Q1) a) Accuracy: Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measured value to the

true or accepted value of a quantity. It indicates the degree of correctness of a

measurement or the ability of a measuring instrument to provide correct
results. Accuracy is typically expressed as a percentage deviation from the true
value.

b) Range: Range refers to the difference between the maximum and minimum
values that a device or system can measure, detect, or handle. In various
contexts, it can refer to the range of values within which a sensor, instrument,
or equipment operates effectively.

c) Hysteresis: Hysteresis is a phenomenon where the output of a system or

device lags behind and depends not only on the current input but also on the
history of past inputs. In other words, the response of the system to a changing
input depends on its previous state.

Q2) Uses of a transformer in electrical technology:

Voltage Transformation: Transformers are primarily used for changing the

voltage levels in alternating current (AC) circuits. They can step-up voltage
(increasing voltage) or step-down voltage (decreasing voltage) depending on the
configuration of windings.

Power Transmission: Transformers facilitate efficient transmission of electrical

power over long distances by stepping up the voltage at the generating station
for reduced power loss during transmission and stepping down the voltage at
the consumer end for safe usage.

Isolation: Transformers provide electrical isolation between input and output

circuits, which is crucial for safety and protection against electrical hazards.

Impedance Matching: Transformers are used to match the impedance (total

effective resistance) between different electrical circuits, ensuring maximum
power transfer between them.

Signal Processing: In electronic devices, transformers are employed for signal

coupling and impedance matching in audio and radio frequency circuits.

Q3) Function of a sensor:

Correct answer: a. To convert physical quantities into electrical signals.

Explanation: Sensors are devices designed to detect and respond to physical
changes or stimuli in the environment and convert them into electrical signals
that can be easily processed, measured, or transmitted. These electrical signals
can then be further processed by electronic systems for various purposes such
as monitoring, control, or data acquisition. Therefore, the primary function of a
sensor is to convert physical quantities like temperature, pressure, light,
humidity, etc., into electrical signals for subsequent analysis or utilization.
Choices b, c, and d do not accurately reflect the primary function of a sensor.

Q4)
1. Classify as a sensor or actuator 5marks
Device Sensor actuator
buzzer v
microphone v
DHT11 v
LED v
Thermocouple v

Q5) a) Difference between DC current and AC current:

DC Current (Direct Current):DC current flows in one direction only.The

magnitude of DC current remains constant over time. DC current is typically
generated by batteries, solar cells, or rectifiers. In DC circuits, polarity remains
constant.

AC Current (Alternating Current):

AC current periodically changes direction. The magnitude and direction of AC

current vary sinusoidally over time. AC current is commonly used in electrical
power distribution systems. In AC circuits, polarity alternates periodically.

b) Expression for the current through the resistor:

Given:

Voltage function, v(t) = 160 sin(120πt)

Resistor value, R = 50 Ω
The current through the resistor (I) can be found using Ohm's law, which
states that the current through a resistor is directly proportional to the voltage
across it and inversely proportional to its resistance.

Ohm's Law: V = IR

Where:

V is the voltage across the resistor, I is the current through the resistor, R is
the resistance of the resistor.

Given v(t) = 160 sin(120πt), we can see that the voltage across the resistor is
sinusoidal. So, we substitute v(t) for V in Ohm's law:

160 sin(120πt) = I * 50

Now, solve for I:

I = (160 sin(120πt)) / 50

Therefore, the expression for the current through the resistor is:

I(t) = (160/50) sin(120πt) or I(t) = (16/5) sin(120πt)

So I(t) = 3.2 sin(120πt)

Q6) a) The diagram is here shown, it is made of an Arduino UNO, an

ultrasonic sensor, a resistor, A USB, a Battery and a LED
b) // Define pins for ultrasonic sensor

int trigPin = 12;

int echoPin = 7;

// Define pins for LEDs

int redLedPin = 11;

const int blueLedPin = 10;

