ENGLISH

Class: Y1 A;B;C&D
TERM 2

HANDOUT
A SPEECH
• The act of delivering a spoken message to a live audience: This is the most
basic definition, and it captures the essence of public speaking - the direct
communication between speaker and listener.
• An oral presentation on a specific topic: This definition highlights the
content of a public speech, emphasizing that it's not just about talking, but
about conveying information or ideas.
• More comprehensively:
• A deliberate act of communication to a live audience, aiming to inform,
persuade, entertain, or inspire: This definition expands on the previous ones
by specifying the speaker's intention and the potential effects of their speech.
• A performance of spoken language for an audience, characterized by careful
planning, structure, and delivery: This definition emphasizes the artistry and
craftsmanship of public speaking, highlighting the importance of
organization and presentation skills.
• The art of oratory: Oratory refers to the skill of public speaking with
eloquence and power, often associated with figures like ancient Greek and
Roman statesmen.
• Ultimately, the definition of a public speech can be nuanced and depend on
the specific context:
• Formal vs. informal: Is it a prepared address at a conference or an
impromptu toast at a wedding?
• Objective vs. subjective: Is the speaker aiming to convey facts or share
personal opinions?
• One-way vs. interactive: Is it a monologue or a dialogue with the
audience?
• No matter the specific definition, public speaking remains a powerful tool
for communication and can play a significant role in various aspects of life,
from education and politics to business and entertainment.
TYPES OF SPEECH
There are several ways to categorize public speeches, depending on the
speaker's intention and desired outcome. Here are some of the most
common types:

By purpose:
 Informative: These speeches aim to educate the audience about a
specific topic, providing facts, statistics, and explanations. Examples
include classroom lectures, scientific presentations, and
historical lectures.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vyJoSNtfugs
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aiML-VzqxE4&list=PLdze1m3boNs68wvF
SQDsm7zdDFFwFwRSN
• Persuasive: These speeches aim to convince the audience to
adopt a particular point of view or take action. Examples include
political speeches, sales pitches, and motivational talks.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1p81lp1-CHU
• Entertaining: These speeches aim to amuse the audience through
humor, storytelling, or anecdotes. Examples include stand-up
comedy routines, wedding toasts, and awards ceremony
speeches. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bbz2boNSeL0
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C6C0JsWgT4Y
• Inspirational: These speeches aim to uplift and motivate the
audience, often focusing on hope, resilience, and overcoming
challenges. Examples include commencement speeches, pep
talks, and speeches by activists or social workers.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o55CFPpJ2jo
By format:
 Formal: These speeches are carefully planned and
rehearsed, often delivered in a serious and professional
setting. Examples include keynote addresses, academic
presentations, and political speeches.
 Informal: These speeches are less structured and
spontaneous, often delivered in a casual setting. Examples
include impromptu presentations, dinner toasts, and Q&A
sessions.
Other noteworthy types:
 Demonstrative: These speeches combine spoken language
with visual aids or physical actions to demonstrate a skill or
process. Examples include cooking demonstrations, product
demos, and scientific experiments.
 Commemorative: These speeches mark a special occasion or
honor a person or group. Examples include
eulogies, retirement speeches, and anniversary speeches.
 Improvisational: These speeches are delivered without any
preparation, requiring the speaker to think on their feet and
adapt to the situation. Examples include debate rebuttals and
open mic performances.
Structure of a speech
 Introduction:
o Hook: Captures attention and introduces the topic
(anecdote, question, surprising fact).
o Background: Provides context and establishes speaker's
credibility.
o Thesis statement: Clearly states the central message of the
speech.
 Body:
o Main points: Organized and supported by evidence
(examples, statistics, quotes).
o Logical flow: Transitions ensure smooth movement
between points.
o Variety: Keeps the audience engaged
(anecdotes, visuals, rhetorical questions).
 Conclusion:
o Summary: Briefly reiterates key points.
o Call to action: Motivates the audience to do something
(think, learn, take action).
o Memorable closing: Leaves a lasting impression
(quote, powerful statement).
•Delivery:
 Vocal variety: Inflection, pitch, and volume to emphasize
important points.
 Pace and pauses: Creates rhythm and allows audience to
absorb information.
 Eye contact: Connects with listeners and conveys confidence.
 Body language: Gestures and posture reinforce the message.
 Clarity and pronunciation: Makes the speech easy to
understand.
Tips for effective Public speaking
Before the speech

