TDI Advanced Nitrox Manual

T ECH N I CA L D I V I N G I N T ER N AT I O N A L
tdi guide to advanced nitrox

student manual
The Full Spectrum of Nitrox Mixtures
eLearning Download
Thank you for downloading your digital
student manual. The digital student manual
is the offline alternative to the eLearning
program. If you choose to complete the
course offline, simply save this file and
complete the Knowledge Quest document.
The Knowledge Quest is a downloadable,
digitally fillable PDF that you will review with
your instructor as part of the course. If you
choose the offline option, you do NOT need
to complete the eLearning. If you do
not know which option to choose,
please contact your instructor, dive
center, or World Headquarters at
+1-207-729-4201 or
888-778-9073.
• Watch videos • Use PDF on any

device
• Instant test
grading • Fillable PDF
knowledge
• Requires
quests
internet access
• No internet
access required
A Guide to Advanced Nitrox
The Full Spectrum of Nitrox Mixtures
TECHNICAL DIVING INTERNATIONAL

tdisdi.com
TDI Advanced Nitrox The Full Spectrum of Nitrox Mixtures
A Guide to Advanced Nitrox

Publisher: International Training
Phone: 888-778-9073 Fax: 877-436-7096
tdisdi.com | email: worldhq@tdisdi.com
© International Training 2009-2013 v.0221
Notice of Rights:
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or
transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior written
permission of the publisher. For information on getting permission
for reprints and excerpts, contact International Training.
Executive Editor: Brian Carney
Editors: Donna Bissett, James Bruning,
Sean Harrison, Steve Lewis, Dennis Pulley
Photography: Doug Arnberg, Harry Averill, Thaddius Bedford,
James Bruning, Bill Downey, Bret Gilliam, Ben Reymenants
Graphic Design: Kim Barry
Disclaimer:
All diving activities have inherent risks involved. Each individual
diver engaging in any form of diving must accept the risks and
accept responsibility for their own actions. The author and publisher
assume no liability to anyone for loss, damage, injury or death caused
by any error or omission in the work. Any and all such liability is
disclaimed. The information in this manual pertains to Advanced
Nitrox Diving, and is only to be used as a supplement to recognized
training by a certified TDI Advanced Nitrox Instructor. This manual
cannot replace professional instruction and good judgment.
ISBN: 1-931451-75-3 Product ID #: 110002-01
5
Table of Contents
Chapter One: Introduction to Advanced Nitrox 9

Chapter Two: Technical Diving Fundamentals 13
Chapter Three: Diving Physics and Gas Laws 25
Chapter Four: Gas Physiology 29
Chapter Five: Formula Work 47
Chapter Six: Equipment 55
Chapter Seven: Making Nitrox Work 59
Chapter Eight: Dive Planning 63
Chapter Nine: Dive Protocols 73
Chapter Ten: Common Gas Mixing Procedures 79
Chapter Eleven: What’s Next 85
7
Introduction to
Advanced Nitrox
This Technical Diving International course will help develop the mindset
and practical skills necessary to optimize Nitrox breathing mixtures for
divers. After completing the course, participants will be able to make
choices based on operational and logistical concerns in order to best suit
their mission parameters and personal needs.
The Advanced Nitrox course is the first step in taking scuba beyond
the usual sport-diving applications. A diver may simply want to have
the option to use oxygen for his safety stops during recreational
sport dives. This may be the first stop on the way to Decompression
Procedures through to Trimix, or this could be part of a closed-circuit
rebreather (CCR) course.
Regardless of the application or goals, the importance of this course
cannot be understated. The use of oxygen and oxygen enriched air
mixtures is critical to advanced applications in diving. This course will
arm students with the knowledge and understanding of the risks and
benefits associated with these gases. They will then be able to make their
own informed choices about optimal breathing mixtures for their planned
dives rather than having choices dictated to them.
Participants in this Technical Diving International course will learn
the use of EAN21 through 100 percent oxygen to a maximum depth of
40 metres or 130 feet. Dives will be made without creating situations in
9
Chapter 1: Introduction to Advanced Nitrox
which decompression is required. This course will build a foundation for

diving with a mindset and approach that will be new to even advanced
sport divers and prepares them for the challenges of open circuit technical
diving or CCR diving.
A basic nitrox course allows divers to use EAN mixtures of up
to 40 percent oxygen. This course will expand those choices to
mixtures up to and including pure oxygen. It is designed to give
divers the freedom to optimize their breathing gasses. The beauty of a
diver continuing his education is that each new step gives him added
freedom to make new and more choices. With these choices comes
the duty to master new information and techniques so that Advanced
Nitrox divers can take full advantage of their newfound knowledge
and skills.
This text will guide students through the process of the course,
both as a reference and guide. A Technical Diving International (TDI)
instructor will supplement the information provided here with local
examples and additional information. More importantly, he will guide
divers in the application of this material to their diving practices.
Students will find it best to skim through this manual and then
read the study questions at the end of each chapter. Then, reread each
chapter carefully, keeping these questions and objectives in mind.
Using this study method, students will be able to answer the study
questions easily. The TDI instructor will provide plenty of additional
practice problems for any student who feels they need additional
practice prior to taking the ‘final exam.’ Following the exam comes the
most exciting and important section of this TDI course: the application
of what has been learned through actual diving.
This course is just the beginning of the progression into more
advanced applications in diving. Continuing education beyond this
course opens up many more exciting dive destinations and helps
develop stimulating new skills and capabilities for divers. Each
additional level of TDI training opens new opportunities and worlds
filled with amazing expeditions and adventures.
10
Regardless of which path graduates from this course opt to take

following this training, they will need to continue to apply and practice
the skills (both in dive planning and execution) taught in this course to Always try to
truly master them. A diver is only as good as he has trained himself to be. perform better on
A smart and conscientious diver never takes his ability to dive to the full
this dive than the
extent of his training for granted. It takes work and regular practice to
refine and fully master the essential basic skills of breathing, buoyancy, last one, and even
swimming, trim and awareness. A smart and conscientious diver always better on the next
works to sharpen foundational skills until they become a natural and dive.
constant part of his dive practice.
11
Technical Diving Fundamentals

Describe the technical Describe how lung volume
diving mindset’s main goal. controls buoyancy.
Name two aspects of List the function of the
being a TDI-trained hands while diving.
technical diver. Describe the best way to
List three skills that move
the diver will refine on through water while diving.
every dive. List two advantages of
List the hallmark of a TDI ideal breathing.
technical diver. Describe ideal breathing.
List two reasons to modify
ideal breathing.
The Technical Diving Mindset

This course is the first step in the development of a technical diver. Several
definitions exist that try to describe what technical diving is, but at TDI
we feel that any dive requiring a complete dive plan and sets well-defined
limits deserves the label. A number of graduates from this TDI Advanced
Nitrox course may not plan to conduct deep, long, complex dives or dives
in an overhead environment but their approach to the way they prepare for
a dive and how they conduct themselves underwater will have undergone
a change. They no longer will simply throw on their dive equipment, jump
into the water and mindlessly follow what their dive computer ‘tells’ them
to do. No matter what goals participants in this course have at the outset,
developing a technical diving mindset – where limits for the dive are based
on gas, equipment, experience and realistic objectives – will be critical.
The Approach
Technical diving is mission oriented. Some occasional sport divers may
ask: “I just want to dive for fun, why should I care about that?” At TDI,
we feel there are a number of reasons. By developing a technical diving
mindset, the vast majority of divers will have more fun because less of
13
Chapter 2: Technical Diving Fundamentals
their mental energy will go into thinking about the basics of diving. That
mental energy can be used to actually enjoy and see more on dives. With
a mission oriented approach and a technical mindset, elusive wildlife, the
smaller details of shipwrecks, and many other aspects of a dive that went
unnoticed before will be obvious. To justify the value of making the shift
in mindset and attitude, one might say that divers who do so get more out
of their diving.
For anyone moving into technical diving, it is critical to develop
this mindset as early as possible in the training progression. By working
through this Technical Diving International course with a qualified TDI
instructor, students will learn how to apply the methods to their dive
planning and execution.
The foundation of this mindset is that diving is a vehicle to access
something distinct and special underwater. Diving becomes the means
to other ends, not just a matter of paying attention to the procedures of
diving. This requires training that allows diving activities to become
automated. It is known as automaticity training. In technical diving,
the goal should be access to some sort of target, be it a wreck, scientific
project, cave or some other goal beyond oneself. Even if the only goal is
to enjoy the dive, experienced technical divers find that having a focus that
lies beyond being able to perform the dive enhances the experience greatly
and allows them to accomplish much more with each dive.
All this begins with examining how the diver thinks about diving. The
diver will want to create a mental picture for himself of what it means to
be an elite diver. The TDI instructor will help with this. An elite diver is
one that is in control of their diving at all times, a diver that does not allow
things to happen by accident. Such a diver is aware of their impact 360
degrees around them at all times, including their impact on the environment
as they move. This diver is able to control their dive, position in the water,
buoyancy, breathing, and the manner in which they move through the
water without having to consciously think about it. The diver may find they
already do many of these things, and they might begin to realize that many
of the other divers they have looked up to in diving are not as elite in their
performance as they imagined. Either way, the diver will want to develop a
mental picture of the exemplary diver he wants to become.
14
If the diver builds this mental picture, he will rise to the level of
the expectation he has set. If the diver becomes clear on the level of
performance he is working toward, he will continue to work toward the
ideal he creates in his mind. He will have something to work towards on
every dive, constantly refining his skills and learning how to apply them to
each type of diving he does.
Diving will become the way the diver accesses the underwater
environment. He will be able to do things with his diving without exhibiting
any changes in his performance simply because he is doing something extra
in addition to diving. Handling a camera or placing a stage bottle should not
cause the diver to see a reduction in his diving performance.
Foundational Skills
The foundational skills for all diving are buoyancy control, swimming,
trim and breathing. All of these in combination allow the diver to dive
efficiently and effectively. Each skill set builds on the mental foundation
to allow him to control his diving at all times. These skills work in
combination, but also have unique aspects when taken alone. Breathing
will be discussed in detail in the next section.
15
Buoyancy control is the hallmark of an elite diver. A diver can quickly

