Earth Science CM1
The Milky Way is a large barred spiral
UNIVERSE, SOLAR SYSTEM, AND THE EARTH
What is a universe? What are the different hypotheses
explaining the origin of the universe?
The Universe is composed of all time and space. It is
made up of millions of stars and planets and enormous
clouds [nebular clouds] of gas separated by a gigantic
space. Beyond what we see here on Earth is a vast and
mysterious outer space. Approximately 15 billion years
ago, all the energy and matter we can observe came from
concentrated regions smaller than a coin, this began to
expand and cool at an incredibly rapid rate. In 1927,
Georges Lemaître, the proponent of Big Bang Theory,
came up with a big idea. He stated that a very long time
ago, the universe started as just a single point. Like
inflating a balloon, he said the universe stretched and
expanded to get as enormous as it is now, and currently,
it is still stretching. There wasn’t really a big explosion but
an abrupt dispersal of the elements of the universe.
It is still unknown if anything has existed before the Big
Bang Theory as well as its size. Observations with the
Hubble Space Telescope and other observatories showed
that the universe is expanding at an ever-increasing rate.
Steady-state Theory states that the universe is always
expanding but maintaining a constant average density.
Because of expansion, the entire collection of these
separate space-times is denoted as the multiverse which
leads to another unverified fact called Theory of
Multiverse. In principle, the other unconnected
universes may have different dimensionalities, physical
laws, matter and energy and topologies of space-time,
and different, although there are a lot of possibilities and
speculations to be considered.
Milky Way Galaxy Our Sun (a star) and all the planets
around it are part of a galaxy known as the Milky Way
Galaxy. A galaxy is a large group of stars, gas, and dust
bound together by gravity. They come in a variety of
shapes and sizes.
galaxy. All the stars we see in the night sky are in our own
Milky Way Galaxy. It is very difficult to count the number
of stars in the Milky Way from our position inside the
galaxy. Spiral galaxies have three main component parts:
the bulge, the disk, and the halo. Our best estimates tell
us that the Milky Way is made up of approximately 100
billion stars. These stars form a large disk whose
diameter is about 100,000 light years. Other forms of
galaxies could be in elliptical and irregular forms. which
means the galaxy has no definite shape or symmetry.
Solar System One of the contents of the universe is the
galaxy, and inside it, are the systems. We are included is
the Solar System. Our Solar System is about 25,000 light
years away from the center of our galaxy – we live in the
suburbs of our galaxy. Astronomers believe it formed
about 4.5 billion years ago, when a massive interstellar
cloud of gas and dust collapsed on itself, giving rise to the
star that anchors our solar system—that big ball of
warmth known as the sun.
Geocentric Model. It was known to be the most
predominant theory of the structure of the universe in
the ancient world was the geocentric model. It says that
the earth is at the center of the universe, and every other
celestial body rotates around the earth. Greeks were
strong supporters of this theory, especially the great
philosophers Aristotle and Ptolemy. After the death of
Ptolemy, the theory lasted for more than 2000 years
unchallenged.
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Heliocentric Model. The concept that the sun is at the
center of the universe, also first emerged in Ancient
Greece. It was the Greek philosopher Aristarchus of
Samos who proposed the theory in the 3rd century BC,
but was not taken seriously because of the influence of
the Aristotelian view of the universe and lack of proof of
the theory at that time. The major feature of the
Copernican theory can be summarized as follows: (1.)
The motion of the celestial bodies is uniform, eternal,
and circular or composed of several circles. (2.) The
center of the cosmos is the Sun. (3.) Around the Sun, in