Research the topic

Master the speech
Rehearse your speech
Know the audience and the venue
During speech delivery
Speak with a Purpose
Be Interesting and Energetic
Keep the Speech Simple
Restate Important Points
Transition Effectively
Use Visual Aids
Incorporate Humor
Make Eye Contact
Relax
Use body language appropriately
Speak and act ethically
Handle the unexpected smoothly
After the speech
Allow questions
Be honest to say you “don’t know”
Decline unrelated questions
Activity
a) Prepare a 5-minute speech on any type of speech which you will
deliver to an audience (class).
b) Write a script for the speech you will deliver.
Choose the right answer for each question.
1. You have to imitate other people while speaking in public
a) True b) False
2. Choose the correct definition of public speaking
(a) The skill of using images
(b) The art of speaking in which the speaker swallows parts of words, speaks too
fast in a way that
is difficult for most listeners to comprehend.
(c) Both (a) and (b) are correct
(d) None is correct
3. While you are speaking, memorization of the content is a very good thing
a) True b) False
4. From the following public speaking strategies, choose one that is in line with the
highlighted statement: “Any connection you’ve made with your audience could be
broken by tones that seem fake or perfect”
a) Voice modulation b) Speak in a natural voice
c) Pay attention to body language d) None of the choices
5. Instead of walking around and using gestures, when speaking, stand behind a podium to
engage the audience
b) True b) False
6. When speaking in public, it’s better to be shy and hesitate on what you are saying
c) True b) False
7. From the following public speaking strategies, choose one that is in line with the
highlighted
statement: “Tell stories”
d) Keep it short and sweet b) Practice, not memorization
e) Keep your audience with you d) None of the choices is correct
 Fallacies

• A fallacy is a flaw in reasoning that makes an argument appear

valid when it actually is not. They can be intentional or
unintentional, but regardless, they lead to faulty conclusions.
Key features of a fallacy
 Error in reasoning: The structure of the argument itself is
flawed, even if the premises are true.
 Appears valid: The argument can be seemingly convincing
and persuasive, even if it doesn't hold up under scrutiny.
 False conclusion: Ultimately, the fallacy leads to a conclusion
that is not justified by the evidence or logic presented.
 Types of fallacies:
1. Formal Fallacies:

Formal fallacies: These flaws stem from the logical structure of the
argument
a) Affirming the consequent: Assuming that because the consequence of
a statement is true, the statement itself must also be true.

Examples:
 "This drug cured my friend's disease, so it must be effective for
everyone with the same disease." Individual results may vary, and
larger scale studies are needed to assess the true effectiveness of
a drug.
 "This country has a low crime rate and strict gun control
laws. Therefore, gun control laws must reduce
crime." Correlation does not imply causation. Other factors like
socioeconomic conditions or law enforcement practices might
play a role in crime rates.
 "This company only hires the best employees, and they all
went to prestigious universities. Therefore, attending a
prestigious university guarantees you a job at this
company." While attending a top school can be
beneficial, many other factors contribute to landing a job at a
specific company.
b) Denying the antecedent: Assuming that because the
antecedent of a statement is false, the statement itself must also
be false.

o Example: "If you study hard, you will get good grades. I
didn't get good grades, so I must not have studied
hard." (Other factors could have affected grades, like illness
or lack of understanding.)
2. Informal fallacies
• Informal fallacies: These flaws arise from how the argument is
presented or the language used, like ad hominem attacks or
straw man fallacies.
a) Ad hominem attack: Attacking the person making the
argument instead of their argument itself.
o Example: "You can't trust that scientist, they're known
for being biased." (Doesn't address the validity of the
scientist's argument)
b) Appeal to emotion: Using emotions to persuade someone
rather than logic or evidence.
o Example: "Support this charity because
otherwise, these poor children will suffer." (Doesn't
address the effectiveness of the charity or alternative
solutions.)
c) Straw man fallacy: Misrepresenting someone's argument to
make it easier to attack.
o Example: "You say we should protect the
environment? So you want us to all live in caves and
never use technology again?" (Exaggerates the
opponent's position to make it seem unreasonable.)
d) False analogy: Comparing two things that are not really similar in order
to make a point.
o Example: "Raising taxes is like stealing money from people. Just
like stealing your wallet is wrong, raising taxes must be wrong
too." (Taxation is a legal and regulated system, unlike stealing.)
o "Raising taxes is like taking candy from a baby. People don't like it,
and it's unfair." This analogy minimizes the purpose of taxation in funding
public services and ignores the potential benefits of fair tax systems.