// Define threshold distance

int thresholdDistance = 50; // in centimeters

void setup() {

// Initialize serial communication

 Serial.begin(9600);

// Set pin modes

pinMode(trigPin, OUTPUT);

pinMode(echoPin, INPUT);

pinMode(redLedPin, OUTPUT);

pinMode(blueLedPin, OUTPUT);

void loop() {

// Trigger the ultrasonic sensor

digitalWrite(trigPin, LOW);

delayMicroseconds(2);

digitalWrite(trigPin, HIGH);

delayMicroseconds(10);

digitalWrite(trigPin, LOW);

// Measure the duration of the pulse from the echo pin

long duration = pulseIn(echoPin, HIGH);

// Calculate distance in centimeters

int distance = duration * 0.034 / 2;

// Display distance on serial monitor

Serial.print("Distance: ");

Serial.print(distance);

Serial.println(" cm");
 // Control LEDs based on distance

if (distance < thresholdDistance) {

digitalWrite(redLedPin, HIGH); // Turn on red LED

digitalWrite(blueLedPin, LOW); // Turn off blue LED

} else {

digitalWrite(redLedPin, LOW); // Turn off red LED

digitalWrite(blueLedPin, HIGH); // Turn on blue LED

// Delay before next measurement

delay(1000);

Q7) Analog Pin: An analog pin on a microcontroller, such as those found on

Arduino boards, can read analog voltage levels.

Analog pins typically have a range of values they can measure, often
represented as 0 to 1023 (for a 10-bit ADC), corresponding to the voltage range
(usually 0 to 5 volts).

These pins are used to interface with analog sensors like temperature sensors,
light sensors, and potentiometers. Analog pins provide continuous readings,
allowing for more precise measurements of varying voltage levels.

The value read from an analog pin is a representation of the voltage present at
that pin at the given moment.

Digital Pin: A digital pin on a microcontroller can only read or output digital
signals, which are binary (0 or 1).

Digital pins can be used for both input and output operations, such as reading
from switches, buttons, or sensors, and controlling LEDs, motors, or other
digital devices.
Digital pins operate at fixed voltage levels, typically 0 volts (LOW) and the
operating voltage of the microcontroller (HIGH), which is often 5 volts or 3.3
volts.

Digital pins provide discrete readings, indicating whether a voltage level is

above or below a certain threshold (usually around half of the operating
voltage).

The value read from a digital pin is either HIGH (1) or LOW (0), representing the
presence or absence of voltage.

b) Ultrasonic sensor pins and connection to Arduino board:

An ultrasonic sensor commonly used with Arduino boards, like the HC-SR04,
typically has four pins:

VCC (Power): This pin is connected to the positive supply voltage (usually 5
volts) of the Arduino board to power the sensor.

Trig (Trigger): This pin is used to trigger the sensor to emit ultrasonic waves for
distance measurement. To initiate a distance measurement, a short high-level
pulse (typically 10 microseconds) is sent to this pin.

Echo: This pin receives the ultrasonic waves reflected back by an object. The
time taken for the ultrasonic waves to return is proportional to the distance
between the sensor and the object. The Echo pin outputs a pulse whose width
is proportional to this time.

GND (Ground): This pin is connected to the ground (0 volts) of the Arduino
board to complete the circuit.

Connection to Arduino board: Connect the VCC pin of the ultrasonic sensor to
the 5V pin on the Arduino board.

Connect the GND pin of the ultrasonic sensor to any GND pin on the Arduino
board.

Connect the Trig pin of the ultrasonic sensor to any digital pin (preferably a
digital output pin) on the Arduino board.

Connect the Echo pin of the ultrasonic sensor to any digital pin (preferably a
digital input pin with interrupt capability) on the Arduino board.
By using appropriate Arduino code, the Trig pin is pulsed to trigger the sensor,
and the duration of the pulse received on the Echo pin is measured to calculate
the distance to the object in front of the sensor.