the order of Mercury, Venus, Earth and Moon, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn move in their own orbits and the stars
are fixed in the sky. (4.) The earth has three motions;
daily rotation, annual revolution, and annual tilting off its
axis. (5.) The retrograde motion or the backward motion
of the planets is as explained by the Earth’s motion. (6.)
The distance from the Earth to the Sun is small compared
to the distance to the stars.
From the past lessons of your Science subject, there are
seven unique planets in the solar system. The terrestrial
planets closest to the sun is Mercury, followed by Venus,
Earth, and Mars. These are called terrestrial planets
because they’re solid and rocky. After the orbit of Mars,
you’ll find the main asteroid belt, a region of space rocks
left over from the formation of the planets. Next come
the gas giants Jupiter and Saturn, which is known for its
large ring systems made of ice, rock, or both. Farther out
are the ice giants Uranus and Neptune. They are known
to be the Jovian Planets. Beyond that, a host of smaller
icy worlds congregate in an enormous stretch of space
called the Kuiper Belt. Perhaps the most famous resident
there is Pluto. Once considered the ninth planet, Pluto is
now officially classified as a dwarf planet, along with
three other Kuiper Belt objects and Ceres in the asteroid
belt.
Moons - Approximately, 150 moons orbit planets in our
solar system. Among the planets, moons are more
common in the outer reaches of the solar system known
as natural satellites. Mercury and Venus are moon free,
Mars has two small moons called Phobos and Deimos,
and Earth has just one. Meanwhile, Jupiter and Saturn
have 79 and 62 respectively, and Uranus and Neptune
have 27 and 14 moons. Even though it’s relatively small,
Pluto has five moons, one of which is so close to Pluto in
size that some astronomers argue Pluto and this moon,
Charon, are a binary system.
Atmospheric conditions Most of the major planets
also have atmospheres. Earth is composed mainly of
nitrogen and oxygen—key for sustaining life. The
atmospheres on terrestrial Venus and Mars are mostly
carbon dioxide, while the thick atmospheres of Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are made primarily of
hydrogen and helium. Mercury doesn’t have an
atmosphere at all. Instead, scientists refer to its
extremely thin covering of oxygen, hydrogen, sodium,
helium, and potassium as an exosphere. Earth is the only
planet in the solar system known to harbour life. Our
planet has a molten nickel iron core which gives rise to
an extensive magnetic field, which, along with the
atmosphere, shields us from harmful radiation coming
from the Sun. In this module, you will understand why
this planet is called the “living planet.”
Earth: A Habitable Planet
Earth is the only place, as of now, confirmed to host life
and is the only one known for sure to have liquid water
on the surface. The following reasons why planet earth is
unique:
(1) It has liquid water;
(2) Plate Tectonics; and
(3) It has an atmosphere that shelters it from the worst
of the sun’s rays.
Earth is the only planet in the solar system that has a
large amount of liquid water. About 70% of the surface
of the Earth is covered by liquid or frozen water. Because
of this, Earth is sometimes called “blue planet.” or “blue
marble”. It is habitable because it has the right distance
from the sun. It is kept warm by an insulating
atmosphere, and it has the right chemical ingredients for
life including water and carbon. It can provide water,
oxygen, useful biological products for human, and has
suitable weather and climate. Earth, Venus, and Mars
may have similarities: (1) Terrestrial planets have solid
rocks and silicates; (2) These 3 planets have an
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atmosphere; (3) They all almost have the same time of
rotation; (4) Earth and Mars both have water; (5) They all
have carbon dioxide; and (6) All have landforms. Earth,
Venus, and Mars have differences: (1) Venus has no
water; (2) Venus doesn’t have oxygen while Mars has a
very little amount of oxygen; and (3) Earth has life forms.