e) Slippery slope: Assuming that one small step will inevitably lead to a
disastrous outcome, without evidence.
o Example: "If we allow same-sex marriage, then people will start
marrying animals next!" (No evidence to support this claim.)
f) A hasty generalization fallacy is a claim made on the basis of
insufficient evidence. Instead of looking into examples and evidence
that are much more in line with the typical or average situation, you
draw a conclusion about a large population using a small,
unrepresentative sample.
Example: "I met one rude taxi driver, so all taxi drivers must be
rude." Just because you had one negative experience doesn't mean it
applies to the entire population of taxi drivers.
"This restaurant had terrible service, so all restaurants in this city
must be bad." Judging an entire city's dining scene based on one
experience is inaccurate and misleading.
• “A study of 100 teenagers showed increased aggression after
playing violent video games, so all video games cause violence." A
small sample size can't represent an entire population, and other
factors might explain the aggression.
g) The false cause fallacy, another common thinking trap, occurs when
you incorrectly assume that one event directly causes another event,
even though there’s no evidence to support that connection.
Example: "The crime rate went up after the new video game was
released, so the game must be causing crime." Complex social issues
like crime have numerous contributing factors, and simply correlating
them with a recent event is misleading.
h) The bandwagon fallacy occurs when someone encourages you to
adopt a belief or action simply because many other people are doing so.
It implies that popularity translates to correctness, which isn't always the
case.
Example: "This restaurant has a long line, so it must be
amazing!" Popularity doesn't always guarantee quality, and waiting in
line may not be worth it if the food doesn't live up to the hype.
i) The appeal to tradition fallacy occurs when someone argues that
something is good or true simply because it has always been done
that way. While tradition can hold value and provide stability, it
doesn't guarantee that past practices are superior or without flaws.
Example: "Corporal punishment has been used for generations to
discipline children, so it must be effective." Tradition doesn't justify
harmful practices. Modern research and understanding of child
development highlight gentler and more effective methods of discipline.
"This religious text has been interpreted this way for centuries, so
any new interpretation must be wrong." Blind adherence to
traditional interpretations can miss valuable insights and limit deeper
understanding of evolving contexts.
j) The false authority fallacy occurs when someone uses an
individual's credentials or status to support a claim, even if that
individual lacks genuine expertise or authority on the specific topic at
hand.
Celebrity endorsement: "A famous actor says this brand of
vitamins is the best, so it must be true!" (The actor might be an expert
in acting, not nutrition.)
k) Equivocation: one term ambiguously interpreted
Eg. Freedom of speech
EXERCISES
Choose the answer that best identifies the fallacy used in the
following statements.
1. Everyone at the party said the new restaurant was amazing, so it
must be the best place to eat in town.
a) Bandwagon fallacy b) Appeal to popularity c) Ad hominem fallacy d)
False dilemma
2. My friend got a bad grade on this test, so the teacher must be unfair.
a) Hasty generalization b) Appeal to emotion c) False analogy d)
Slippery slope
3. Politician A: "My opponent wants to raise taxes, which will destroy
the economy! We can't afford that!"
a) Straw man fallacy b) Appeal to fear c) False cause fallacy d) Ad
hominem fallacy
1.4. "I'm a celebrity, so you should listen to my opinion on this
important issue."
a) False authority fallacy b) Appeal to emotion c) Bandwagon fallacy d)
Straw man fallacy
5. "Teenagers who listen to loud music are more likely to be criminals
because they are all rebellious and angry."
a) Hasty generalization b) Stereotyping c) False cause fallacy d) Appeal
to nature
6. "This new law is bad because it's just like the one that failed in
another country."
a) False analogy b) Appeal to tradition c) Slippery slope fallacy d) Ad
hominem fallacy
Assignment/ 15 marks
Choose any type of speech and prepare the delivery in not more than
5 minutes.
You can choose to prepare a stand-alone performance/delivery ( for a
speech or comedy)
You can also prepare a joint-presentation in groups of 3( for a speech,
where the first will introduce, the second gives the body, and the last
concludes)
You can work in a group of 4 in case you choose to prepare drama
( Entertaining speech)
For groups, every group member should have a role to play.
Expressions used in various contexts
In English, people need to know what to say when they are:
• Greeting other people
• Introducing themselves/ introducing others
• Saying farewell
• Apologizing
• Thanking
• Requesting politely
• Expressing sympathy/condolences
• Asking/giving directions
• Inviting/accepting or declining invitation etc
• Agreeing and disagreeing
 Greetings
• GREETINGS
• Formal to Informal Greetings and Introductions
• Greetings are polite expressions that show that we have seen people. We
greet people in different ways depending on the
time(morning,afternoon,evening).
• We say:
• Good morning(from early in the morning to 11h59 am)
• Good afternoon(from noon:12hoo to 6hoo pm)
• Good evening (after 6hoo pm)
• Good night is not a greeting, it is a farewell. You say “Good night” as to say
Good bye at night .
 Informal greetings
• Informal greetings are greetings among close friends, colleagues
or people you are familiar with.
Informal greetings Responses
- Morning / Afternoon / Evening ……Morning/Afternoon/ Evening
- Hi / What's up? / How is it going?..............Hi/ alright/fine
- How are you?………………………… Fine, thanks. And you? / Great /
Not bad
- How are you doing? …………………………………………….. I’m doing well
NB: Informal greetings can also be done using a hand shake, hug, a
peck, a kiss, high five, ……
 Formal greetings