recognize how good another diver is just by watching his buoyancy
control. The diver should make sure that he is able to appear to have no
change in buoyancy when picking up or placing equipment. This means he
needs to think ahead when he plans on picking something up or dropping
a stage. Remember that it takes a few seconds for changes in buoyancy to
take effect. Allow time for these changes to occur.
The diver should be able to make most of his buoyancy adjustments
through lung volume changes when he is not making big depth changes.
This will help him to feel his way through his dives. His first reaction to
the need to rise should be to inhale and slow the gas release rather than
trying to inflate his Buoyancy Compensating Device* (BCD) or even
worse, using his hands to cause upward movement.
Optimizing buoyancy control will help the diver master all the other
techniques that will be learned as the course progresses.
Since rebreather diving does not allow lung volume changes to affect
buoyancy like open circuit diving, the diver will want to make sure he
pays close attention to lung volume variances and maintain control over
his equipment for tight buoyancy control.
How the diver moves through the water becomes even more critical
when he adds more equipment. Being able to move efficiently through
the water is the mark of an elite diver. The TDI instructor will help
the diver refine and learn more ways of using his fins to provide this
movement through the water. The diver should not use his hands to
maneuver in the water. The diver’s fins are big engines to help him
move; when he uses his hands it is like stepping on the brake while
trying to accelerate in his car. It is just not effective. The diver’s hands
are for holding things or keeping out of the way.
Too many divers rely on their hands to make slight adjustments and
turns. The problem is that when the diver has things in his hands, he then
no longer has the ability to control his diving. Do not become dependent
on bad habits to correct for lack of control. Work on using fins to make
positioning and fine-tuning adjustments. This may be very difficult for
16
some. It is a fun exercise to see if the diver can keep from using his hands
for an entire dive, except to make adjustments to his BCD. Give it a try; it
might be more difficult than imagined.
It is important to realize that the diver may need to slow down in order
to speed up. As divers add more equipment to their system, they actually
need to slow down in order to allow the water they are moving through
the time to move past them. Drag is a function of speed. The faster the
diver tries to move, the more critical drag becomes. He could reach a point
where his speed is actually slower because he is trying to move too fast.
Swimming should allow for some glide after each kick. Most divers forget
about this part of the swimming cycle.
Learn how to flat turn. Use fins to make turns. Even in a stationary
position, the diver should be able to turn using the big engine of his fins
instead of his hands. Buoyancy in combination with breathing will help
the diver’s swimming become even more effective. The diver can make
these fundamental skills work for him in combination. If he stays slightly
17
negative on descent and angles slightly head down, he will find the planing
of his body will help with his forward movement, allowing him to swim
much less. It becomes an exercise in how to swim less. The diver can test
himself to see if he can fin less and do more.
Streamlining and trim will play directly into your attempts to minimize
effort. Water is heavy. If the diver can reduce his exposure to the water, he
will use much less energy to move through it. Small things can make a big
difference. Make sure that all equipment is streamlined and tucked in - no
danglies. Not using hands will keep them from increasing drag; paying
attention to body position will as well.
An ideal working position while diving should be horizontal in the water
with a slight arch to the back. The arch in the back will keep the diver from
having to strain his neck to be able to see forward. A slight bend in the legs
will help prevent the lift from looking up and keep fin wash away from
the bottom. If the diver swims with a dramatic head up position, he greatly
increases the area of his body that contacts or “sees” the water as he moves
forward. Even small increases can double the amount of work it takes for
him to move through the water. Remember that water is heavy; the diver
wants to move as little of it as possible when he travels.
18
The diver will work with the TDI instructor to optimize their equipment A diver should
configuration. The easier it is for him to have a balanced position in the
be able to hover
water, the less work it will take to be an elite diver.
Rebreathers can change the center of buoyancy a great deal due motionless in
to their counter lungs. Make sure to adjust weights to compensate for the water with
shifts in buoyancy throughout the breathing cycle. Do not discount the ease. Rolling
importance of good streamlined trim while diving a rebreather; too many
dramatically when
rebreather divers do.
trying to do this
Breathing usually indicates
Breathing is the primary skill from which everything else evolves. It is the
the diver needs to
cadence of the dive and will give the diver the most immediate feedback
as to how his performance is progressing. Mastering ideal breathing will work on trimming
have benefits for all areas of diving and it will become a critical survival his kit.
skill as the diver progresses into deeper diving.
Seventy percent of gas exchange occurs in the lower third of the lungs.
Most people believe they breathe correctly in life as well as on scuba.
Divers have all been breathing their entire lives but most have not been
doing so correctly, especially when it comes to breathing for scuba with
the increased gas densities and dead spaces.
Ideal breathing will provide the best gas exchange possible by
allowing the gas the diver breathes to spend time where it needs to be for
oxygen to be absorbed. Divers have all heard “breathe deeply and slowly,”
but few have ever actually learned what that really means.
When the diver dives, he will want to fill his lungs by drawing gas in
beginning from the bottom of his lungs and then letting it out from the
top. Fill from the bottom and empty from the top. Initiating breathing
with the diaphragm does this.
The diver wants to pull his diaphragm down and away as if he is
trying to have a potbelly, pulling the gas deep into the lungs. About half
way through this dropping of the diaphragm he will want to blend in
the fill of his chest, filling his lungs until they are comfortably full. He
19
should then pause and begin to release the gas slowly, thinking about
keeping the lower part of his lungs filled as long as possible. Placing his
tongue against the roof of his mouth will help slow the release of the
gas. The release of gas should take longer than his inhalation.
This method is technically known as diaphragmatically initiated
breathing. For our purposes, it will be called ideal breathing. It can
take a while to learn how to breathe with the diaphragm. Your TDI
instructor will demonstrate.
The diver will want to work on regaining ideal breathing when he
finds he is not doing it. Correcting his breathing when he is outside of
ideal is almost as important to learn as how to breathe properly. Once he
has mastered ideal breathing, he will be able to recognize the instance
when modifying ideal breathing is necessary.
The control that comes with having good full breathing allows the
diver to recognize ways in which breathing can impact his diving. If he
is trying to maintain a tight hover, he will learn to modify his breathing
to a tighter control of volume, shortening the cycle. If he finds himself
losing control of his descent, he will begin to correct that by taking in a
large breath and slowing his release of gas and perhaps even cycling his
breathing more quickly, keeping lung volume high, until he is able to add
air to his BCD. The reverse holds true if he were to notice that he was
positively buoyant; he would cycle through his breathing, keeping a lower
lung volume. These adjustments to breathing will have large impacts when
done as a first step to correct breaks in performance. The diver will find
that by leading with his breathing he is able to adapt to situations, reducing
or eliminating their impact on his performance.
It is okay to deviate from ideal breathing when it is by choice.
The diver wants to be sure to spend the time to really learn what ideal
breathing is. He can only deviate by choice from what is ideal if he has
mastered it first. The goal is to have his actions every moment be his
choice, not an accident.
Diving a rebreather is different. If the diver is going to be diving
on a rebreather, this ideal breathing is not ideal. He will still want to
begin his breathing with his diaphragm, but he will want to make his
20
breathing cycle a bit shorter. The idea is to keep gas moving more
often. He still will want the gas to be drawn deeply into his lungs
and dwell there, but because he is not losing gas to the outside, his
breathing rate can be faster.
Application to this Course

Work on mastering these four areas of fundamentals: buoyancy control,
swimming, trim, and breathing. This will help a great deal once you begin
to use diving to do other things. You will find that your diving gets better
in any application. Divers now have a set of fundamentals they can work
on at any time, regardless of what mode of diving they are using.
The idea is that the basic diving skills should remain unchanged even
while performing other activities. This is the mark of an elite diver. The
diver must keep asking himself, “Am I able to do anything I choose to
do without affecting my diving performance?” This foundation will help
ensure that you control your diving rather than having your diving control
you.
Work to optimize each fundamental skills set. The addition of new
skills and more equipment is likely to impact performance, if the diver has
not mastered the basics first. The diver must work with his TDI instructor
to begin to become an elite diver. It will payoff in all areas of his diving.
*The terms Buoyancy Control Device and Buoyancy Compensation
Device are both commonly used by the diving community.
21
Review Questions
1. An elite diver will have a focus on their dive that is?
2. The elite diver will focus on what fundamentals of diving?
3. How can lung volume be used to control buoyancy?
4. While using ideal breathing the diver should fill their lungs from the
__________ and empty them from the ______.
5. What are two reasons to deviate from ideal breathing?
6. While diving, when should the hands be used for positioning & turning?
7. What are the advantages of diving in working position?
8. What body position should a diver be in during the working portion of a

dive near an impactable environment?
9. Is there a time in diving when the foundational skills can be ignored?
22
23
Diving Physics and Gas Laws

Describe the physical
characteristics of oxygen.
Describe Boyle’s Law.
Describe Dalton’s Law.
List at least two things that Boyle’s
Law can be used to calculate.
List at least three things that
Dalton’s Law can be used to calculate.
Oxygen
This course is about oxygen and how to use this gas to optimize diving
and manage the risks and issues associated with its use.
Oxygen is a tasteless and odorless gas. It supports combustion and our
brains need it to stay alive. But, as with so many things, it has its costs
as well as its benefits to divers. It is naturally occurring in the air that
we breathe everyday in a concentration of 21 percent. Thankfully, most
friendly neighborhood gas suppliers are able to readily supply pure oxygen
on demand in gas or liquid form, making the lives of divers and the staff at
the local dive center even easier.
Oxygen is a diatomic molecule. This means is has two oxygen atoms
bonded together that make up the oxygen molecule we breathe. At the tem-
perature in our atmosphere, this molecule of oxygen is very stable and it tends
to react readily with many other compounds and tissues of the human body.
Discussion of the dangers of oxygen and how it supports combustion
will be covered later.
Within the body, oxygen brings life. Life does not last very long
without it, about four to six minutes for the average human being; double
that if you are a world-class freediver. Either way, it’s still not very long.
Oxygen is critical for aerobic metabolism and supports almost every
bodily process. However, too little or too much of it can be a problem.
25
Chapter 3: Diving Physics and Gas Laws
Relevant Gas Laws