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THE BOOK LOUNGE PH I 4
COSMOLOGY ➢ is the branch of science that studies
the origin, evolution and fate of the universe.
UNIVERSE ➢ is large unimaginable expanse of gas,
stars, dust clouds, and consists of planets and galaxy.
UNIVERSE VS OBSERVABLE UNIVERSE
Creation Myth
*According to the Genesis of the Bible’s Old testament,
the creation of the entire cosmos (universe) took place
in six days. The biblical creation story tells that God
created the universe.
• Ancient Egyptians believed in many gods and myths
which narrate that the world arose from an infinite sea
at the first rising of the sun.
• The Kuba people of Central Africa tell the story of a
creator god Mbombo (or Bumba) who, alone in a dark
and water-covered Earth, felt an intense stomach pain
and then vomited the stars, sun, and moon.
• In India, there is the narrative that gods sacrificed
Purusha, the primal man whose head, feet, eyes, and
mind became the sky, earth, sun, and moon
respectively.
• The monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity,
and Islam claim that a supreme being created the
universe, including man and other living organisms.
Big Bang Theory
Recall Hubble’s observation in 1929…
Z ~ distance → everything is receding from everything
else (on the whole)
→The universe is expanding (bread)
Steady State / Infinite Universe Theory
Matter is constantly created as the universe expands
Steady-state theory, in cosmology, a view that the
universe is always expanding but maintaining a constant
average density, with matter being continuously created
to form new stars and galaxies at the same rate that old
ones become unobservable because of their increasing
distance and velocity of recession.
-Observations fit well with a flat universe (which is
exactly what inflation did… it “flattened” the curvature
of space-time!)
-This also indirectly confirms dark energy and
acceleration… -
Observations fit well with a flat universe (which is exactly
what inflation did… it “flattened” the curvature of space-
time!)
Multiverse Theory A multiverse is the theory of a
conjectured set of multiple possible universes, including
ours, which make up reality. These universes are
sometimes called parallel universes. Several different
versions have been considered. The term "multiverse"
was coined in 1895 by psychologist William James as a
philosophical concept.
Modifications of the Traditional Theory
Ages of stellar population may pose a problem to the
traditional theory of the history of the Milky Way.
Possible solution: Later accumulation of gas, possibly due
to mergers with smaller galaxies. Recently discovered
ring of stars around the Milky Way may be the remnant
of such a merger.
The Mass of the Milky Way (II) Total mass in the disk of
the Milky Way: Approx. 200 billion solar masses
Additional mass in an extended halo: Total: Approx. 1
trillion solar masses Most of the mass is not emitting any
radiation: dark matter!
The Milky Way • Our Solar System is part of the “Milky
Way” galaxy
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Galaxies • Our sun is 1 of trillions of stars in the universe.
Stars are found in groups held together by gravity. • A
huge group of stars is called a galaxy. • Our entire
universe is made up of thousands of galaxies.
• The images below show you how small we are
compared to the entire universe.
UNIVERSE - GALAXY - SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIVERSE- The entire universe is made of thousands of
galaxies
GALAXY - A huge group of stars held together by gravity
SOLAR SYSTEM - A system of planets & stars that are
found throughout galaxies
SOLAR SYSTEM ➢ is the gravitationally bound system
comprising the Sun and the objects that orbit around it,
either directly or indirectly
➢ it is in constant motion, with the planets and their
moons, comets, asteroids and other space objects
revolving around the Sun.
Our Solar System
The Inner Planets (Terrestrial Planets)
– Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
• Rotation- the act of rotating; a turning around as on
an axis. Astronomy. the movement or path of the earth
or a heavenly body turning on its axis.
• Revolution- movement of a planet around the sun.
TERRESTRIAL (Rocky Planets)
• made of materials with high melting points such as
silicates, iron , and nickel
• rotate slower, have thin or no atmosphere
Mercury • On Mercury you weigh only 38% of what you
weigh on Earth. • Fastest orbiting planet
• Planet nearest to the sun • One side of the planet can
be 800 degrees Fahrenheit when the other can be -280-
degree Fahrenheit at the same time.
Venus • On Venus you weigh only 91% of what you
weigh on Earth. • Venus has 90 times the pressure of