• We use Formal greetings with people we don't know, VIP’s, the old as a
way to respect them
• Formal greetings Responses
- Hello…………………………………………………….. -Hello
- Good morning……………………………………… -Good morning
- Good afternoon …………………………………..-Good afternoon
- Good evening …………………………………….. -Good evening
- How are you? ……………………………………… -Fine, thank you. What about
you?
- How do you do?.................................... -How do you do
• - Nice to meet you …………………………….. -Nice to meet you too
 Self-introduction
After greetings, we introduce ourselves to each other.
In self-introduction we say:
• Our names
• Occupation
• Place of origin/residence
• Age(optional)
• Marital status(optional)
 Self-introduction expressions
• My name is Patrick
• I am called Patrick
• I am Patrick
• I am by names of Patrick
• Patrick is my name
 I am a student at UTAB
 I work for Gicumbi District as a teacher
 I am from Rusizi
I come from Kenya (I am Kenyan)
 Nice to meet you
• After greetings and a brief self-introduction, the person
who initiated the greeting says “Nice to meet you” as he
shakes hand with the other person. And the other person
responds “Nice to meet you too”
Proper body language used in greetings
and self-introduction
 Proper body language used in greetings
and self-introduction

Smile as you say “Nice to meet you”

Make eye contact during greetings and introduction
Shake hands as you say “Nice to meet you”
 Introducing others

A B
- Mrs Hand, may I introduce my boss, Mr Smith. -Pleased to meet you Mrs
Hand
-This is Mr. Smith ………………………………………-Nice to meet you Mrs. Hand
NB: You shake hands with someone(eg: a guest) after self-introduction or
after having been introduced by someone else. You say “Nice to meet you”
while shaking hands.
 Farewell

• Farewells Responses
• Good-bye …………………………………………………………… -Good-bye ; Bye
• - Bye for now ……………………………………………………… - Bye
• Bye ……………………………………………………………………… - Bye
• See you ………………………………………………………………… see you
• See you later
• It was nice to meet you ……………………………………… -It was nice to meet you
too.
• Ta-ta
• Ciau
• Take care
 Thanking people