There are really only two gas laws that need to be of concern for this
course. One is Boyle’s Law and the other is Dalton’s Law. Both are named
after the early chemical scientists who discovered them. It is not important
to know who these guys were; what matters is having an understanding of
the basic ideas that each was presenting.
Boyle’s Law concerns itself with the relationship between pressure and
volume when temperature is constant. This law describes the inverse relation
between volume and pressure. Boyle’s Law shows that during decent, as
a diver goes deeper and more gas is needed, volumes get smaller. Boyle’s
Law is a fundamental topic presented in open water diver training.
The golden rule of diving - Never hold

your breath! - is tied to Boyle’s Law.
Dalton’s Law reflects the pressure of a gas in a gas mixture. It states

that each gas in a mixture will have a pressure that is directly related to
its fraction in the mixture. In other words, partial pressure of a gas is
equal to its fraction of the total pressure of the gas. Dalton’s Law is the
law that allows the diver to calculate where and how much oxygen, or
any other gas for that matter, they can dive with. Divers are introduced
to the work and application of Dalton’s Law in their Technical Diving
International basic nitrox course.
Boyle’s Law allows a diver to calculate the pressure they will
experience at any depth, the amount of gas that will be consumed at that
depth and how much volume will increase if they ascend from one depth
to another. Pressure volume relationships tie directly to how pressure acts
on a diver as they progress through their dive.
Dalton’s Law is used to calculate maximum operating depth, best
mix, and partial pressure calculations. It is also used for gas blending
calculations. How much of each breathing gas a diver absorbs is tied to
26
Dalton’s Law. Diving exposures and decompression theory tie directly to

calculations made with this law.
Equivalent Air Depth, EAD, is a way for the diver to use any air dive
table to calculate dive profiles. Diving profiles and decompression theory
is tied to the partial pressure of the inert gasses a diver breathes throughout
their dive. The use of increased oxygen in a nitrox mixture reduces the
inert gas taken into the diver’s body. So, diving while taking up less
nitrogen is physiologically the same as diving air at a shallower depth.
EAD allows the diver to calculate exactly what this depth would be.
Specific diving calculations will be reviewed in Chapter 5.
Review Questions
1. Oxygen is a ____________ and _______________ gas.
2. Is oxygen necessary for life?
3. List two calculations you will make using Boyle’s Law.
4. List three calculations you will make using Dalton’s Law.
5. Why does Equivalent Air Depth allow divers to dive longer?
27
Gas Physiology
List the symptoms of

Pulmonary Oxygen Toxicity.
Calculate OTUs for an oxygen
exposure.
Describe oxygen management
for multiple days of diving.
Describe the best diver
performance to manage
Define Hypoxia. decompression risk.
List the lowest percentage List three factors that will affect
of oxygen that will nitrogen narcosis.
support consciousness. Describe the effects of
Name the term for an absence nitrogen narcosis.
of oxygen. List the areas that carbon
Name the term for more than dioxide increases can
21 percent oxygen. complicate.
List the pressure of oxygen Describe the affect of carbon
above which oxygen dioxide on narcosis.
needs to be tracked. List the most common
List the pressure of oxygen source for carbon monoxide
acceptable for working dives. in breathing gasses.
List the signs and symptoms of List the signs and symptoms of
CNS Oxygen Toxicity. carbon monoxide toxicity.
List the most serious sign of Describe the best way to
Oxygen Toxicity. avoid carbon monoxide in a
breathing mixture.
Calculate exposure for CNS
Oxygen exposure. Describe the involvement of
the body’s immune system in
Describe Pulmonary Oxygen diving.
Toxicity.
29
Chapter 4: Gas Physiology
Hypoxia
Oxygen is necessary for life; however, the partial pressure of oxygen that
can be breathed for prolonged periods of time is limited to a small range.
Too little oxygen is known as hypoxia. Air has 21 percent oxygen in it. On
the surface, this translates to 0.21 ATA of oxygen. Breathing a pressure
of oxygen less than 0.21 ATA of oxygen is breathing a hypoxic mixture.
Trimix and rebreathers are usually the only places where a diver would
face such a risk. Partial pressure of oxygen below 0.16 ATA can prove
hazardous. Levels below 0.12 ATA can prove fatal in just a short period of
time. The smaller the pressure of oxygen, the greater is the risk. Breathing
a gas absent (anoxic) mixture can shut down respirations entirely.
Regardless, if there is not enough oxygen in the body, the brain will be
impaired in its function and ultimately result in unconsciousness.
Closed circuit rebreathers carry with them the risk of progressing
into severe hypoxia if oxygen is not being added to the loop. In shallow
water, the risk is increased as partial pressures of oxygen can drop rapidly.
During ascents, this impact can be accelerated due to the drop in ppO2
caused by the ascent.
Oxygen Toxicity
Oxygen Toxicity refers to the opposite issue the diver may face with
oxygen, that of hyperoxia. Just as too little oxygen can be dangerous, too
much can prove to be a problem as well. If the diver breathes a partial
pressure of oxygen above 0.5 ATA, the diver must track oxygen exposure
for each dive and for multiple dives throughout consecutive days. Sport
scuba diving with air does not usually expose the diver to higher levels
for long enough periods of time to have to worry about tracking oxygen
exposures. However, in technical diving the exposure from air does need
to be considered as it could pose risk due to extended exposures and the
use of decompression gasses.
Generally, oxygen toxicity is considered to fall into two areas – short
term high dose exposures and long term lower dose exposures. Short-term
high dose exposures affect the diver’s risk of having the most dramatic
30
problem with diving mixed gasses known as Central Nervous System

Toxicity (CNS Toxicity). This is tracked as a percentage of the allowed
dose for each dive and the total of each day of diving.
The other form of oxygen toxicity is long term lower dose related prob-
lems. The diver tracks this exposure with the assistance of Oxygen Tolerance
Units, OTUs. These are used to track whole body / pulmonary exposures.
CNS Oxygen Toxicity

The dive community recognizes a partial pressure of oxygen at 1.4 ATA to
be the maximum exposure allowed for the working portion of most dives,
whether they are sport dives or technical dives. An exposure as high as 1.5
or 1.6 is acceptable for the decompression phase of a technical dive and
also for conducting short duration sport dives in calm, warm conditions.
But it is critical to always associate oxygen partial pressure to exposure
time to arrive at a CNS dose.
Tracking exposure to higher levels of oxygen is critical as the conse-
quences of having a problem with CNS toxicity can be very devastating.
Signs and symptoms of CNS oxygen toxicity need to be recognized and
quickly dealt with. Ignoring early signs of CNS oxygen toxicity issues can
result in the diver having a seizure. A seizure can easily result in the diver
drowning or embolizing as a result of an uncontrolled ascent.
Beyond a seizure, there

are several other signs Con = Convulsion
and symptoms that may V = Visual Disturbances
present themselves E = Ear Ringing
during any issues with N = Nausea
oxygen. An easy memory T = Twitching/ Tingling
in the face or fingers
device for remembering
I = Irritability
these signs and symptoms
D = Dizziness
is the term conVENTID.
31
Among US Navy divers, nausea has been the most common symptom
reported beyond convulsions. The problem is that a diver can have no
other sign or symptom other than a convulsion or progress so quickly
through any other symptoms that there is no time to take action prior to a
convulsion. Diving conservatively and well within the allowable limits is
critical for minimizing the risk of a convulsion. There is no resistance or
preparation that can be conducted to acclimate to oxygen exposure. These
limits should be carefully tracked and respected.
Particular partial pressures of oxygen carry with them exposure limits that
were set forth by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, NOAA.
The exposures are a time dose concept: the higher the pressure of
oxygen to which the diver is exposed, the lower the allowable exposure
time available to the diver. This exposure is accumulated throughout the
dive. While diving open circuit, this exposure changes throughout the dive
32
and is calculated for each pressure of oxygen experienced. The mixture

the diver breathes is a fixed fraction of oxygen, but variable pressure of
exposure. While diving closed circuit, the rebreather maintains a constant
pressure of oxygen and therefore, the exposure generally remains the same
throughout the dive. The mixture the rebreather diver breathes is fixed
pressure, but variable fraction of oxygen throughout.
The most critical calculation is that for CNS oxygen exposure, as the
results of having an issue in this area have the greatest risk of immediate
major consequences. The calculation is very simple. Time of exposure is
divided by total exposure allowed for each pressure of oxygen to which the
diver is exposed. This provides the decimal equivalent of a percentage. This
number can simply be multiplied by 100 to attain the actual percentage.
All the percentages experienced for the dive are then added up. This allows
exposures at different pressures to be accounted for by a number as a
function of its percentage of the total allowed. This makes comparisons easy
no matter what pressure of oxygen is being experienced by the diver.
For open circuit diving, generally the exposure is calculated for the maxi-
mum depth of each phase of the dive and then for each decompression stop.
For a sport dive, the calculation would be based on the maximum depth for
the entire time of the dive. For a sport rebreather dive, it would simply be the
time exposed at the chosen set point (pressure of oxygen) for the total time of
the dive. Modern dive computers that are capable of nitrox functions calcu-
late this exposure in real time, giving the diver all the advantages of real time
tracking of oxygen exposure as they do for decompression tracking.
It is wise to still plan dives by calculating exposures and all other
aspects of the dive by hand or via desktop software. In technical
diving, this is critical.
If a diver is exposed to 1.4 ata of oxygen on a 40 minute dive, the
resulting exposure would be
40 minutes / 150 minutes x 100 = 26.7 percent CNS exposure.
In nitrox class, you simply added these percentages up throughout

the day of diving. At this level, accounting for a washout of oxygen
33
or a resetting of the clock is acceptable. It is generally considered that

oxygen exposure and a washout effect takes 90 minutes for half of the
exposure to be recovered.
So, if a diver completes a dive with 40 percent oxygen exposure and

has a surface interval of 90 minutes following that dive, the diver would
enter the water with 20 percent exposure beginning the repetitive dive. This
exposure needs to be accounted for of course. Oxygen exposure washout is
a way to more closely monitor the exposures being faced in technical and
rebreather diving, which tend to be higher than with sport nitrox diving.
Complete practice of exposure tracking will be done in Chapter 5.
Pulmonary Oxygen Exposure

Whole body or pulmonary oxygen exposure is generally related to
lower dose and longer durations of oxygen exposure. Although the
issues associated with this form of exposure are fewer, they should still
be accounted for.
Oxygen breathed over 0.5 ata for prolonged periods of time will
begin to impact the tissue of the lungs and body. This form of oxygen
34
toxicity is due to the irritation and reactivity of oxygen with the body’s
tissues, in particular in the respiratory tract. Exposure is measured in
Oxygen Tolerance Units (OTUs).
A diver suffering from pulmonary effects of

oxygen will have some difficulty breathing,
pain on inhalation, dry unproductive cough,
and soreness in the lungs and/or throat.
This effect is cumulative. Once the process begins, it will not get
better until a break from higher pressures of oxygen is taken. If higher
pressures of oxygen are continued, the effects will worsen. It is highly
unlikely that a planned dive will exceed OTU limits in a single day;
it is far more likely that CNS limits would limit the exposure prior to
OTUs doing so, but the allowed exposure drops for repeated days of
diving. Also, tracking of this exposure becomes more important when
diving rebreathers because they allow for fixed pressures of oxygen to
be breathed for hours.
Oxygen Tolerance Units, OTUs, is the measure divers use to track
long term whole body oxygen exposure. The calculation is simple and
is based on time of exposure at a given pressure. There is no washout
accounted for with this calculation. The numbers are additive for each
day and from one day to the next.
Although the risks of Pulmonary Toxicity are minimal among
technical divers executing dives at the level covered in this program, it is
good practice to understand the possible effects of Pulmonary Toxicity and
a couple of methods to track its accumulation.
One OTU is the equivalent of breathing oxygen at atmospheric pressure
for one minute. One formula to work out the pulmonary dose in Oxygen
Tolerance Units is written:
OTU= Tx (0.5/(PO2 – 0.5)) - 0.833
35
Where Tx represents Time in whole minutes and PO2 represents Oxygen