Earth • Venus has volcanoes like Earth • Rotates in the
opposite direction of Earth. • One time there were
oceans before they boiled away.
Earth • 23 hours and 56 min=1 Earth day (rotation)
• 365 days =1 Earth year (revolution) • Earth is warm
enough to keep most of its water from freezing and cold
enough to keep it’s water from boiling • Temperature is
between –13 degrees Celsius and 37 degrees Celsius
Mars • Air Pressure on Mars is the same as 30 km above
the Earth’s surface • Mars is in the form of ice.
• Evidence that water was there at one time • Volcanic
history like Earth. • It has the tallest mount of the
planets (Olympus Mons) 3x’s size of Mt. Everest.
JOVIAN (Gas Giants) • rotate faster • have thick
atmosphere
Jupiter • Largest planet in the Solar System
• Has a Great Red Spot from a storm system that is
more than 400 years old (It is larger than Earth!)
• 9 hours and 54 min=1 Jupiter day (shortest day)
• Pressure is so great it would crush a spaceship
Saturn • 2 nd Largest planet in the Solar System
• 95 times more massive than earth.
• Saturn has the largest rings of any planet, the rings are
made of icy particles. • Most moons of any planet.
Uranus • Discovered in 1781 • Uranus appears blue-
green in color • It’s axis of rotation is tilted 90 degrees
• Moons are named after Shakespearean plays and
formed from other broken moons.
Neptune • Discovered in 1846 • Neptune has visual
belts of clouds • Interior releases thermal energy to its
outer layers. • Use to be the 8th planet after Pluto until
1999.
So, the three criteria of the IAU for a full-sized planet
are: 1. It is in orbit around the Sun.
2. It has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic
equilibrium (a nearly round shape).
3. It has “cleared the neighborhood” around its orbit.
Pluto meets only two of these criteria, losing out on the
third.
PLANET BIYO is a minor planet named after a Filipino
teacher, Dr. Josette Biyo
Planet 13241 Found in the Main Asteroid Belt between
Mars and Jupiter
What Keeps Our Planets & Other Objects In Space In
Orbit?? GRAVITY & INERTIA
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• Gravity – A force that pulls all objects toward each
other.
• Inertia – The tendency of an object to stay either at
rest or in motion along a straight path
So how does these 2 forces keep everything in orbit?
**Example: The picture to the right shows how inertia &
gravity work together to keep the moon orbiting the
Earth.
If inertia was stronger than gravity then objects would
stay on their straight path & fly off into space.
If gravity was stronger than inertia then objects would
crash
Inertia & gravity work together to keep the moon
orbiting the Earth. And they work together to keep
planets orbiting the sun
Other Space Objects
Comets • A comet is a small body made out of dust,
rock, gas & ice. • They are kind of like a dirty snowball
• Comets come from faraway regions of our solar
system beyond the planets
Comets are made up of different parts.
▪ The nucleus ▪ The coma ▪ The ion tail ▪ The dust tail
Asteroid • Asteroids are large pieces of space rock with
irregular shapes.
• They are also known as planetoids or minor planets
that revolves around our sun
• Most asteroids orbit the Sun in the asteroid belt
located between Mars and Jupiter. A few asteroids
approach the Sun more closely.
• Asteroids can collide with object such as Earth’s
moon, creating huge craters on the surface.
METEOROIDS METEORS & METEORITES
• Meteoroids are pieces of rock or dust that are smaller
than asteroids.
• Meteoroids are tiny particles left by an asteroid or a
comet & most meteoroids are smaller than the size of a
pebble.
• When small meteoroids enters Earth’s atmosphere,
they usually burn up & make a fiery trail as it falls, it is
then called a meteor or a “shooting star”
Earth Facts
• Meteors that land on Earth are called meteorites
•Distance from Sun: 150 million kilometers (93.2 million
miles) •Orbital period: 365.256 days •Rotational period:
23.9345 hours •Tilt of axis: 23.45 degrees
•Diameter: 12,756 kilometers (7,973 miles)
•Mean density: 5.515 g/cc •Mean surface temperature:
15°C •Atmospheric pressure: 1.013 bars
•Atmosphere composition: 77% N, 21% O and 2% other.
•Crustal rocks: Mid-ocean ridge basalt, andesites,
granites, sandstones, shales, limestones, metamorphic.
•Magnetic field
•Plate tectonics •Hydrosphere •Biosphere
Age of the Earth -Estimated age for the Earth and the
rest of the solar system is about 4.55 billion years
comes from Lead isotope measurements.
-The oldest Earth rocks: 3.8 to 3.9 billion years
-Oldest Earth minerals (zircons): 4.2 billion years
-Oldest Moon rocks: 4.44 billion years
Lesson 1 Earth’s Support of Life
Living It Up Copyright
