TRAINING COURSE FOR INSTRUCTORS

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WRITING LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Definition of Terms

Course Description tells something about the content and procedures of a course. It
outlines various aspects of a process known as instruction.

Course Objective describes desired outcome of a course. It describes the results of

the process known as instruction.

Instruction is the process; student competence is the result.

Objective is a description of a performance you want your learners to be able to

exhibit before you consider them competent. An objective describes and intended
result of instruction, rather than the process of instruction itself.

An instructional objective describes an intended outcome of instruction rather an

instructional procedure. An objective always states a PERFORMANCE, describing
what the learner will be doing when demonstrating mastery of the objective.

Qualities of Useful Objectives

1. A useful stated objective is one that succeeds in communicating and instructional

intent to the reader.
2. It conveys to others a picture of what a successful learner will be like that
identical to the picture that the objective-writer has in mind.
3. It allows the writer to make the largest number of decisions relevant to its
achievement and measurement.

Objectives are useful tools in the design, implementation and evaluation of

instruction. They are useful in:

 Pointing to the content and procedure that will lead to successful instruction
 Helping to manage the instructional process itself
 Helping to prepare the means of finding out whether the instruction has been
successful

Objectives are useful in providing a sound basis for:

 The selection or designing of instructional content and procedure

 Evaluating or assessing the success of the instruction
 Organizing the students’ own efforts and activities for the accomplishment of the
important instructional intents

Characteristics of Useful Objectives

1. Performance – an objective always says what a learner is expected to be able to

do. Performance words are doing words; written in behavioral form.

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2. Condition – an objective always describes the important conditions (if any) under
which the performance is to occur.
3. Criterion/Standard – wherever possible, an objective describes the criterion of
acceptable performance by describing how well the learner must perform in order
to be considered acceptable.

Friendly Reminder

A useful objective must possess the qualities of S-M-A-R-T-E-R, which stands for:

S - specific, simple

M - measurable

A - attainable, achievable

R - result-oriented

T - time-bounded

E - enjoyable

R - rewarding

Relationship between Aims, Goals and Objectives

CRITERIA AIMS GOALS OBJECTIVES

1 Definition Vague, generally More precisely Specific statements

phrased statements phrased statements of programs intent;
of what should be of curricula intent derived from goals.
achieved by a derived from aims.
curriculum.

2 Expression Broadly phrased, Generally phrased in Phrased in technical

non-technical non-technical language, using
language language, although precise key words,
more precise that may be behavioral
aims. terms.

3 Time Long term, usually Medium term to long Short term, may
covering many term, depending cover a lesson, a
years. upon how they are day, a week, a term
translated from or semester.
aims.

4 Stated by “Society” through Education Classroom teachers,

forms such as authorities at individuals or groups
politicians, education system, region and of teachers. Some
systems, major subject, syllabus curriculum
inquiries, pressure committees; school documents (unit
groups. policy documents. objectives).

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Classification of Objectives1
Classifying objectives is much more than an academic exercise for education
psychologists. It has practical value because the selection of instructional methods
and media depends on what type of objective is being pursued, and so does the
choice of evaluation instruments. An objective may be classified according to the
primary type of learning outcome at which it is aimed. Although there is a range of
opinion on the best way to describe and organize the subsets, three categories, or
“domains,” of learning are widely accepted: cognitive, affective and motor skills
[psychomotor]. To these we add a fourth – which addresses important skills
neglected in the other domains.

Cognitive learning involves the whole array of intellectual capabilities from simple
factual recall to the generation of new theories.

Affective learning involves feelings and values. Objectives in the affective domain
may range from stimulating interest in a school subject to encouraging healthy social
attitudes to adopting a set of ethical standards.

Motor skills [psychomotor] learning involve athletic, manual and other such physical
skills. Objectives in the motor skill domain include capabilities ranging from simple
mechanical operations to those entailing sophisticated neuromuscular coordination
and strategy, as in competitive sports.

Interpersonal skills learning involve interaction among people. These are people-
centered skills that involve the ability to relate effectively with other. Examples
include teamwork, counseling techniques, administration skills, salesmanship,
discussion activities, and customer relations.

Most learned capabilities actually contain elements of all domains in as much as they
entail voluntary display (affective) of some observable action (motor skill) that
indicates possession of some mental skill (cognitive). Nevertheless, the primary
emphasis in the mind of the instructor can usually be stated as cognitive, affective,
motor skill or interpersonal skill. For example, the objective of having students
perform a somersault on a trampoline requires their knowledge of the correct
sequence of actions (cognitive) and willingness to perform the maneuver (affective),
but the emphasis clearly is on the mastery of the physical ability; hence, it would be
classification as a motor skill objective.