Partial Pressure in BAR or ATM. If you are familiar with the workings of ex-
ponents and have a scientific calculator at hand, using this formula delivers the
most accurate results; however, for brevity the following table may be used.
Oxygen Partial Pressure OTU per Minute

0.6 BAR 0.262
0.7 BAR 0.466
0.8 BAR 0.653
0.9 BAR 0.830
1.0 BAR 1.000
1.1 BAR 1.164
1.2 BAR 1.323
1.3 BAR 1.479
1.4 BAR 1.631
1.5 BAR 1.781
1.6 BAR 1.928
Example: To calculate the OTU loading for a dive for 60 minutes breathing
a bottom gas delivering an oxygen partial pressure of 1.3 bar, and a 5-minute
safety stop breathing a gas delivery 1.6 bar of O2 pressure. OTUs for the
bottom portion of the dive equal 60 times 1.479 (which is 88.74 units). OTUs
for the safety stop equal five times 1.928 (which is 9.64). Ascent time between
the bottom and the safety stop would be made with a decreasing oxygen
partial pressure and so a “fudge factor” can be used. One can half the distance
between the bottom depth and the depth of the safety stop; find the oxygen
partial pressure delivered by the mix at that average depth and multiply by
the number of minutes spent ascending. If the oxygen partial pressure is less
than 0.6 bar, disregard. Another method for dive planning at the level covered
by this course is to simply add 20 units to cover ascents from any dive. This
covers dives from a maximum depth of 45 metres at a standard speed of 9
metres per minute (30 feet per minute) with contingency for deep stops.
36
Single Dive versus Multiple Dives and Days

A one-day dose of 850 OTUs is thought to reduce vital capacity by approxi-
mately 4 percent, which has been adopted within the technical diving commu-
nity as an acceptable risk. Of course, 850 OTUs is an impractical outcome for
a normal day of diving since it represents 850 minutes at one bar or approxi-
mately 440 minutes breathing oxygen at 1.6 bar! Clearly, Central Nervous
System (CNS) Toxicity and not Pulmonary Toxicity would be the concern.
For multiple day levels of Pulmonary Toxicity, the diving community
as a whole, and Technical Diving International specifically have arrived at
a total daily acceptable dose of 300 OTUs.
NOAA 24-Hour CNS Limits

An important limit for multiple day, multiple dive tracking of Central Ner-
vous System (CNS) Toxicity is the NOAA 24-hour limit. NOTE: Tracking
of NOAA’s 24-hour limit does NOT allow reduction of dose according to
any half-time calculations. In other words, 24-hour values for each dive are
calculated and added together to discover the total daily CNS toxicity levels.
Daily limit tracking is essential when multiple dives are planned and is
particularly important for divers doing trips where the first dive of day two
can easily be less than 12 hours after the last dive of day one (on a live-
aboard for example).
Oxygen Partial Pressure NOAA 24-Hour Limit in Minutes

0.6 BAR 720
0.7 BAR 570
0.8 BAR 450
0.9 BAR 360
1.0 BAR 300
1.1 BAR 270
1.2 BAR 240
1.3 BAR 210
1.4 BAR 180
1.5 BAR 180
1.6 BAR 150
37
Nitrogen Concerns
Increased oxygen levels provide for a reduction in nitrogen levels when
diving nitrox. Optimizing breathing mixtures during this course and
when diving after the course will help make decompression and available
bottom time as optimal as possible.
Ideally, dives should be conducted with the deeper portion of the dive
occurring first. Saw tooth profiles or dives with many big swings in depth
should be avoided. There is no evidence that conducting deeper dives after
shallower ones adds risk, but careful consideration should be given to dive
planning and available bottom times.
There is some evidence that dives of longer duration provide some
protection against more serious decompression risk. Avoiding deep spikes
and bounce dives may provide protection against more serious impacts
from a decompression incident.
Saw Tooth Profile Multi-Level Profile
For no stop diving, the ascent is an area where diver performance can
lead to a better, more conservative profile. The Divers Alert Network has
found that the average ascent rate for divers after they have completed their
safety stop is 60 metres or 200 feet a minute. Remember that the dive is not
over until hours after the diver is back on the surface. Adding a surface delay
prior to exiting the water, if possible, may also provide added benefits.
The use of nitrox does not eliminate the need to plan available bottom
times based on nitrogen. The risk of having a decompression incident is
the same if nitrogen exposure levels equal those of an air dive. Increasing
38
oxygen will provide longer available bottom times over air, but remember
the need to still “plan your dive and dive your plan”. Being conservative
and planning for contingencies is part of responsible diving.
All dives are decompression dives, though some do not require stops and
some do. The risk of decompression illness is always present. All divers should
plan for the eventuality that they may be faced with such a DCI event by:
• Being trained in first aid and oxygen administration.
• Ensuring that emergency oxygen is available for all dives.
• Carrying diving insurance.
• Continuing your education in rescue diving.
• Planning for decompression incidents on all your dives.
Remember, being prepared can turn a not-so-good situation into a not-

such-a-big-deal situation.
Besides the risk of decompression illness, nitrogen can also become
narcotic at depth. If a diver plans a dive with a limit of 1.4 ata for oxygen
exposure, planning for nitrogen’s narcosis exposure is equally important.
The generally accepted range for nitrogen narcosis exposure is between
4.0 and 5.21 ata of N2. Some divers may choose less of an exposure
and some may choose more. There is no set rule for accepted nitrogen
exposure from a narcosis standpoint. Each diver must look at the planned
activity, previous experience and training, the dive environment, and
any other factors that may be complicated by increased narcosis. Diver
performance also plays a big role in the impact of narcosis on a dive.
Narcosis is characterized by the suppression of mental activity
of the brain. Often spoken about as a drunken feeling, narcosis will
generally amplify the existing state of mind of the diver. If the diver
is nervous, that feeling will worsen. If the diver is relaxed, narcosis
will tend to make them feel even more relaxed. Task fixation and lack
of general awareness can complicate dive plans that require a clear
39
head. For dives in overhead environments (cave, wreck and ice), 4.0
ata N2 should be considered the maximum narcosis exposure that is
acceptable. This can be true for cold and dark waters as well. Some
divers may choose to have even less exposure for highly detailed dive
plans or complicated missions.
Oxygen is thought to carry with it

narcosis properties as well, perhaps even
slightly greater than that of nitrogen. The
easy rule of thumb is to not dive nitrox
deeper than you would dive with air,
assuming all other limits are respected.
Carbon Dioxide Toxicity

A great deal of research has begun to point to carbon dioxide, CO2, as
playing a major role in complicating narcosis issues as well as oxygen
toxicity and decompression problems. Carbon dioxide is the resulting
byproduct of human metabolism. When we take in oxygen the body uses
the oxygen for metabolic processes; when we exhale, carbon dioxide
produced by our metabolism is transferred to the lungs and leaves.
For open circuit diving, carbon dioxide is thrown out with our
exhaled breath to the environment. However, if the diver is not
breathing properly, is overexerting, has poorly performing equipment
or is retaining CO2, the resulting effects can be dramatic.
Human respiration is keyed to CO2 levels in the blood. If CO2
is high, the body is going to begin to create a desire to breathe more
rapidly. This desire often does not lead to better breathing techniques,
so the resulting breathing only increases CO2 levels, creating a feeling
of air starvation that can lead to panic.
40
For rebreather divers, the exhaled gas of the diver is recaptured and
CO2 is chemically scrubbed out of the loop. A failure of the scrubber
can increase CO2 levels artificially. Generally, the onset of feeling air
starved is more rapid and can be quite profound in its effect. It is not a
comfortable feeling.
Carbon dioxide also poses a narcosis risk. CO2 is more narcotic than
nitrogen and often has a more dramatic narcosis, creating less pleasant
effects as compared to that of nitrogen. This narcosis can act in addition to

any other narcosis present and amplify the effect.
Carbon dioxide also increases decompression risk, and complicates
and increases oxygen toxicity risk. Basically, having too much carbon
dioxide present in the body is a bad thing. As dives get deeper and work
levels go higher it is critical to use the best possible equipment and train
to maintain ideal breathing throughout any workload. If diving on a
rebreather, scrubber packing and duration logging are critical steps to
reduce risk. Everything should be done to minimize exposure to increased
carbon dioxide levels at all times while diving.
41
Carbon Monoxide Toxicity

Carbon Monoxide, CO, is the byproduct of incomplete combustion.
Generally, the way a diver becomes exposed to CO is from a bad
gas source such as exhaust becoming entrained in the air intake of a
compressor or combustion occurring within the compressor itself. The
effects of CO toxicity can be profound, as CO binds to the red blood
cells of the body with a much greater affinity than oxygen. CO toxicity is
essentially metabolic suffocation.
Carbon monoxide toxicity can be characterized by headaches, nausea,
vomiting, altered level of consciousness, and in very severe cases cherry
red lips and nail bed. The latter is not likely to be seen in a diver.
If a gas supply tastes funny or if, while diving, the sense of not feeling
well becomes greater throughout a dive or at greater depths, it is worth
considering the quality of the breathing gas. When CO toxicity is suspected,
end the dive immediately. Even better to catch the issue prior to entering the
water. Severe CO toxicity can result in unconsciousness and even death. A
reputable gas supplier is the best insurance against issues with bad gas.
However, even the best facility can have a

compressor failure or a damaged filter. It
is a good idea to always smell and taste a
breathing gas prior to entering the water.
42
Compliment Complex
There is some evidence that part of the reason decompression illness issues
are so complicated is because the body reacts to the disorder as if the body
is being attacked more so than when it has sustained an injury. This is in
part why it is now referred to as an illness. When bubbles form in the body,
the body appears to have an immune response to this foreign body within it.
The body then attacks the gas bubbles as if they are an illness. This creates
an immune cascade that can occur throughout the body, not just at the point
where the bubbles have occurred. Thus, the presence of even a small number
of bubbles can create an even larger whole body reaction.
The movement of platelets and thickening of the blood when an incident
occurs can complicate the body’s ability to deal with decompression stress.
Staying well hydrated, being in good health, and avoiding the problem to
begin with need to be a focus. Part of the acceptance of risk in diving is
being prepared for issues and working to prevent them.
The body’s immune system seems to play a role in most of what has
been discussed in this chapter. The best measure of protection from this
response it to avoid its activation. The only sure way of doing so is to
be conservative and keep the risks in mind. The simple act of hydration
following a dive may mitigate developing issues.
43
Review Questions
1. Hypoxia is ________________________________________________
______________.
2. Any mixture with less than ________ percent oxygen in it is considered

a hypoxic mixture.
3. Why is the risk of hypoxia higher with the use of a rebreather?
4. A mixture of gas that contains no oxygen is known as an