What do living things need to survive?
• Earth is covered in living things.
• What do organisms need to survive?
• The basic necessities of life are air, water, a source of
energy, and a habitat to live in.
How do Earth and the sun interact to support life on
Earth? • During photosynthesis, plants use the sun’s
energy, carbon dioxide, and water to produce oxygen
and glucose.
• Plants form the foundation of many food chains. Some
animals eat plants to gain energy. Other animals eat
these animals.
• In this way, energy from the sun is passed from plants
to other organisms.
• Earth’s rotation allows most regions of Earth to
receive sunlight regularly.
• Regular sunlight allows plants to grow in almost all
places on Earth.
• Earth's rotation also protects areas on Earth from
temperature extremes.
• Earth’s distance from the sun also protects it from
temperature extremes.
• If Earth were closer to the sun, it might be like Venus,
which is too hot to support life. If it were farther away,
it might be like Mars, which is too cold to support life.
• Earth’s temperatures range from below 0 °C (32 °F) to
above 38 °C (100 °F), allowing life to survive in the
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coldest and hottest places on Earth.
• Which planet is too hot to support life. Which planet is
too cold?
Water, Water Everywhere
What is unique about Earth’s water?
• How did Earth get so much water?
• As early Earth cooled, it released steam and other
gases into the air. The steam formed clouds, water fell
to Earth as rain, and Earth’s oceans began.
• Also, icy comets and meteors impacted Earth and
added water to Earth’s oceans.
• How did Earth come to accumulate so much water on
its surface?
• Earth is unique in the solar system because it contains
water in the solid, liquid, and gas states. Most of the
water is in liquid form.
• Liquid water is essential to life because cells need liquid
water in order to perform life processes.
• Water remains a liquid on Earth because surface
temperatures generally stay above the freezing point and
below the boiling point of water.
Extremophiles • Extremophiles are organisms that live
in extreme environments. • The Antarctic has ice-
covered lakes and cold, dry valleys, but life can still be
found there. • A type of worm called a nematode
survives in the cold by producing antifreeze in its cells.
• The presence of extremophiles on Earth makes it
seem possible for life to exist in the extreme conditions
on other planets
Security Blanket How does Earth’s atmosphere support
life? • An atmosphere is a mixture of gases that
surround a planet, moon, or other space object.
• Some space objects have atmospheres, and some do
not. It often depends on the strength of the object’s
gravity.
• The gravity of Earth and Venus is strong enough to
hold atmospheres in place. The gravity of Mercury and
the Moon is too weak to hold atmospheres.
• Earth’s atmosphere is composed mainly of nitrogen
and oxygen. It also has traces of carbon dioxide and
other gases.
• Plants and some single-celled organisms use carbon
dioxide for photosynthesis.
• Plants, animals, and most other organisms use oxygen
to perform cell processes.
• Earth’s atmosphere was originally just hydrogen and
helium. These gases, being very light, escaped into
space. • Volcanoes release water vapor, carbon dioxide,
and ammonia into the atmosphere. Solar energy broke
ammonia apart into nitrogen and hydrogen.
• Bacteria used carbon dioxide to perform
photosynthesis, releasing oxygen into the atmosphere.
• As the sun’s radiation reaches Earth, some of it is
reflected back into space, some is absorbed by
atmospheric gases, and some is absorbed by Earth’s
surface.
• Earth's surface then radiates energy, which is
absorbed and re-radiated by atmospheric gases through
a process called the greenhouse effect.
• The greenhouse effect keeps Earth warmer than it
would be if Earth had no atmosphere.
• One type of solar radiation that can harm life is
ultraviolet radiation. It can damage the genetic material
in organisms.
• Earth has a protective ozone layer that blocks most
ultraviolet radiation before it reaches Earth's surface.
• Each molecule of ozone is made up of three oxygen
atoms. Some human-made chemicals have damaged
the ozone layer.
How does Earth’s atmosphere support life?
• What is the greenhouse effect? How does the ozone
layer protect living organisms?
Earth Science CM2
EARTH’S AND SUBSYSTEM MINERALS AND ROCKS
Subsystems of the Earth
The four subsystems of the Earth are:
1. Atmosphere – it is the gaseous layer above the Earth’s
surface, primarily composed of 78% nitrogen and 21%
oxygen. Other gases like argon, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, ozone, and other inert gases made the