Take, as another example, the objective in an elementary school of developing the

children’s eagerness to lean up classroom litter voluntarily. It has a cognitive element
-- knowing the reasons why clean classroom litters voluntarily. It has a cognitive
element – knowing the reasons why a clean classroom is better, distinguishing litter
from intentional decorations and the like. It also incorporates the physical skills of
picking up, sweeping and throwing into a trashcan among others. But the primary
emphasis here is on changing the children’s attitudes toward litter making it an
affective objective.

The Cognitive Domain

1
Robert Heinich, Michael Molenda and James D. Russel. Instructional Media and the New Technologist of
Instruction. Third Edition.

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The original classification scheme for the cognitive domain proposed by Bloom 2
envisioned a rather orderly progression from simple to complex mental abilities.
Researches over the past three decades suggest that the cognitive domain
incorporate at least three qualitatively different types of capabilities, not a single
simple-to-complex continuum. Gagne’s3 categories are widely accepted among
instructional designers:

1. Verbal/Visual information: factual knowledge stored verbally or visually in

memory; it consists of single images, facts, labels, memorized sequences and
organized information. Examples: To be able to recall that Mackenzie King
served as prime minister of Canada three times between 1921 and 1948; to be
able to recite the first paragraph of John F. Kennedy’s inaugural address. This
category also includes the somewhat higher level skill of comprehending –
understand the meaning of a fact. Example: to be able to summarize in your own
words the contribution of President Kennedy to the civil rights movement.

2. Intellectual skills: the ability to use symbols to organize and manipulate the
environment. The two most basic forms of symbols, words and numbers, allow us
to read, write and compute. These abilities underlie the continuum of capabilities
that form the skill category:

a. Discrimination: to be able to distinguish between two different stimuli, that is

to see the difference between physically similar objects. Example: to be able
to distinguish between a turbo-prop and a turbofan jet engine.
b. Concept learning classifying things or ideas into categories on the basis of
some shared attributes. Example: To be able to identify a bat as a mammal.
c. Rule using: applying principles to a variety of situations. Using mathematical
equations and following the rules of grammar to construct sentences in a
foreign language are rule-using capabilities.

3. Cognitive strategies: the internal “control processes” that governs the learners’
ability to visualize, think about and solve problems. The sophistication of our
cognitive strategies determines how creatively, fluently, or critically we will be
able to think. Example: To resolve logical contradictions by questioning the
assumption behind each.

The Affective Domain4

The affective domain is organized according to the degree of internalization – the

degree to which the attitude or value has become part of the individual:

1. Receiving being aware of and willing to pay attention to a stimulus (listen or look)
(e.g. The student will sit quietly while the teacher reads long-fellow’s Paul
Revere’s Ride.)
2. Responding: actively participating, reacting in some way (e.g. The student will
ask questions relating to Paul Revere’s Ride.)
3. Valuing voluntarily displaying an attitude showing an interest (e.g. The student
will ask to read another story or poem about Paul Revere.)

2
Benjamin S. Bloom, ed. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. New York: David
Mckay. 1956.
3
Robert Gagne, Leslie Briggs, and Walter Wager. Principles of Instructional Design. 3rd Ed. New York: Holt, Rienhart
& Winstonn, 1988, p.44.
4
Adapted from David R. Kratwohl, et. al. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook II: Affective Domain. New
York: David Mckay, 1964.

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4. Characterization: demonstrating an internally consistent value system,

developing a characteristics lifestyle based upon a value or value system (e.g.,
The student will devote a percentage of his or her free time to studying American
history.).

The Motor Skill Domain5

The motor skill domain may be seen as a progression in the degree of coordination
required:

1. Imitation: repeating the action shown (e.g., After viewing the film on the backhand
tennis swing, you will demonstrate the swing with reasonable accuracy.).
2. Manipulation: performing independently (e.g., Following a practice period, you will
demonstrate the backhand tennis swing, scoring eleven of the ten points on the
performance of the checklist.).
3. Precision: performing with accuracy (e.g., You will demonstrate an acceptable
backhand tennis swing, returning successfully at least 75 percent of practice
serves to the backhand.).
4. Articulation: Performing unconsciously, efficiently, and harmoniously,
incorporating coordination of skills (e.g., During a tennis match, you will execute
the backhand stroke effectively against your opponent, returning nine out of ten
of all types of shots hit to the backhand side.).