______________ mixture.
5. If a diver is exposed to more than _____ ata of oxygen during a dive,

that exposure must be tracked.
6. Signs and symptoms of central nervous system oxygen toxicity are

characterized by_____________.
7. What is the percentage of oxygen exposure for a dive with an exposure

of 1.2 ata of oxygen for 55 minutes?
8. What are two signs and symptoms of pulmonary oxygen toxicity?
9. How many OTUs will a diver have after a dive for 55 minutes with an
oxygen pressure of 1.2 ata?
10. What are the allowed OTUs for a five-day period of diving?
11. List three things a diver can do to make better ascents while sport diving.
12. What are three signs and symptoms of nitrogen narcosis?
13. Describe how to minimize carbon dioxide while diving.
14. What is the most common source of carbon monoxide in a

breathing mixture?
15. Describe how the body’s immune system might complicate a

diving injury?
44
45
Formula Work
Calculate Boyle’s Law calculations.
Describe the Dalton’s T Formula.
Calculate Best Mix.
Calculate Maximum Operating Depth.
Calculate Partial Pressure.
Calculate Equivalent Air Depth.
Do not let the math of diving intimidate you. Physics is simply a scientific
way to explain what divers experience on every dive. The reality is
that divers are armed with all they need to know in order to do these
calculations. Being able to make these calculations by hand is very
important for developing a sense of intuition about the numbers of diving.
In more advanced forms of diving this can literally be a survival skill. If
there is an emergency, the ability to be intuitive with the numbers allows
the diver to think on their feet.
There is a saying that goes “unless there is a number, the truth is not
known.” Perfecting the math of diving is necessary but it doesn’t need to
be intimidating. For any diving math problem, do not memorize formulas.
Most of what needs to be calculated can be thought through logically.
Take the problem diving before putting the numbers in. Understand what
is being asked and imagine what would be happening in the water.
47
Chapter 5: Formula Work
Boyle’s Law
Boyle’s Law speaks to the pressure volume relationship. An Advanced
Nitrox diver needs to be able to calculate breathing gas needs and other
aspects related to this law.
P1 V1 = P2 V2
Metric Example:
A diver diving to 35 metres will use gas how much faster than at the surface?
35 m = (35 + 10) m / 10 m/ata = 4.5 ata
P1 = 1 bar
V1 = ?
P2 = 4.5 bar
V2 = 1
1 V1 = 4.5 (1)
V1 = 4.5 times more gas
Imperial Example:
A diver diving to 115 feet will use how much more gas than at the surface?
115 ft = (115 + 33) ft / 33 ft/ata = 4.48 ata
P1 = 1ata
V1 = ?
P2 = 4.48 ata
V2 = 1
1 V1 = 4.48 (1)
V1 = 4.48 times the gas
48
Dalton’s Law
Dalton’s Law is the basis for most of the nitrox calculations.
Pg = Fg x P
Pg is partial pressure of the gas. Fg is fraction of the gas.
P is total pressure.
The law can easily be represented by a T formula. A T formula is a

representative of an equation that allows for easy reference to visually
recognize what calculation needs to be made.
A simple saying can be used to remember the T formula. A pig flies
over a frog in a pond.
Pg
Pg / (Fg x P)
Fg P
The T formula works by covering the item that needs to be calculated.
The remaining components are what need to be calculated for this result.
These are the most common calculations that need to be done by the
Advanced Nitrox diver.
Best Mix
Best mix calculations are made to plan for breathing gas needs for a
specific dive. This course is about making use of optimum breathing
gasses for any dive.
Fg = Pg/P
Metric Example:
If a diver wishes to make a dive to 35 metres, what is the best mixture
for this dive? 1.4 bar
Fg = 1.4 bar / 4.5 bar Fg 4.5 bar
Fg = 31 percent
49
Imperial Example:
If a diver wishes to make a dive to 115 feet, what is the best mixture for
this dive?
1.4 ata Fg = 1.4 ata / 4.48 ata
Fg 4.48 ata Fg = 31 percent
Maximum Operating Depth, MOD

This calculation determines the maximum depth to which a particular
mixture can be dived. This is a common calculation made when signing
out a mix from a dive center for their fill logs.
P = Pg/Fg
A diver wants to know how deep he can dive with a mixture of 29

1.4 ata percent oxygen nitrox.
.29 P P = 1.4 ata / 0.29

P = 4.83 ata / bar
Metric Example:
P = (4.83 - 1) 10 = 38.3 m
Imperial Example:
P = (4.83 - 1) 33 = 126 ft
50
Partial Pressure
This calculation is made to determine the partial pressure of a gas being
breathed by the diver. This calculation is necessary for oxygen exposure
calculations and narcosis exposure.
g = Fg x P
Metric Example:
A diver wants to know how much oxygen he will be exposed to if he
dives to a depth of 27 metres with EAN 33.
Pg
P = 27 m + 10 metres / 10 m/bar = 3.7 bar
Pg = 0.33 (3.7 bar) = 1.22 bar O2 .33 3.7
Imperial Example:
A diver wants to know how much oxygen he will be exposed to if he dives
to a depth of 92 feet with EAN 33.
Pg
P = 92 ft + 33 ft / 33 ft/ata = 3.79 ata
Pg = 0.33 (3.79) = 1.25 ata O2
.33 3.79 ata
51
Equivalent Air Depth

This calculation allows for the use of any air dive table with any mixture
of nitrox.
Metric Example:
(fN2) (D +10) -10 = EADm

.79
If a diver dives to a depth of 30 meters with EAN 32,

what is the EAD for this dive?
(.68) (30+10) -10 = 24.4m

.79
Imperial Example:
(fN2) (D +33) -33 = EADft

.79
If a diver dives to a depth of 100 feet with EAN 32,

what is the EAD for this dive?
(.68) (100 +33) -33 = 81.48ft

.79
52
Review Questions
1. What is the pressure difference at 30 metres / 99 feet as compared to
the surface?
2. What is the best mix for diving to 32 m or 107 ft?
3. What is the Maximum Operating depth for EAN 27 for both working
dive and decompression?
4. What is the partial pressure of oxygen at 30 m or 100 ft for EAN 30?
5. What is the EAD of EAN 36 at 25 m or 85 ft?
53
Equipment
List the oxygen percentage
that requires oxygen
cleaning for equipment.
Describe the procedure for
oxygen cleaning equipment.
Describe what should be done
if oxygen service equipment
is used with non-compatible
gasses or is contaminated.
40 Percent Rule
Most of the industry recognizes that any regulator may be used with
nitrox mixtures up to 40 percent oxygen concentration. No special
procedures need to be used for diving with these mixtures. However, TDI
recommends that all cylinders used with nitrox mixes be oxygen cleaned.
Cylinders should be properly marked and dedicated for nitrox so as to not
create confusion about what is in them.
Compressor Cleaning
Compressors should not be considered okay to use on mixtures up to
40 percent. Because of the heat and functioning of the compressor, a
compressor working with any mixture other than air should be properly
prepared to do so.
Cylinder Cleaning
Equipment being used with mixtures with over 40 percent oxygen must
be properly cleaned and prepared for oxygen service. Also, the material
the regulator is made of should be compatible for this use. Titanium and
aluminum regulators should never be the choice for this application.
Cylinders must be cleaned and properly labeled. A trained and properly
equipped service technician should conduct cleaning procedures.
55
Chapter 6: Equipment
The technician will first prepare the equipment for cleaning. Once the
equipment is in the best shape it can be in, it will be cleaned of all hydrocar-
bons. This is usually a two-step process of cleaning and confirming the ab-
sence of hydrocarbons, then progressing to higher levels of cleaning. Several
tests are run to confirm the absence of hydrocarbons. Once the parts of the
equipment are confirmed to be clean, then the technician will replace parts
with oxygen compatible parts where applicable. All lubrication is done with
non-hydrocarbon lubricants. The technician then reassembles the equipment.
The equipment is the cleanest it will be after service. It is very
important to keep the equipment free of contamination between services.
If the equipment is exposed to contamination, it is very important to have
it serviced again prior to use.
The use of oxygen and high oxygen concentration mixtures does carry
some increased risk of equipment related issues. Always turn valves on
slowly. Make sure to maintain the level of cleaning present in dedicated
gear. Never put cleaned equipment back into use when it has been exposed
to non-compatible gasses. These items must be cleaned again.
Cleaned cylinders should only be filled

or topped off with oxygen compatible
air. Generally, this air is called hyper pure
or modified grade E air. It goes through
additional filtration to ensure that very
little hydrocarbon content is present.
56
Regular Air Use in an O2 Cleaned Cylinder

If a cleaned cylinder is used with regular air it needs to be cleaned prior
to use with mixtures over 40 percent oxygen content. Any cylinder that is
going to be used for partial pressure blending must be cleaned for such use
because the introduction of high oxygen concentration mixtures prior to
topping with leaner mixtures is common.
Review Questions
1. Equipment that is used with oxygen percentages greater than _____
percent must be cleaned for oxygen service.
2. List three steps in the oxygen cleaning process.
3. What should be done if a piece of oxygen serviced equipment is

contaminated or used with non-compatible gasses?
57
Making Nitrox Work

List three tools for planning dives.
Describe the limitations of using a
dive computer.
Describe the benefits of using a
dive computer.
List the advantages of carrying a
backup dive computer.
The use of equivalent air depth calculations allows the diver to plan a dive
with any nitrox mixture with nothing more than an air table.
Computer Generated Dive Tables

Computer generated dive table programs are very common. These
programs allow detailed dive planning. However, these programs are
limited in that they provide exact information for the profile entered;
they do not allow for any flexibility or modification. Learning to use
the software and making sure to integrate conservative procedures into
diving planning are critical.
Personal Dive Computers

Personal dive computers now allow multiple gas mixtures and greater
flexibility in dive planning. They also allow dive plans to be modified
in real time during the actual dive. It is important to make sure that any
decision made to modify an existing dive plan is done so by taking into
account all of the dive plan parameters originally planned for. During “no
stop” sport diving, these decisions are easier to make. During technical
dives, these decisions based on the dive computer could create issues with
other areas of the dive plan. For example, extending bottom time could
require more decompression than the gasses carried would allow.
59
Chapter 7: Making Nitrox Work
Programmable Dive Computers