Q8) // Define pins for LEDs

int greenLedPin = 7;

int redLedPin = 8;

void setup() {

// Initialize pin modes

pinMode(greenLedPin, OUTPUT);

pinMode(redLedPin, OUTPUT);

void loop() {

// Turn on the green LED for 2 seconds

digitalWrite(greenLedPin, HIGH); // Turn on green LED

digitalWrite(redLedPin, LOW); // Turn off red LED

delay(2000); // Wait for 2 seconds

// Turn off the green LED and turn on the red LED for 2 seconds

digitalWrite(greenLedPin, LOW); // Turn off green LED

digitalWrite(redLedPin, HIGH); // Turn on red LED

delay(2000); // Wait for 2 seconds

Q9) The process of reading temperature and humidity and after display it on
the serial monitor is as follows
// Read temperature and humidity data

float temperature = dht.readTemperature(); // Read temperature in Celsius

float humidity = dht.readHumidity(); // Read humidity

// Print temperature and humidity data to serial monitor

Serial.print("Temperature: ");

Serial.print(temperature);

Serial.print(" °C, Humidity: ");

Serial.print(humidity);

Serial.println(" %");

Q10)

a) A microphone which is sensor

b) A processor
c) A loudspeaker which is an actuator

Q11) a) A gauge sensor, often referred to as a strain gauge, operates based on

the principle of electrical resistance change in response to mechanical strain.
When a strain is applied to a material, it causes the material to deform,
resulting in a change in its dimensions. This deformation alters the resistance
of the gauge sensor, which can be measured and correlated with the applied
strain.

Gauge sensors are typically made of a conductive material, such as a metallic

foil or wire, bonded to a flexible substrate. When the material experiences
strain, its length changes, leading to a change in its resistance. This change in
resistance can be measured using Wheatstone bridge configurations or other
methods.

The relationship between strain and resistance change in a gauge sensor is

often linear within the sensor's operating range. By calibrating the sensor and
understanding its characteristics, the applied strain can be accurately
determined based on the measured change in resistance.
Gauge sensors find applications in various fields, including structural
engineering, aerospace, automotive, and biomechanics, where precise
measurement of mechanical strain is crucial for monitoring, control, or safety
purposes.

b) The gauge factor (GF) of a strain gauge sensor is defined as the ratio of the
fractional change in electrical resistance (ΔR/R) to the applied strain (ε):
∆𝑅/𝑅
𝐺𝐹 =
∈
Given

𝑅0 = 16Ω

Δ𝑅 = 6Ω

Applied Strain ∈= 5200 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 or ∈= 5200 × 10−6 = 0.0052

6/160
So 𝐺𝐹 = = 7.21
0.0052

Q12) #include <dht.h> //import library for DHT sensor

int DHT_data_pin = 11;
dht DHT; //Instantiate object DHT from class dht
void setup() {
}
void loop(){
int readDHT = DHT.read11(DHT_data_pin);
//read data packet from DHT sensor
Serial.print("Temp: ");
Serial.print(DHT.temperature);
Serial.print("C");
Serial.print("Humidity: ");
Serial.print(DHT.humidity);
Serial.println("%");
delay(3000); //Update after 3 seconds
}
Q13) The MPU-6050 module is an integrated circuit module that includes
various components for motion tracking and orientation sensing. The main
components of the MPU-6050 module include:

Accelerometer: Measures acceleration along three orthogonal axes (X, Y, and Z).

Gyroscope: Measures angular velocity or rotation rate around the same three
axes.

Temperature sensor: Measures the temperature of the module.

Digital Motion Processor (DMP): Processes raw sensor data to provide

calibrated and filtered orientation data.

b) Connection of MPU-6050 module to Arduino:

i) VCC (Power):The VCC pin of the MPU-6050 module should be connected to a

3.3V or 5V pin on the Arduino board, depending on the operating voltage of the
module. It provides power to the module.

ii) GND (Ground):The GND pin of the MPU-6050 module should be connected
to any ground (GND) pin on the Arduino board. It completes the electrical
circuit and provides a reference voltage level for the module.