Types of Interpersonal Skills Learning6

The types of interpersonal skills can be classified into six categories:

1. Seeking/giving information: asking for/offering facts, opinions, or clarification

from/to another individual or individuals (e.g., You will ask your supervisor about
the meaning of a new work rule.).
2. Proposing: putting forward a new concept, suggestion, or course of action (e.g.,
You will make a job enrichment suggestion to your supervisor.).
3. Building and supporting: extending, developing, enhancing another person, his or
her proposal, or concepts (e.g., In a departmental meeting you will suggest an
amendment to someone’s motion.).
4. Shutting out/bringing in: excluding/involving another group member from/ into a
conversion or discussion (e.g., In a departmental meeting you will ask a quite
member to give his or her ideas.).
5. Disagreeing: providing a conscious, direct declaration of difference of opinion, or
criticism of another person’s concepts (e.g., During a lunchroom discussion you
will defend a new work rule against a colleague’s attack.).
6. Summarizing: restating in a compact form the content of previous discussions or
considerations (e.g., Before giving your comments in a departmental meeting you
will summarize the arguments that have been presented.).

Classes of Skills

5
Adaptation based upon published works of E. Simpson (University of Illinois) and R.H. Dave (National Institute of
Education, New Delhi, India)
6
Adapted from Neil Rackham and Terry Morgan. Behaviour Analysis in Training. London: Mcgraw-Hill, 1977

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In designing training, different methods will be needed to teach different types of

skills. The main classes of skills in training are intellectual skills and physical skills.

Intellectual skills. These range from the most elementary to the very complex. One
useful classification of these is given below:

Classifying Rule-using Discriminating Problem-solving

to allocate to calculate to accept to accommodate

to arrange to calibrate to adjucate to adapt
to assign to check to appraise to analyze
to catalogue to compute to appreciate to compose
to characterize to convert to arbitrate to conclude
to classify to correct to asses to construct
to collect to deduce to authenticate to contrive
to compile to design to choose to co-ordinate
to define to determine to compare to correlate
to describe to equate to criticize to create
to file to examine to discriminate to develop
to grade to expect to estimate to devise
to group to explain to evaluate to diagnose
to identify to extrapolate to gauge to discover
to index to foresee to judge to find a way
to itemize to illustrate to match to generalize
to order to interpolate to rate to infer
to rank to interpret to recognize to invent
to reject to monitor to review to programme
to screen to organize to value to project
to sort to plan to weigh to realize
to specify to predict to reason
to survey to prescribe to resolve
to tabulate to schedule to solve
to solve to synthesize
to translate to trouble shoot
to verify

Classifying

This will usually involve giving a definition, explaining basic concepts, appreciating
different classes. This lowest level of intellectual skill is close to the knowledge which
may be a basic need for any type of skill, but the Headquarters of UNCTAD is in
Geneva, is clearly a fact.

Rule-using

Having specified the concepts, applying given rules to calculate or judge the result.

Discriminating

This is a higher type of skill since it involves making a judgment which requires more
than applying a set of rules. It may need experience of different situations before the
skill is fully acquired. For example, a traffic policeman who has to decide whether a

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vehicle is being driven dangerously cannot be given precise rules and has to learn to
discriminate.

Problem-solving

This also demands reaching solutions without being fully guided by rules, but in a
more complex and often purely logical context. There is even a higher level of skill,
sometimes known as cognitive strategy, which may be worth noting for interest. This
is the personal way in which someone thinks, i.e. intuitive, creative, systematic.

Examples of Intellectual Skills

Classifying Distinguishes between a Bill of Lading and a Waybill

Identifies different classes of goods

Rule-using Determines the freight rate for cargo with different

types of vessel

Discriminating Generates a weather forecast

Decides whether a ship’s hold has been adequately

cleaned

Problem-solving Diagnoses a breakdown in communication

Physical skills. These are the skills, which enable a person to make coordinated
movements, perform manual tasks and carry out physical activities, such as for
example driving a car or running with a fire hose quickly. Often known also as “motor”
skills, they are generally dependent on several other skills:
 Rule using (procedures, rule, etc)
 Discrimination (between signals and irrelevant information)

They are naturally described with an observable action verb.

Examples of Physical Skills:

Manipulates a fire hose

Operates a computer keyboard

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