Formal Response
• Thank you ……………………………………………You are welcome
• Thank you very much………………………… My pleasure
• Much obliged …………………………………… Not at all
• I really appreciate it ………………………..Don’t mention it
 Apologizing
• People always apologise or ask for forgiveness when they’ve done
something wrong to other people. There are many ways to express apology.
• Expression of apology Responses
• "I'm sorry"....................................................."That's ok
• "I'm very sorry."........................................... No problem
• "I'm really very sorry."................................ "Don't mention it
• "I'm really so very sorry."............................... "It happens" (For small
matters)
• Forgive me........................................... "Don't worry about it
• Accept my apologies..............................Apologies accepted
Rejected apology
• Ungracious acceptances of "sorry" . (For when you are still
angry)
• "You should be."
• "Well, that's not good enough"
• "Don't do it
• "Oh, all right then."
• "Quite right, too".
How to make and decline a request politely
A. Accepting the request
• Can you press for ninth floor, please?
Accept: Sure, no problem.
Ya, sure.
• Would you mind passing the book?
Accept: No, not at all.
• I would be grateful if you could pass the book.
Accept: Here it is
B. Declining the request
• I would appreciate if you could pass the book.
Decline: I’m sorry, but I think someone was reading it few minutes
back.
• Can I borrow your notes for a day?
Decline: I’m sorry, but I’d need them for my work.
I would’ve loved to help you, but I’d need them for my work.
I wish I could help you. I’ve already promised the notes to
someone else.
• Would you mind lending your pen for a while?
Decline: Sorry, I can’t. I’ve to use it in a moment.
Sorry, I can’t right now.
I’m afraid I can’t.

How to express opinion

• I would say there is no harm in seeking clarification on the bonus policy
before you join the company.
• In my opinion, you should postpone the trip.
• I think we should take this route, as we’ll reach earlier this way.
• I think that’s a good idea.
• I don’t think it’s going to work.
• If you ask me, you should accept this offer immediately.
• As far as I know, he’s not a reliable person.
• I believe there is some truth in his statement.
• According to me, you shouldn’t invest in the share market if you don’t
understand it.
Giving Directions

List of phrases for giving directions

 Go straight ahead.
• Turn back./Go back.
• Turn left/right.
• Go along …
• Cross …
• Take the first/second road on the left/right.
• It’s on the left/right.
When you ask for directions, remember above all to be polite.
So start by saying one of the following phrases:
• Hello. Can you help me, please?
• Good morning. May I ask for some help?
• Excuse me, could you help?
• Go past.
• The easiest way is to …
• The best way is to …
• It’s on the corner
• It’s in the middle of the block.
• Keep walking straight until you reach…….

Examples of Asking for and Giving Directions

1. A: Excuse me sir. Is there a bank around here?
B: Yes, there is one right across the street next to Library.
2. A: Can you give me directions to the petrol station?
B: Of course I will, just follow this road until you come to the main road.
Turn right and then continue for about 100 metres. You will see the petrol station
on the left.
3. A: Is there a bank near here?
B: Yes, there is one in Orange Street. Orange Street is the third road on your
right.
4. A: Excuse me, where is the School?
B: It is across from the police office.
AGREEING and
DISAGREEING
Agreeing:
• I tend to agree with you.
• That's a good idea.
• I'm with you on that point.
• I'll go along with that.
• Absolutely! I agree with your
point.
• I totally agree with that
idea/proposal.
• I hold exactly the same view.
• I couldn't agree more.
• You're dead right.
• That's absolutely true.
• That's just what I was thinking.
• That's spot on.
• That's exactly my position.
• You've hit the nail on the head!
• That's how I see it too / how I
feel too.
Disagreeing:
• I see things differently.
• I tend to disagree with that idea.
• I agree up to a point. However ...
• You have a point there, but ...
• Sorry, but I think you've missed the point.
• You could be right. However ...
• The idea is worth considering, but ...
• Perhaps a weakness of this is that ...
• Well, I'm not sure of that because ...
• That might be acceptable if ...
• I'm afraid I don't agree / I disagree.
• I strongly / totally disapprove of the plan.
• I'm absolutely against the proposal.
BUSINESS CORRESPONDANCE
Communication within an organization is mainly done by the use of
letters, emails, reports, Memos, etc….
Discuss the parts and the structure of
a) a business letter
b) Business Email
c) Memo
d) Report of a field visit, for example.