remaining 1%. The atmosphere supports life because
animals and oxygen, and plants need both carbon
dioxide and oxygen. In addition, the atmosphere
supports life indirectly by regulating climate. Air acts as
both a blanket and a filter, retaining heat at night and
shielding from direct solar radiation during the day.
2. Biosphere – the zone of Earth where all forms of life
exist: in the sea, on land, and in water. It is sometimes
called the large ecosystem. This is the zone that life
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inhabits. Biosphere is a very thin layer of the earth’s
surface.
3. Geosphere – the solid Earth, consisting of the entire
planet from the center of the core to the outer crust. It
includes the core, mantle, and crust of the Earth.
4. Hydrosphere – the water part of the Earth which
circulates among oceans, continents, glaciers, and
atmosphere. Oceans cover 71% of the Earth and contain
97.5% of its water.
MINERALS
are the building blocks of rocks. Mineralogists use the
criteria to determine whether a material is classified as
a mineral or not.
Characteristics of Minerals
1. naturally occurring- a product of Earth’s natural
processes
2. inorganic- it must be a product of Earth’s physical
processes.
3. homogeneous solid- minerals should have definite
volume and rigid shape
4. definite chemical composition—represented by a
chemical formula
5. orderly crystalline structure atoms of minerals are
arranged in an orderly and repeating pattern
Properties of Minerals
To identify minerals, mineralogists observe the
following properties:
a. Color - mineral’s color may change depending on the
surface.
b. Streak - color of mineral in powdered form.
c. Hardness - minerals resistance to scratching
d. Cleavage - mineral’s resistance to being broken and
fracture
e. Crystalline structure or habit
f. Diaphaneity/amount of transparency - ability to
allow light to pass through it. This is affected by the
chemical makeup of the mineral sample.
g. Luster - how light is reflected off a surface
h. Tenacity - describes the minerals reaction to stress.
Brittleness- a mineral turns into powder
Malleability a mineral can be flattened by pounding
with a hammer.
Ductility- A mineral can be stretched into wire.
Flexible but inelastic-Minerals are bent but they remain
in the new position.
Flexible and elastic- Minerals are bent, and they bring
back to their original position.
Sectility- ability of minerals to be sliced by a knife.
ROCKS is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of
minerals sometime with nonmineral solid particles. It is
categorized by the minerals included, its chemical
composition and the way in which it is formed.
Classification of Rocks
Igneous rocks or magmatic rocks are formed through the
cooling and solidification of magma or lava. Igneous rock
can be classified into:
Intrusive igneous rocks. This type of igneous rock is
formed from solidification of magma below the surface.
They have large crystals of minerals that formed
overtime through the slow process of crystallization in a
magma. Granite, diorite, gabbro, pegmatite, and
peridotite are examples of this type of rock.
Extrusive igneous rocks. This type of igneous rock is
formed through a faster rate of solidification of lava on
the surface of Earth. They can become glassy in
appearance due to less crystallization or vesicular like
Scoria, due to the air that was trapped inside when they
solidified and formed on the surface of the earth. Other
examples of this type of rock are andesite, basalt, dacite,
obsidian, pumice, rhyolite and tuff.
Sedimentary rock is formed by the deposition and
cementation of mineral or organic particles on the floor
of oceans and other bodies of water at the Earth's
surface. Sedimentary rocks can be classified into clastic,
chemical and organic. Clastic sedimentary rock. It is
formed from the mechanical weathering debris of rocks.
Examples are breccia, conglomerate, sandstone,
siltstone, and shale. Chemical sedimentary rock. It is
formed when dissolved minerals precipitate from
solution. Examples of these are rock salt, iron ore, chert,
flint, some dolomites. Organic sedimentary rock. Formed
from the build-up of plant or animal debris.
Metamorphic rock forms from existing rock types called
“parent rock” in the process called metamorphism,
which means change in form. The original rock which can
be an igneous, sedimentary or another metamorphic
rock is subjected to heat and pressure, causing a
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profound chemical or physical change. Metamorphic THE EARTH SUBSYSTEMS
rocks can be further classified into: Biosphere Hydrosphere Geosphere Atmosphere

