect capacitors in series or in parallel?
Explain
7. What charge is stored in a 180.0-μF capacitor when 120.0 V is
applied to it?A 4.00-pF is connected in series with an 8.00-
pF capacitor and a 400-V potential difference is applied across
the pair. (a) What is the charge on each capacitor ?(b) What is
the voltage across each capacitor?
 Exercises
8. Three capacitors with capacitances 𝐶1 = 1μ𝐹, 𝐶2 = 2μ𝐹 and 𝐶3 =
6μ𝐹 respectively, are connected in parallel. A 500-V potential
difference is applied across the combination. Determine the voltage
across each capacitor and the charge on each capacitor
9. Find the total capacitance
of this combination of series and parallel capacitors shown below
Exercises
10. An air-filled capacitor is made from two flat parallel plates 1.0 mm
apart. The inside area of each plate is 8.0cm28.0cm2.device that stores
electrical charge and electrical energy[OpenStax]
(a) What is the capacitance of this set of plates?
(b) If the region between the plates is filled with a material
whose dielectric constant is 6.0, what is the new capacitance?
 Inductor
Inductor is a passive component. We find inductors in most power
electronic circuits. An inductor alters both electric and magnetic
fields around it.

The inductor is perhaps the simplest of all

electronic components. It's a simple length
of wire that is coiled up. Something
happens when a current is passed
through a wire that is coiled up. It creates
a magnetic field. The magnetic field
created when a current passes through a
coil is known as "induced magnetic field",
hence the name "inductor". The tendency of
an inductor to oppose a change in the
electric current flowing through it is known
as inductance.
 Inductance
When a voltage potential is applied across it, an inductor stores energy in form of
a magnetic field.
An inductor does not like the change in current within a circuit so if the
current changes it will charge or discharge to equalize the current through
the circuit.
Also remember that an Inductor changes it polarity while discharging so the
potential during charging will be opposite to the potential during discharging.
Symbol for inductors

The lines near the symbol represent the core

material.
Working Behavior of an Inductor
Any current carrying conductor generates a magnetic field in the
fashion illustrated below:
For a non coiled wire the magnetic field produced is almost negligible unless the currents
are impossibly high, in the order of mega-amps.
So in order to increase the magnetic field created by a specific length of wire, we wrap it into
the form of a coil. This increases the magnetic field, like illustrated with the picture below:

This shape is also

called a solenoid
When a voltage is applied across the terminals of an inductor, the current flowing creates a
magnetic field. This magnetic field again creates an induced current in the inductor of opposite
polarity, according to Lenz’s law. The currents do not cancel each other out – rather, the
induced current actively tries to oppose the incoming current due to the voltage across the
inductor. The overall result of this battle is that the current through an inductor cannot change
rapidly – it is always a linear slope.

When the strength of the magnetic field (or magnetic flux) changes, a voltage is induced
between the ends of the conductor. This voltage is termed an induced EMF, using the old term
of EMF (electromotive force) to mean a voltage that has not been produced by a current flowing
through a resistor
 Measuring an Inductor

• To measure the inductor, we define inductance of a

circuit as the voltage change induced when the current
changes at a certain rate.
Mathematically,
𝒅𝒊
V= 𝑳
𝒅𝒕
Where V is the voltage or the value of the back emf, L is
the inductance, i is the current and t is the time.
Inductance, ‘L’, is measured in Henrys, named after Joseph
Henry, the American scientist who discovered
electromagnetic induction.
 Inductance Formula
• For a simple, single-layer, closely wound coil, the inductance is given
by
𝜇𝑁2 A
L=
𝑙
where µ is the permeability of the material on which the coil is wound
−7 𝑁
(in free space, 𝜇 = 4𝜋 × 10 ), N is the number of coil windings, A is
𝐴2
the cross-sectional area of the coil, and l is the length of the coil.
 Inductance Formula
• The following are approximation methods for finding the inductances
of closely spaced single and multilayer air-core coils.
 Basic Operation: Current/Voltage Behavior
• If the switch in a circuit to the left is opened for a specific amount of time and
then closed, the inductor initially will “fight” the applied voltage, and the
current will rise with a slope related to the coil’s inductance. Once steady state
is reached, the coil passes a current that is equal to the applied voltage divided
by the resistance of the coil; the inductor acts like a low-resistive wire. When
the switch is opened, the inductor “fights” the sudden change, and current will
fall with a negative slope related to the coil’s inductance.The current is related
to the applied voltage by V = LdI/dt
Basic operation: Resistor/Inductor Behavior