These dive computers are programmable. Some interface with a personal
computer and others use controls on the dive computer. Some even allow
for computer-based software to be brought into the dive computer. It is very
important to make sure that the gas mixture being dived is correctly entered
into the dive computer. Most of these computers now allow for the user
to increase the level of conservatism the computer will use. Because dive
computers provide real time information based on the actual dive profile
of the diver, there is not much room for pushing the limits of the computer.
When the computer reads zero remaining bottom time, the diver is at the
maximum exposure allowed by that computer. It is important to plan on
leaving some room in the dive profile to account for safety.
60
It is also important to understand that simply because a dive computer

provides a readout of a possible dive, that does not mean the profile should
be dived. Dive computers are simply a planning tool. They are a very
valuable tool, but they are not a replacement for common sense.
Each diver must learn how to use all of the features of the computer
they choose to dive. Many dive computers now provide a great deal of
information. It is important to read the user manual and become familiar
with all of the computers functions.
Carrying a Backup Computer

It is important to carry a backup for every planning tool and gauge. For
technical diving they are required. Matching the backup computer to the
primary computer for decompression model and function is a good idea.
For sport diving, a dive computer failure simply ends the dive. However, it
also ends the diving day if no backup was in use. It is a cheap investment
to carry an additional computer to backup the primary when on an
extensive dive trip in order not to lose a day of diving.
Review Questions
1. What are three tools for dive planning?
2. List three limitations of using a dive computer.
3. List three benefits of using a dive computer.
4. What is the best way to backup a dive computer?
61
Dive Planning
Describe the benefits of Describe cylinder baseline
planning dives by hand. and how to calculate it.
List five aspects that should Calculate gas consumption.
be planned for in a dive. Calculate gas needed for a dive.
List three reasons why Describe planning for oxygen
gas supply calculations exposures.
are important.
Describe planning consider-
Describe what SCR is and ations for nitrogen exposures.
how to calculate it.
List three things that must be
List three things that can considered in planning for
change SCR. thermal protection.
Planning Software
Sport dive planning is usually pretty casual. Most divers check their gas
supply and follow their computer. Entering the technical level of dive
training should bring with it a higher level of dive planning. This does
not have to take a great deal of additional time. However, working dive
planning by hand and gaining a familiarity with the numbers is a very
good way to build an intuitive sense for how different decisions will affect
the numbers. Planning software is a great tool to aid in planning, but it is
not a substitute for understanding where the programs get their numbers
from and executing calculations on your own. The skills you practice and
perfect will provide a very good check for recognizing a potential problem
when a program has produced numbers that do not make sense.
For technical and rebreather diving, dive planning takes on an even more
detailed form. Whatever type of dive is being conducted, until a number is
secured the diver does not truly know what is needed for the dive. A set sys-
tem for dive planning should be developed so no step is neglected or omitted.
Dive planning must account for all gas requirements, oxygen limits and calcu-
lations, nitrogen limits and a strategy for tracking the dive, thermal consider-
ations, and any other relative aspects that are needed in order to make the dive.
63
Chapter 8: Dive Planning
Gas Planning
For sport diving, gas requirements are relatively simple. However,
with the added available no stop dive time, gas planning becomes more
important as gas supply is more likely to limit the duration of the dive.
Most divers simply follow a basic plan for ensuring they return to the exit
of the dive with enough gas to conduct a safety stop and safely make it out
of the water. If there is an issue with gas supply, the diver can cut the dive
short at any time because it is no stop diving.
It is important to note that it is not a good idea to cut a safety stop short
simply to come back to the boat with a required amount of gas remaining
in the cylinder. If the diver has cut into their reserve of gas, it is better to
conduct a proper safety stop and be in trouble with the dive staff rather than
cut short or not do a safety stop. It is best to simply follow the plan for both.
64
Surface Consumption Rate (SCR)

For technical and rebreather diving, gas planning takes on a greater
importance. Running out of gas on a technical dive can cause injury or
worse. For a rebreather diver, running out of oxygen without being aware of
it can lead to unconsciousness. So, proper gas calculations become critical.
Even a sport diver can benefit from understanding and performing these
calculations. For open circuit diving, the first issue becomes understanding
how fast a diver consumes the gas they breathe. It is easy enough to figure out.
The process is known as Surface Consumption

Rate, SCR. This is a fancy phrase for the
amount of gas the diver moves in and out of
their lungs in one minute at the surface.
SCR is sometimes referred to as Surface Consumption Rate (SAC).

This number will change depending on the equipment used, the
temperature of the water, the amount of diving that has been done by
the diver, and whether it is the working portion of the dive or during
decompression. Gaining data from as many different applications as
possible will aid in dive planning a great deal.
SCR can be calculated from data collected in the pool or a real dive.
The diver simply swims at a constant depth for a set period of time.
Some dive computers that are air integrated can provide real time data as
well. SCR is calculated as a volume of gas, so pressure used needs to be
converted into volume of gas per minute used. The cylinder baseline can
be used to make the conversion.
Cylinder baseline is a way to figure out the constant for each
cylinder. It is calculated as volume per unit of pressure. In metric
countries this is easy, as most cylinders are known by their wet
volume. So, wet volume multiplied by fill pressure will give the
volume of gas in the full cylinder. For imperial countries, the volume
65
of the cylinder is not usually recorded on the cylinder. So, when a

cylinder is purchased, it is important to record the true volume of the
cylinder and the pressure required for that volume to be present.
Metric Example:
11 L cylinder fills to 200 bar. 11 x 200 = 2200 L

of gas in the full cylinder
Imperial Example:
80 ft3 cylinder is full at 3000 psi

Cylinder baseline is 80 / 3000 = 0.0267 ft3/psi
SCR is figured out by looking at the pressure of gas breathed over a period
of time, corrected for depth and converted to volume used at the surface.
Metric Example:
A diver uses 15 bar of gas while swimming at 10 m for 10 minutes, diving
with an 11 L cylinder that is full at 200 bar. What is this diver’s SCR?
15 bar x 11 L = 165 L gas used at depth

Use Boyle’s Law to convert the consumption to surface volume.
165 L / 2 bar = 82. 5 L surface equivalent / 10 min = 8.25 L/min SCR
Imperial Example:
A diver uses 250 psi of gas while swimming at 33 feet for 10 minutes diving
an 80 ft3 cylinder that is full at 3000 psi. What is this diver’s SCR?
Cylinder baseline = 80 ft3 / 3000 psi = 0.0267 ft3/psi

250 psi x 0.0267 ft3/psi = 6.675 ft3 used at depth
(33 ft + 33) / 33 = 2 ata pressure at depth
Use Boyles Law to convert consumption to surface equivalent volume.
66
6.675 / 2 ata = 3.3375 ft3 / 10 min = 0.33 ft3/min SCR

Knowing how much gas is breathed is critical for planning dives.
As ideal breathing is mastered, these numbers will likely drop. While
technical diving, these numbers must be maintained as increases in
breathing parameters can literally kill a diver since they cannot simply
surface at any time. Adding in some conservatism is a good idea. For
the sport diver, being able to calculate gas consumptions will allow for
more complete dive planning and increased peace of mind. It also gives
valuable feedback about performance.

This is also critical for rebreather divers in order to calculate bailout
needs. Open circuit bailout is the ultimate solution to a catastrophic unit
failure. SCR calculations for rebreather bailouts should be conducted
while diving the rebreather with the bailout system that will be used. This
can be done for open circuit bailout as well as semi-closed bailout modes.
It is normal to find that SCR is much higher after coming off closed circuit
to open circuit. This is why it is critical to master ideal breathing and be
able to move from one mode of diving to another with minimal drop in
performance. However, being conservative in bailout planning needs is the
67
best choice.
SCR provides the ability to know exactly how much gas will be
used for a dive. In sport diving it is simple to calculate total gas usage
for a dive by depth, adjusting SCR for the maximum depth of the dive
for the duration of the planned dive. The result will be the total gas
needed by the diver.
Metric Example:
A diver plans a dive to 30 m for 50 minutes. The diver has an SCR of
20 L/min. What is the total gas needed and the pressure that will be
breathed from an 11 L cylinder?
20 L x (30 m + 10 m) / 10 m/bar = 80 L SCR at depth

80 L/min x 50 mins = 4000 L total gas needed for the dive
4000 L / 11 L/bar = 364 bar needed for the dive in the cylinder
Imperial Example:
A diver plans a dive to 100 feet for 50 minutes. The diver has an SCR of
0.4 ft3/min. What are the total gas needed and the pressure that will be
breathed from an 80 ft3 cylinder that is full at 3000 psi?
0.4 ft3/min x (100 ft + 33) / 33 ft/ata = 1.61 ft3/min at depth

1.61 ft3/min x 50 min = 80.6 ft3 total gas needed for the dive
80 ft3 / 3000 psi = 0.0267 ft3/psi cylinder baseline
80.6 ft3 / 0.0267 ft3/psi = 3019 psi needed for the dive
Both examples show the importance of figuring out gas needs

as neither dive could be conducted with a single cylinder. These
calculations assume maximum depth for the entire dive, so further
refinement can be made by planning multilevel dives at known times
and calculating gas needs for each level of the dive and then simply
adding up all the segments of the dive. Also, extra gas should be
planned for to conduct ascent and safety stops and to return to the
68
shore or boat with some reserve to deal with unforeseen issues.

Dive buddies should make sure that their gas needs match. For sport
diving, check to ensure that gas supply will allow for the same plan to be
dived by both divers. For technical diving, it is critical to ensure that there is
enough gas to support both divers in the event of catastrophic gas loss. For
rebreather diving, it is critical for bailout needs and reserves to assist dive
buddies. Oxygen supply needs will be discussed in your rebreather course.
Gas reserves are for the diver that carries them. THERE IS NO EXCUSE
FOR RUNNING LOW OR OUT OF GAS! It is that diver’s choice to lend
assistance to another diver or their dive buddy. Gas planning should include
consideration for gas loss; it is NEVER acceptable to run out of gas simply
because of bad planning. This is why knowing the numbers is critical.
Oxygen Planning
It is necessary to calculate and plan for CNS exposure and OTUs. These
numbers should be within the acceptable limits. If diving for multiple
days, daily OTUs must be tracked and limits obeyed. Oxygen exposure is
one of the most critical aspects of dive planning.
Nitrogen Limitations
This course concentrates on no stop diving within the recreational sport
diving envelope. Dive profile planning should be conducted before each
dive via dive computer, computer based software or dive table. Breathing
gas choices should be made to optimize breathing mixtures to extend no
stop bottom times within each dive.
Dive tables are a traditional way to plan for nitrogen exposure. Any dive
table can be used with nitrox through the use of the EAD concept, reviewed
earlier. Dive table use is limiting as it assumes that the deepest depth of
the dive is maintained for the whole of the dive. If a dive table is used, it is
important to understand all of the assumptions and rules for its use.
The instructor will review dive table use if they will be utilized in the course.
69
Thermal Considerations
Recreational no stop diving allows for the dive to end at any time.
However, planning for thermal exposures can be critical to enjoying the
diving day. In technical diving, running out of heat can be as critical
as running out of gas. Make sure that thermal considerations based on
the water temperature, number of dives in the day, thermal protection,
weather, depth, personal thermal characteristics, and mission needs
are part of the planning process. Thermal protection takes on greater
importance when heat loss is increased due to cold weather and water
temperature. It is also important to be aware of heat stress and becoming
overheated prior to diving.
70
Review Questions
1. What is the benefit of hand calculating dive planning?
2. List five aspects of dive planning and importance of each.
3. Why is calculating breathing gas needs important?
4. Metric: A diver uses 12 bar of gas diving at 10 metres for 10