Foliated metamorphic rocks. Formed through pressure
due to compression of rocks that create bands called
foliation. Examples are gneiss, phyllite, schist, and slate.
Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks. It has no foliation or
bands. Examples of this type are hornfels, marble,
quartzite, and novaculite.
Energy - The Earth system is powered by one external
source: The Sun and two internal ones:
-radioactive decay
-gravitational energy (heat still being lost from
planetary formation).
Cycles - Material in the Earth system is continually
recycled in numerous overlapping cycles.

The Rock Cycle

Earth as a SYSTEM
SYSTEM -A set of interconnected components that are
interacting to form a unified whole.
EXAMPLE of system- ECOSYSTEM. (Organisms are
interrelated and interacting)
Two Types of Systems The Hydrologic (Water) Cycle
1.Closed System: Energy may enter and leave, but
matter does not.
2.Open System: System and its surroundings freely
exchange both matter and energy.

The Earth system is essentially a CLOSED SYSTEM.

A closed system is a system in which there is only an
exchange of heat or energy and no exchange of matter.
The Earth receives energy from the sun and returns
some of this energy to space.
Components or subsystems of the Earth system

Biosphere - Includes all life forms on Earth Biosphere

-It covers all ecosystems—from the soil to the
rainforest, from mangroves to coral reefs, and from the
plankton-rich ocean surface to the deep sea.

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Hydrosphere - Dynamic mass of water that is
continuously on the move
1. About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water
(hydrosphere) and much of it is in the form of ocean
water.
2. Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: two-thirds are in
the form of ice, and the remaining one-third 1/3 is
present in streams, lakes, and groundwater.
Hydrologic Cycle
Condensation, Precipitation, Evaporation, Transpiration,
Infiltration, Surface Runoff.
Atmosphere - The atmosphere is the thin gaseous layer
that envelops the lithosphere.
-The present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen
(N), 21% oxygen (O2),0.9%argon, and trace amounts of
other gases.
•It has an atmosphere which is a blanket of air that
surrounds our Earth.
•Protects life on Earth...no other planet has this.
•Held in place by gravity.
•The atmosphere consists of layers of gases that
surround the Earth.
•The 2 most abundance gases found throughout all the
layers are oxygen and nitrogen.
•The earth is divided into 5 atmospheric layers
•Air Pressure = force of air pressing down on Earth or
weight of air
•Closer to Earth = higher air pressure
•Higher up=less air pressure
•There are 5 distinct layers with different properties
•They change with the increase in altitude (height)
TROPOSPHERE The troposphere is the layer closest to
the surface of Earth. Nearly all life and all weather occur
in this layer. This is where the clouds are located and
airplanes fly at within this layer. In this layer, the higher
up from Earth’s surface you go, the colder it gets. In
other words, as altitude increases temperature
decreases. The peak of Mt. Everest is near the top of
this layer.
STRATOSPHERE The stratosphere starts out as a cold
layer. However, the ozone warms up the upper region
of this layer by absorbing the UV rays heat. The ozone
layer absorbs harmful UV rays and protects the living
organisms on earth from them. Military planes can fly
here.
What is the Ozone Layer?
•A protective layer in the stratosphere that blocks
harmful UV rays.
•However, it allows good sun rays through to heat up
our Earth
•Without it, we would burnup.
MESOSPHERE The mesosphere is the middle layer. It’s
the coldest layer of the atmosphere that protects earth
from meteoroids.. The meteoroids usually burn up in
this layer.
THERMOSPHERE Temperatures in the thermosphere
are very high, more than 2000 degrees Fahrenheit. (This
is the hottest layer) and where space begins. The
International Space Station orbits Earth in this layer.
THE BOOK LOUNGE PH I 11
EXOSPHERE The exosphere is the farthest layer
extending from the thermosphere into outer space. This
layer is cold. It gradually blends into outer space.
Titanium - 0.40
Hydrogen - 0.14
MANTLE-Less dense layer-Made up of silicate rocks,
mostly made of the element’s silicon, oxygen, iron and
magnesium.
CORE -Denser layer-the Earth’s magnetic field-
strengthens the idea that the Earth’s outer core is
molten/liquid.