When the switch is closed, the inductor fights to keep the

current flow down by inducing a voltage across its leads that
opposes the applied voltage. The current reaches 63 percent
of max at t = L/R. As time passes, the current flow levels off
and assumes a dc state. At this point, the inductor acts like a
wire, and the current is simply equal to V/R. When the switch
is then opened, the opposite effect occurs; the inductor fights
to keep current flow up by inducting a voltage in the opposite
direction
Filtering signals
 Different Types of Inductors
The permeability constant µ in the above equations has some interesting implications. It
suggests that the magnetic field inside the inductor can be manipulated choosing a different
core material around which a wire is coiled up.
Cores are materials that support the creation of a magnetic field. They are generally made of
iron and its compounds, such as ferrite (which is an oxide of iron). We get a greater magnetic
field using a core than without one.
Air core

Like the name suggests, this kind of inductor has no

core. In other words the core material is air. Since
air has a relatively low permeability, the inductance
of air core inductors is quite low, rarely above 5𝜇H.
Given the low inductance in air-core inductors, the
rate of current rise is quite fast for an applied
voltage and that makes them capable of handling
high frequencies. They are mostly used in RF
circuits.
Iron Core
Iron is perhaps the most recognizable magnetic
material, which makes it an ideal choice for
inductors. They can be robust and have large
inductances. They have applications in low
frequency line filtering, and in audio equipment.
Ferrite core
Ferrite is just a powder of oxides of iron. This
powder is mixed with an epoxy resin and molded to
form cores around which wires can be
wound. Ferrite core inductors are easily the most
recognizable because of their dull grey-black color.
They also are very brittle and break easily. They are
the most widely used kinds of inductors, since the
permeability can be finely controlled by controlling
the ratio of ferrite to epoxy in the mix.
Combination of inductors: Inductors in Series

To calculate the inductance of a group of inductors in series,

we simply sum up the values of the individual inductances.

𝑳 = 𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑳𝒏 Where L is the total inductance

and 𝑳𝟏 , 𝑳𝟐 … 𝑳𝒏 are the individual inductances.

Suppose you we two inductors, one measuring 10uH

and the other 15uH, then by putting them in series
you obtain a total inductance of 25uH.
Combination of inductors: Inductors in
parallel

Inductors in parallel behave the same

way as resistors in parallel, the
inductance is given by:
1/L = 1/ 𝑳𝟏 + 1/ 𝑳𝟐 + … + 1/
𝑳𝒏 Where L is the total inductance
and 𝑳𝟏 , 𝑳𝟐 … 𝑳𝒏 are the individual
inductances.

If we connect two 10uH inductors in parallel, you’ll

end up with an inductance of 5uH.
Inductors can store energy. However the stored energy is gone the moment we disconnect the
power causing the magnetic field to collapse. In other words, an unpowered inductor cannot
sustain its magnetic field.
E = ½* L * I2
Where E is the energy in Joules, L is the inductance in Henries and I is the current in amps.
Example 1:
If you have an inductor of 20uH with a 5A current flowing through it, then the energy stored will
be calculated as
E = (1/2) x 0.000020 x 52
E= 0.00025J.
In this aspect inductors too, like capacitors, hold very little energy.
Example 2:
The energy stored in an inductor with inductance 10 H with current 5 A can be calculated as
E = (1/2) x10x52
E = 125 J
Formula to determine the rate of current
rise
It's the same formula we talked about above.
The inductance of a circuit is defined as the voltage
change induced when the current changes at a
certain rate.

V/L = dI/dt
Where V is the voltage applied across the inductor, L
is the inductance, I is the current and t is the time.
This states that when a constant voltage is applied
across the inductor, the current rises in a linear
slope.
Inductors impedance

Inductors have impedance that is related to the frequency:

𝑿𝑳 = 2π * f * L
Where 𝑿𝑳 is the inductive impedance, f is the frequency in Hertz
and L is the inductance in Henrys.
Inductors in real life

Inductors, since they are made of

copper wire and ferrite, tend to be
expensive and find most of their

uses in radios, power supplies and telecoms

equipment.
Surge protection

In power supplies, the property of an inductor to

prevent sudden changes in current is used. Along
with a capacitor, it acts to prevent sudden changes
in the power supply output voltage and current.
 Tank
RF (Radio Frequency) circuits make use of an interesting LC circuit
called a tank. The capacitor is charged and discharged into the inductor,
which builds up its magnetic field. When the magnetic field collapses, a
voltage is created and charges the capacitor. This creates periodic
oscillations which can be used to generate high frequencies.
The frequency can be calculated by the formula:

Where f is the frequency in Hertz, L is the

inductance in Henrys and C is the capacitance in
Farads.
 Example
Calculate the resonant frequency of a parallel L-C circuit containing an
inductor of inductance 200μH, and capacitor of capacitance 100μF

Recommended Videos
Inductor basics - What is an inductor?
Inductors and Inductance
Why outlets spark when unplugging - EMF &
Inductors
The resonance frequence
f = 1/(2*3.14*(0.000100*0.000200)^(1/2)) Hz
f = 1.12kHz
 Alternating current
❑ The first type of electricity you learnt was most probably direct current
(DC), which is electricity flowing in a constant direction, and
possessing a voltage with constant polarity.
❑ DC is the kind of electricity made by a battery (with definite positive
and negative terminals), or the kind of charge generated by rubbing
certain types of materials against each other.
❑ DC is not the only "kind" of electricity in use. Certain sources of
electricity like electromechanical generators produce voltages
alternating in polarity, reversing positive and negative over time. An
alternating voltage changes polarity at regular intervals of time while the
direction of the resulting alternating current also changes accordingly
from clockwise to counterclockwise as it's illustrated on the animated
diagram below.
 Alternating current
• AC Current keeps regularly alternating clockwise and counter-
clockwise directions
• Alternating current is the form in which electric power is
delivered to businesses and residences, and it is the form of
electrical energy that consumers typically use when they plug kitchen
appliances, televisions, fans and electric lamps into a wall socket.
• Regarding symbols, whereas the familiar battery symbol is used as a
generic symbol
for any DC voltage source,

• the circle with the wavy line inside is the generic symbol
for any AC voltage source.
 Sinusoidal power source
• A sinusoidal power source is a device that provides a voltage across
its terminals that alternates sinusoidally with time
• As the name implies, alternating current (AC) is a form of energy that
alternates its level with respect to time. AC is generated when an
electro-magnet known as rotor rotates around a conductor wound in
coils known as stator. The rotor is a moving component of an
electromagnetic system in the electric generator as well as in the
electric motor.
 Electric Generator
• In the diagram bellow, AC is generated when a conductor (armature)
rotates so that it cuts the magnetic flux. Two field magnets
constitutes a stator, the stationary part.
In this diagram, A handle is used to spin the
rotor.
 Field Excitation
• This is a hybrid topologies that incorporates both permanent magnets
and field coils (excitation field) in the same configuration
 Electromagnet
• Field coils (excitation field) are used to create magnetic flux. The
stator is portion of a machine that remains fixed with respect to
rotating parts. There is no permanent used here. Magnetism is
created by exciting circuit. Magnetism developed by a current of
electricity is known as electromagnetism
 Electric Motor
A simple motor has the following parts:
• A power supply – mostly DC for a simple motor
• Field Magnet – could be a permanent magnet or an electromagnet
• An Armature or rotor
• Commutator
• Brushes
• Axle
 DC Motor equation
• The voltage at the entry of the DC motor
 Electric motor
• Power Source: A simple motor usually has a DC power source. It supplies
power to the motor armature or field coils.
• Commutator: It is the rotating interface of the armature coil with a
stationary circuit.
• Field Magnet: The magnetic field helps to produce a torque (rotation) on
the rotating armature coil by virtue of Fleming’s left-hand rule.
• Armature Core: Holds the armature coil in place and provides mechanical
support.
• Armature Coil: It helps the motor to run.
• Brushes: It is a device that conducts current between stationary wires and
moving parts, most commonly the rotating shaft.
 What Is The Working Principle of An Electric
Motor?
• The working of an electric motor is based on the fact that a current-carrying
conductor produces a magnetic field around it. To better understand, imagine the
following situation.

• Take two bar magnets and keep the poles facing each other with a small space in
between. Now, take a small length of a conducting wire and make a loop. Keep this
loop in between the space between the magnets such that it is still within the sphere
of influence of the magnets. Now for the last bit. Connect the ends of the loop to
battery terminals.

• Once electricity flows through your simple circuit, you will notice that your loop
“moves”. So why does this happen? The magnetic field of the magnets interferes
with that produced due to electric current flowing in the conductor. Since the loop
has become a magnet, one side of it will be attracted to the north pole of the magnet
and the other to the south pole. This causes the loop to rotate continuously. This is
the principle of working of electric motor.
 Sine wave
• One complete rotation or cycle (equivalent to 360⁰) results to the
generation of what is known as a "sine wave". Whenever you hear
the term 50 Hertz (a unit of frequency), that means that there occurs
50 cycles of sine waves within 1 second.
• In this diagram, a pure sine wave is represented. In radians, full wave
goes from 0 to 2π, first half wave goes from 0 to π, second half wave
goes from π to 2π
Electromotive force (emf)
• The AC voltage generated by generators is known as electromotive
force.
• The expression of electromotive force is given by
𝑑∅
𝐸 =−𝑁
𝑑𝑡
Where ∅ = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡
so 𝐸 = − 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡
 Characteristics of AC Power

• Amplitude: The first characteristic of AC power is its "amplitude".