minutes. The diver is diving with an 11 L cylinder that is full at 200
bar. What is the diver’s SCR?
5. Imperial: A diver uses 225 psi of gas diving at 33 feet for 12

minutes. The diver is diving with an 80 ft3 cylinder that is full at 3000
psi. What is the diver’s SCR?
6. Metric: A diver with a SCR of 13 L/min plans a dive to 25 metres

for 35 minutes. What is the total gas needed to conduct the bottom
portion of this dive?
7. Imperial: A diver with a SCR of 0.5 ft3/min plans a dive to 57 feet

for 42 minutes. What is the total gas needed to conduct the bottom
portion of this dive?
8. Complete a dive plan for a diver that is planning a multilevel wall dive
to 28 m / 92 ft for 30 minutes. The diver has an SCR of 15 L/min or 0.6
ft3/min. The dive will be conducted in a tropical warm water environment.
Include breathing gas choice and why, complete oxygen exposure,
decompression planning choices, gas supply calculations, equipment
choices, and thermal considerations.
71
Dive Protocols
Describe why checklists and
predive checks are important.
List what each diver should
do prior to breathing
any gas mixture.
Describe predive checks.
List the components of the
START Check.
Describe how a descent should
be conducted.
Describe how an ascent should
be conducted.
Describe bailout strategies.
Pre-dive Checklists
Prior to entering the water each diver should perform pre-dive checks.
These checks should be confirmed with a dive buddy and the instructor.
Predive checklists will vary depending on whether the dive is a sport dive,
technical dive or rebreather dive. For rebreathers, predive checklists are
essential to the process of preparing the rebreather for diving; they should
be considered mandatory.
Diving Gasses
Divers are responsible for confirming all their gas mixtures. Each diver
should personally analyze and confirm each gas they plan on carrying with
them. This information should be logged and the cylinder contents should
be properly labeled. No diver should breathe any mixture they have not
personally confirmed prior to the dive. Cylinder contents labels should be
clearly visible. These checks should be conducted prior to arriving at the
dive site so that if changes are necessary, it is possible to do so.
73
Chapter 9: Dive Protocols
Equipment checklists should include all equipment necessary for

the dive operation. This is to include but not be limited to scuba units,
exposure protection, snorkeling equipment, dive computer(s), accessories,
cylinders and appropriate gasses, and specialty items. This list should be
reviewed prior to the dive trip and departure.
Self and buddy checks occur directly prior to entering the water.
These include safety checks for the diver and their buddy. Each diver
should confirm the function of their buddy’s equipment and use this
time to familiarize themselves with their buddy’s equipment if there is
any item that is new to them.
74
START Checks
Stress analysis and mitigation prior to the dive is especially important
when diving with a new team or new equipment configuration.
S Drill – Out of Air drill and Bubbles checks

Team – Buddy equipment checks
Air – Gas matching
Route – Entry / Exit and planned path underwater
Tables – Depth, Duration, Waypoints and Schedule
Descents should be conducted as a team and be a time when divers

prepare for optimum performance during the bottom phase of the dive.
Ideal breathing and a performance mindset should be the focus. This is
also a time when observation of the dive buddy’s kit is critical. This is
the final go or no go moment in the dive. Descents need to be done at a
reasonable pace to allow for equalization and avoid the build up of carbon
dioxide from over working. The team should level off in advance of the
bottom and buoyancy should be locked in prior to the working phase of
the dive, to optimize performance and visibility.
Ascending from the dive is a critical performance and safety concern.
Ascent rates should be slow and allow for safety stops. During this course,
gas switches may be conducted. Switching to richer oxygen mixtures
during safety stops can add benefits to off gassing. However, it does
require the use of additional cylinders. This can complicate logistics and
affect the streamlining of the diver. It also dictates that the diver build
in protocols in case he cannot make the switch. It is not unreasonable to
make use of oxygen during the final safety stop in order to maximize off
gassing during this critical safety procedure.
Safety stops have become mandatory in diving. Further investigation
has suggested that more than one delay in a no stop dive ascent could
provide additional benefits to off gassing and thus lower DCI incidence.
The use of intermediate safety stops in addition to one conducted at 4
75
Chapter 9: Dive Protocols
metres or 15 feet are useful. Some dive computers have adopted these
strategies. A general rule of thumb has been developed suggesting an
additional safety stop for deeper dives at half of the bottom depth for a
minute or two, with additional stops progressing to the shallow stop; this
may help lower incident rates and improve safety.
For a dive to 30 metres or 100 feet, the diver would begin their first
safety stop at 15 metres or 50 feet. This stop would be made for one to
5m/15’ two minutes. The next stop would be made half way between there and the
7.5m/25’ shallow stop for another minute or two. The traditional shallow safety stop
would also be conducted for three to five minutes with extensions beyond
15m/50’
that being made if desired. The use of richer mixtures at the shallow stop
could be utilized as well.
30m/100’
Bailout Procedures
A diver should carry enough gas to make a direct ascent to the surface
with a shallow safety stop from any dive. For the open circuit diver, this
should be accounted for in gas planning with predetermined departure
pressures for different depths.
For rebreather divers, bailout procedure must account for enough open
circuit breathing gas to make a safe ascent from the deepest portion of the
dive to the surface with a safety stop. Gas consumption calculations should
take into account less than ideal breathing parameters and real data should
be secured, having gone to open circuit from the rebreather in order to make
more accurate decisions in planning for bailout. Most rebreather divers will
not have ideal breathing after immediately switching to open circuit.
Bailout calculations for rebreathers will be conducted as part of the
rebreather course.
76
Review Questions
1. What is the benefit of a predive checklist?
2. List three things a diver should do before breathing any gas mixture.
3. List the components of a START Check and define each.
4. Describe a proper descent.
5. Describe a proper ascent strategy.
6. For a dive to 30 m or 100 ft, list the stops that should be made with a
multilevel safety stop approach to the ascent.
7. Describe the proper philosophy for bailout planning.
77
Common Gas
Mixing Procedures
Describe how partial pressure
blending is conducted.
Describe how continuous
blending is conducted.
Describe how membrane
separation is conducted.
Describe how a premix
system functions.
Describe how a molecular
weight system functions.
Gas blending is not complicated and is integral to nitrox diving. Taking

a TDI Blending Course is a great way to expand abilities and prepare the
diver to make their own breathing gasses.
Partial Pressure Blending

The most common mixing procedure that will be encountered in the field
is partial pressure blending. This is the simplest method for blending from
an equipment standpoint. However, this method does require the use of
oxygen or high oxygen mixtures richer than 40 percent, which mandates
that all equipment be cleaned for oxygen service.
This method of blending is most commonly done by adding oxygen
to a cylinder and then topping the mixture with air in order to blend
the desired mix. This method is labor intensive and slower than other
methods. It requires slower fill rates and careful observation of procedures.
79
Chapter 10: Common Gas Mixing Procedures
Continuous Blending
This method of blending mixes the nitrox prior to the gas being
compressed by a modified compressor. The desired blend is confirmed
prior to the mixture entering the compressor to be pumped into a dive
cylinder or banks. This method usually uses pure oxygen and ambient air.
This method is less labor intensive, but is more equipment intensive. For
mixtures under 40 percent oxygen, cylinders do not require cleaning for
oxygen service; however, TDI strongly recommends that all cylinders be
O2 cleaned since this method may not always be available.
Schematic courtesy of EnviroDive Services
Membrane Separation System

This method of blending is similar to continuous blending except the
method of nitrox production is different. A membrane is used to remove
nitrogen from air. The membrane is able to differentiate between the size
of the oxygen and nitrogen molecules in air and with each pass is able to
remove more and more nitrogen. This produces nitrox mixtures that can
then be passed through a compressor for filling a cylinder or banks. This
80
method also allows cylinders to be used that have not been cleaned for
oxygen service; however, just as with continuous blending, TDI strongly
recommends that all cylinders be O2 cleaned since this method may not
always be available.
Schematic courtesy of Nuvair
Premix
Premix requires no blending or minimal blending. A gas supplier delivers
premixed blends of nitrox. This gas can be pumped directly into cylinders
or used to achieve the desired mix. This method can be very useful if the
same mix is desired for all diving needs but can be wasteful and more
expensive than other methods of blending. This method allows for the use
of cylinders that have not been cleaned for oxygen service.
81
Chapter 10: Common Gas Mixing Procedures
Molecular Weight
This method is generally reserved for mixing large quantities of gas. Large
gas suppliers use the weight of the component gasses to make an exact
mix based on the weight of the gas introduced to the pressure vessel. This
method is rarely used in the field or at a dive center as it requires the use
of scales and can be tricky.
Review Questions
1. Describe partial pressure blending.
2. Describe continuous blending.
3. Describe the function of a membrane blending system.
82
83
What's Next?
Advanced Nitrox is only the first step in your journey towards achieving
the freedom to make more advanced dives. This course may be a stand-
alone course or part of a combined course. It is important to remember that
if more advanced diving is desired, additional training must be secured
prior to conducting those dives. Staged decompression dives are not part
of this course. Enrolling in the TDI Decompression Procedures Course
is a great way to progress into deeper and longer dives as well as gain
additional opportunities to apply what has been learned in this course.
This course is required for or included in most rebreather courses.
Closed circuit diving is a great way to help extend available bottom
times and gas supply to allow for greatly lengthened no stop diving.
The added benefit of silence allows the diver to more easily approach
marine life and is an added bonus to any dive.
Never attempt to conduct dives that require stops or take the diver
beyond what is learned in this course without further training. It can
be tempting to give it a try as what is learned in this course provides
some understanding of what might be required. It is very important to
receive proper training in the complex procedures required to properly
conduct these dives.
Beyond entry-level technical training, Extended Range and Trimix
Diver courses are great ways to access even deeper and more complex
85
Chapter 11: What‘s Next?
diving. For rebreather divers, technical training can be taken with the
rebreather as well. Technical diving is a great adventure and anyone with
the correct mindset and proper approach can enjoy the challenges and
rewards of continuing their dive education in this way. The foundation
that is built in this course will serve the diver well as they advance to more
complex dive plans. More importantly, the diver can constantly perfect
skills and be better on each dive than they were on the last.
86
Suggested Reading
Deep Diving, Revised: An Advanced Guide to Physiology, Procedures
and Systems, Bret Gilliam, 1995 Aqua Quest Publications, Inc.
Diving Physiology in Plain English, Jolie Bookspan, 1997, Undersea and