Amplitude is the maximum value of current or voltage. It is represented by
either of the two peaks of the sine wave. This voltage level is also referred
to as the peak voltage 𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 or 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 and can be either positive or negative.
• Cycle is one complete wave of alternating current or voltage. Period is the
time required to produce one complete cycle of a waveform. One half of a
cycle is referred as alternation.
• Frequency of alternating current is the number of cycles an ac sine wave
makes per second. Frequency is the rate at which current changes direction
per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz), an international unit of
measurement where 1 hertz is equal to 1 cycle per second.
 Characteristics of AC power
• Peak-to-Peak (Pk-Pk) refers to the difference between the highest
positive and the lowest negative amplitude in a waveform. For an
alternating current (AC) wave, the Pk-Pk amplitude is double the
positive peak amplitude.
• The RMS value is the square root of the mean (average) value of the
squared function of the instantaneous values. The symbols used for
defining an RMS value are VRMS or IRMS.
• The RMS voltage of a sinusoid voltage or complex voltage waveform
can be determined by two basic methods.
• Determining RMS Voltage using Analytical Method:
When dealing with pure sinusoidal voltage waveforms the easiest way
to determine RMS Voltage is using an analytical also known as
mathematical way.
 Use Analytic method
• A periodic sinusoidal voltage is constant and can be defined as
𝑉 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 Cos(𝜔𝑡) with a period of T. Then we can calculate the root-mean-square (rms) value of a sinusoidal
voltage (V(t)) as:
1 𝑇 2
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = න 𝑉𝑚 cos 2 (𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0
Integrating through with limits taken from 0 to T gives:
𝑇
𝑉𝑚2 1
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑡+ cos(2𝜔𝑡)
2𝑇 2𝜔 0
Where 𝑉𝑚 is the peak or maximum value of the waveform.

Dividing through further as ω = 2π/T, the complex equation above eventually reduces down to:
1
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑉𝑚 2
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑉𝑚 × 0.7071
That is the RMS voltage equation

Then the RMS voltage (VRMS) of a sinusoidal waveform is determined1 by multiplying the peak voltage value by
0.7071, which is the same as one divided by the square root of two ( 2 ).
From the equation of the RMS voltage, we can see that the RMS depends only on the magnitude of the waveform.
RMS is not a function of either the waveforms frequency nor its phase angle.
 RMS practical consideration
• The RMS value is also known as the effective value of a varying
voltage or current.
• Multimeter always shows an RMS value of AC voltage. Nominal
voltages like 220V or 230V or 240V, or 100V or 110V that we see on
our AC appliances or sockets is RMS.
 Transformers
• A basic transformer is a four-terminal device that is capable of
transforming an ac input voltage into a higher or lower ac output
voltage (transformers are not designed to raise or lower dc voltages)
• A typical transformer consists of two or more coils that share a
common laminated iron core, as shown in Figure bellow. One of the
coils is called the primary (containing 𝑁𝑃 turns), while the other coil is
called the secondary (containing 𝑁𝑆 turns).
 Transformers
• When an ac voltage is applied𝑑Φ
across
𝑉𝑖𝑛
the primary coil, the rate of change of the
alternating magnetic flux is = . The magnetic flux Φ emanates from the
𝑑𝑡 𝑁𝑃
primary, propagates through the iron-laminated core, and passes through the
secondary coil. (The iron core increases the inductance, and the laminations
decrease power-consuming eddy currents.)
• According to Faraday’s
𝑑Φ
law of induction, the changing magnetic flux induces a
voltage of 𝑉𝑆 = 𝑁𝑆 within the secondary coil. Combining the flux equation
𝑑𝑡
and the secondary-induced voltage equation results in the following useful
expression:

𝑁𝑆
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑃
𝑁𝑃

• This equation says that if the number of turns in the primary coil is larger than
the number of turns in the secondary coil, the secondary voltage will be smaller
than the primary voltage (Step-down Transformer). Conversely, if the number of
turns in the primary coil is less than the number of turns in the secondary, the
secondary voltage will be larger than the primary voltage (Step-up
Transformer).
 Transformers: Waveforms
• Now, let’s take a look at what happens when you attach a load to
the secondary, as shown in Figure bellow. When a load 𝑅𝐿 is
placed across the secondary, the induced voltage acts to move
current through the load. Since the magnetic flux from the
primary is now being used to induce a current in the secondary,
the primary current and voltage move toward being in phase with
each other. At the same time, the secondary voltage and the
induced secondary current Is move toward being in phase with
each other, but both of them will be 180° out of phase with the
primary voltage and current
 Transformer properties
• Winding resistance the effective resistance of the transformers turns
windings
• Galvanic isolation the property that the primary and the secondary
windings are not directly connected
• Looking at each of the transformer windings, we can see that they are
constructed just like inductors – a coil of wire wound around a
magnetic core – and have an inductance too.
• This inductance is proportional to the square of the number of turns,
given by this formula:
𝐿𝑃 𝑁𝑃2
= 2
𝐿𝑆 𝑁𝑆
 Calculation of inductance
The proportionality constant for a given core can be found in the datasheet and is
usually given in units of μ𝐻/𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛2 . The exact value depends on the type and size of
core.
Supposing you have a transformer core with a specification of 1μ𝐻/𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛2 . If you
wind one winding on that core, then the inductance will be the value of the constant
multiplied by the number of turns squared. So the inductance of that one winding
will be 1µH. If you wind another winding with 10 turns on the same core, then the
inductance will be:
(1µH/turn2)*(10 turns)2 = 100µH
Since the windings have inductance, they provide an impedance to AC signals, given
by the formula:
Special Kinds of Transformers: Taped
Transformer
• Tapped transformers have an additional connection, or tap, on their
primary and/or secondary windings. An additional tap lead on the
secondary gives a transformer three possible output voltages
 Special Kinds of Transformers: Multiple-Winding
Transformer
• It is often useful to have a number of different secondary windings,
each of which is electrically isolated from others (unlike a taped
transformer). Each of the secondary coils will have a voltage that is
proportional to its number of turns. The secondary windings can be
connected in series-aiding (voltage is summed) or series-opposing (the
voltage is the difference) configurations. Dots are often used to
indicate the terminals that have the same phase
Special Kinds of Transformers: Auto-
Transformer
• This device only uses a single coil and a tap to make a primary and
secondary. Autotransformers can be used to step up or step down
voltages; however, they are not used for isolation application because
the primary and secondary are on the same coil (there is no electrical
isolation between the two). These devices are frequently used in
impedance matching applications.
Special Kinds of Transformers: Continuous
Tapped Transformer (Variac)
• This device contains a variable tap that slides up and down the
secondary coil to control the secondary coil length and hence the
secondary voltage.
Transformers Applications: Isolation
• Transformers with a 1:1 ratio between primary and secondary windings are
often used to protect secondary circuits (or individuals touching secondary
elements, e.g., knobs, panels, etc.) from electrical shocks. The reason why
the protection works is that the secondary is only magnetically coupled—
not electrically coupled—with the high-current utility line. All test
equipment, especially ones that are “floated” (ground is removed), must
use isolation protection to eliminate shock hazards. Another advantage in
using an isolation transformer is that there are no dc connections between
circuit elements in the primary and secondary sides; ac devices can be
coupled with other devices through the transformer without any dc signals
getting through. The circuit in the figure shows a simple example of how a
power outlet can be isolated from a utility outlet. The isolated receptacle is
then used to power test equipment
 Power Conversion
• Transformers are essential ingredients in power supply design. Here a
120-to-12-V transformer steps down a 120-V, 60-Hz line voltage to a
12-V, 60-Hz secondary voltage. A bridge rectifier (network of four
diodes) then rectifies the secondary voltage into a pulsed dc voltage
with a peak of 10.8 V and a frequency of 120 Hz. (1.2 V is lost during
rectification due to diode biasing voltages, and it appears that the
output is double in frequency due to the negative swings being
converted into positive swings by the rectifier.) The average dc voltage
at the output is equal to 0.636 of the peak rectified voltage.
 Tapped Transformer Application
• In the United States, main power lines carry ac voltages of upwards of
1000 V. A center-tapped pole transformer is used to step down the
line voltage to 240 V. The tap then acts to break this voltage up into
120-V portions. Small appliances, such as TVs, lights, and hairdryers,
can use either the top line and the neutral line or the bottom line and
the neutral line. Larger appliances, such as stoves, refrigerators, and
clothes dryers, make use of the 240-V terminals and often use the
neutral terminal as well. See Appendix A for more on power
distribution and home wiring
 Transformers Applications: Impedance
matching
• These are special kinds of transformers that are used to match the
impedance of the source and the load. They see extensive use in RF and
audio circuits.
• The turns ratio is equal to the square root of the source and load
impedances.