Hyperbaric Medical Society.
The Practice of Oxygen Measurement for Divers, J. S. Lamb, 1999 Best

Publishing Company.
NOAA Diving Manual: Diving for Science and Technology, Fourth

Edition, James T. Joiner (Editor), 2001 Best Publishing Company.
Peak Performance: Mental Training Techniques of the World’s Greatest

Athletes, Charles A. Garfield, 1985 Warner Books.
If you can find it:

Oxygen and the Diver, Kenneth Donald, 1995 Best Publishing Company.
87
Chapter 11: What‘s Next?
88
Appendix A: TDI/
SDI Dive Tables
Based on USN SS521-AG-
PRO-010 Revision 6
89
Appendix A: TDI/SDI Dive Tables
90
91
Appendix A: TDI/SDI Dive Tables
92
Appendix B:
Using Buhlmann
Air Decompression
Tables
These tables are valid for use for dives conducted from sea level up
to elevations of 700 metres (2,300 feet). Dives conducted at altitudes
higher than 700 meters are beyond the scope of these tables and require
specialize planning and training (SDI Altitude Diver Specialty). Using
the Buhlmann Air Decompression Tables for non-decompression
dives is very easy and anyone familiar with working “paper” tables
from other algorithms such as the U.S. Navy tables will recognize
the methodology. To plan a dive, follow the left-hand column to the
planned depth in metres or the next DEEPER depth. Next step is to
find a time that corresponds to the planned time the divers will be
spending at depth (bottom time). Choose the actual planned bottom
time or a time in minutes that is the next LONGER time from the list
of times shown for the chosen depth. The “decompression” stop(s)
required by the table for the dive can be found by reading from left
to right along the row that corresponds to both depth and time of
the planned dive and are shown in whole minutes. The depth of the
required decompression stops is found at the head of each column
(reading left to right: 12 m, 9 m, 6 m, 3 m. The Rep. Group (repetitive
dive group) is found in the column next to the 3 m stop. The total
ascent time is shown in the right-hand column. The ascent speed for
93
Appendix B: Using Buhlmann Air Decompression Tables
all dives using the Buhlmann Air Decompression Tables is 10 metres

per minute. Example One: A dive to 20 metres for 20 minutes. Find
20 metres in the depth column. There is no 20 metre entry so the
next deeper depth is 21 metres. Now in the 21 metres section find
20 minutes. There is no entry and the next longer bottom time is
22 minutes. Following the row across to the right, we find the dive
requires a one minute stop at 3 metres. The Rep Group is C and total
ascent time (total in-water time) should be 25.1 minutes, which the
majority of divers would round up to 26 minutes. This dive is within
the NDL for these tables. Example Two: A dive to 39 metres for 10
minutes. Find 39 metres in the depth column. Now find 10 minutes in
the 39 metre depth section. Following the row across to the right, we
find the dive requires a one minute stop at 3 metres. The Rep Group is
D and total ascent time (total in-water time) should be 14.9 minutes,
which the majority of divers would round up to 15 minutes. This dive
is close to the NDL for these tables.
Planning a repetitive dive

The first step is to find how much residual nitrogen remains after a
surface interval from a previous dive. To do this, transfer Rep Group
from previous dive to Table 2: Buhlmann Repetitive Letter Group
Table. Find entry for Rep Group in the outlined rectangles (A, B,
C, etc.). Surface intervals in minutes is shown in the horizontal row
corresponding to the Rep. Group. Find the actual surface interval in
minutes from the range of times shown. Follow the column up to the
new Rep. Group. For example: Following a surface interval of 30
minutes, a Rep Group D becomes a Rep Group A.
Table 2 also shows the surface interval time necessary to “clear”
residual nitrogen following a dive and the necessary minimum surface
interval until a diver can fly with “acceptable risk,” although TDI
suggests a minimum of 24 hours surface interval before flying even on
a commercial flight.
94
To complete the “decompression” planning aspect of a dive, it is

necessary to convert the Rep Group letter after the planned surface
interval into minutes of residual nitrogen time and add this time to the
next dive’s planned bottom time.
To do this, use Table 3 Residual Nitrogen Time in Minutes. Find
the new Rep Group (from Table 2) in the left-hand column. Find
the maximum depth of the new dive in the top column. Find the
intersection of the horizontal row and vertical column and this gives
residual nitrogen in minutes. This time MUST be ADDED to the
planned actual bottom time for the repetitive dive and this equivalent
bottom time be used on Table 1.
Example: A Rep Group A diver planning a dive to 24 metres will
“carry over” 11 minutes of bottom time. This time must be added to
the planned bottom time, which in this example is 15 minutes. In this
case, the residual nitrogen would make this dive’s equivalent bottom
time 26 minutes. Table one tells the diver that his dive will required
a two-minute stop at 3 metres and carry an E Rep group at the dive’s
conclusion.
PLEASE NOTE: The Buhlmann Tables mandate a minimum of a one-

minute stop at 3 metres for EVERY dive. Any dive shown to have a stop
time in excess of a standard safety stop is a staged decompression dive
and is beyond the scope of a TDI Advanced Nitrox certified diver, and
requires special planning, training and equipment (TDI Decompression
Procedures).
95
96
Table 1: Buhlmann Air Decompression Tables
Sea Level (0-700m)
Depth Time Decompression Stop Depth Rep TOT Depth Time Decompression Stop Depth Rep TOT
TOT
Meters Min Group Min Meters Min Group Min
Min
12M 9M 6M 3M 12M 9M 6M 3M
25 1 A 26.9 11 1 A 14.4
37 1 B 38.9 13 1 B 16.4
9 55 1 C 56.9 20 1 C 23.4
81 1 D 82.9 25 1 E 28.4
1 A
24 30 2 E 34.4
19 21.2
35 4 F 41.4
25 1 B 27.2
40 8 F 50.4
12 37 1 C 39.2
50 17 G 69.4
57 1 D 59.2
82 1 E 84.2 10 1 A 13.7
12 1 B 15.7
16 1 A 18.5
18 1 C 21.7
20 1 B 22.5
20 1 E 23.7
29 1 C 31.5 27 30 5 F 37.7
15 41 1 D 43.5
35 10 F 47.7
59 1 E 61.5
40 2 13 G 57.7
75 1 G 77.5
Appendix B: Using Buhlmann Air Decompression Tables
45 3 18 G 68.7
80 3 G 84.5
9 1 A 13
14 1 A 16.8
11 1 B 15
17 1 B 19.8
16 1 C 20
18 25 1 C 27.8
20 2 D 25
33 1 D 65.8
25 5 E 33
44 1 F 46.8 30 30 2 7 F 42
51 1 F 53.8
35 3 14 G 55
60 5 F 66.8
40 5 17 G 65
70 11 G 82.8
45 9 23 G 80
80 18 H 99.8
12 1 A 15.1 8 1 A 12.3
15 1 B 18.1 10 1 B 14.3
22 1 C 25.1 14 1 D 18.3
28 1 D 31.1 20 4 E 27.3
21 35 1 E 38.1
33 25 2 7 F 37.3
40 5 E 44.1 30 4 11 G 48.3
50 8 F 60.1 35 6 17 G 61.3
60 16 G 78.1 40 2 8 23 G 76.3
tdisdi.com
110002-01
*110002-01* ISBN: 1-931451-75-3
T ECH N I CA L D I V I N G I N T ER N AT I O N A L

TDI Advanced Nitrox Manual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

TDI Advanced Nitrox Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

T ECH N I CA L D I V I N G I N T ER N AT I O N A L

tdi guide to advanced nitrox

• Watch videos • Use PDF on any

TECHNICAL DIVING INTERNATIONAL

A Guide to Advanced Nitrox

© International Training 2009-2013 v.0221

ISBN: 1-931451-75-3 Product ID #: 110002-01

Chapter One: Introduction to Advanced Nitrox 9

which decompression is required. This course will build a foundation for

Regardless of which path graduates from this course opt to take

Technical Diving Fundamentals

The Technical Diving Mindset

Buoyancy control is the hallmark of an elite diver. A diver can quickly

Application to this Course

2. The elite diver will focus on what fundamentals of diving?

3. How can lung volume be used to control buoyancy?

5. What are two reasons to deviate from ideal breathing?

7. What are the advantages of diving in working position?

8. What body position should a diver be in during the working portion of a

9. Is there a time in diving when the foundational skills can be ignored?

Diving Physics and Gas Laws

Relevant Gas Laws

The golden rule of diving - Never hold

Dalton’s Law reflects the pressure of a gas in a gas mixture. It states

Dalton’s Law. Diving exposures and decompression theory tie directly to

2. Is oxygen necessary for life?

3. List two calculations you will make using Boyle’s Law.

4. List three calculations you will make using Dalton’s Law.

5. Why does Equivalent Air Depth allow divers to dive longer?

 List the symptoms of

problem with diving mixed gasses known as Central Nervous System

CNS Oxygen Toxicity

Beyond a seizure, there

and is calculated for each pressure of oxygen experienced. The mixture

40 minutes / 150 minutes x 100 = 26.7 percent CNS exposure.

In nitrox class, you simply added these percentages up throughout

or a resetting of the clock is acceptable. It is generally considered that

So, if a diver completes a dive with 40 percent oxygen exposure and

Pulmonary Oxygen Exposure

A diver suffering from pulmonary effects of

Where Tx represents Time in whole minutes and PO2 represents Oxygen

Oxygen Partial Pressure OTU per Minute

Single Dive versus Multiple Dives and Days

NOAA 24-Hour CNS Limits

Oxygen Partial Pressure NOAA 24-Hour Limit in Minutes

Saw Tooth Profile Multi-Level Profile

• Being trained in first aid and oxygen administration.

• Ensuring that emergency oxygen is available for all dives.

• Carrying diving insurance.

• Continuing your education in rescue diving.

• Planning for decompression incidents on all your dives.

Remember, being prepared can turn a not-so-good situation into a not-

Oxygen is thought to carry with it

Carbon Dioxide Toxicity

effects as compared to that of nitrogen. This narcosis can act in addition to

Carbon Monoxide Toxicity

However, even the best facility can have a

2. Any mixture with less than ________ percent oxygen in it is considered

3. Why is the risk of hypoxia higher with the use of a rebreather?

4. A mixture of gas that contains no oxygen is known as an

5. If a diver is exposed to more than _____ ata of oxygen during a dive,

6. Signs and symptoms of central nervous system oxygen toxicity are

7. What is the percentage of oxygen exposure for a dive with an exposure

List the symptoms of