Minerals and Rocks Minerals and Rocks

Granite Rock
-quartz (mineral) Hornblende (mineral) Feldspar
(mineral)
- The term aggregate implies that the minerals are
found together as a mixture in which the properties of
the individual minerals are retained.

Cubic crystals (pyrite)

(Quartz) - Hexagonal crystals With pyramidal
- shaped ends
- The crystal form is the external expression of a
mineral's orderly internal arrangement of atoms.

- Luster is the appearance or quality of light reflected

Geosphere - the Solid Earth extends from the surface to
from the surface of a mineral.
the center
-Galena -Metallic Luster -Nonmetallic Luster -Fluorite
LITHOSPHERE - The lithosphere includes the crust and
Color is not always a useful diagnostic property. For
the upper part of the mantle.
example, slight impurities in the mineral quartz give it a
Layers of the Earth variety of colors.
-CRUST (continental & oceanic) - Crystal Quartz (colorless)
-MANTLE (upper & lower) -Citrine (brownish-yellow quartz)
-CORE (outer & inner) – Amethyst (purple quartz) -Smoky quartz (gray to
black)
CRUST-It’s the light and very thin outer skin of the
Earth. Streak is the color of a mineral in its powdered form
and is obtained by rubbing a mineral across a piece of
-The outermost layer where energy and mineral unglazed porcelain called a streak Plate.
resources are derived.

Different elements that compose the Earth’s CRUST

Oxygen - 46.60
Silicon 27.72
Aluminum - 8.13
Iron - 5.00
Calcium - 3.63
Sodium - 2.83
Potassium - 2.59
Hardness is a measure of the resistance of a mineral to
Magnesium - 2.09
abrasion or scratching.

THE BOOK LOUNGE PH I 12

Because micas have weak chemical bonds in one
direction... (Cleavage Plane ->)
Rock cycle - is one means of viewing many of the
interrelationships in geology.
When igneous rocks are exposed at the surface, they
will undergo weathering, a process which slowly
disintegrates and decomposes rock.
The rock fragments are picked up and transported by
erosional agents, such as running water...
Eventually these particles and dissolved substances,
called sediment, are deposited.
Next, the sediments undergo a process called
lithification, meaning "conversion to rock," either by
compaction or by cementation as percolating water
coats the sediment with mineral matter, and gradually
cements the particles together.
Any rocks subjected to strong compressional forces
and/or high temperatures change to metamorphic
rocks.
When rocks in a high temperature metamorphic
environment are subjected to directional forces, they
are easily folded.
Earth Science CM3
IMPORTANT MINERALS TO SOCIETY ORE MINERALS
EARTH RESOURCES
Important Minerals in the Society
Without minerals, society would not function as it does
now. On a small scale up to what you’re using right now,
there are a lot of these minerals you are actually using.
From the laptop or phone while watching or listening, to
the breeze of your electric fan or air conditioning unit to
the food that you have taken. Let us see more of these
minerals and their uses. For oral health, professionals
used Titanium which is a strong but a light metal that is
used for teeth transplant. Examples are gypsum in
plaster cast, and alloys like stainless steel that are
primarily composed of iron, chromium and carbon in
their tools.
In households, we use toothpaste that contains fluoride
from fluorite mineral. Face powder contains talc [the
softest mineral]. Going to the kitchen, salts are
commonly used to enhance the flavor of our food.
Utensils like casserole are made of aluminum [a light and
durable metal], and stainless wares that contains mostly
of iron, chromium and carbon. With regards to devices,
minerals such as silicon, silver and gold are used. Copper
[Cu] is the mostly used electrical wiring because it is
cheap.
In construction, you could build skyscrapers up to 50
stories high because of durable minerals like iron steel [a
combination of iron and carbon] and concrete
[limestone, lime and chalk]. They also use glass made
mainly of quartz and silica. Floors are made up of granite
and marbles. Aluminum is for the frames, panels and
windows.
Power plants use minerals to provide us electricity and
energy. In nuclear power plant, radioactive minerals like
Uranium which is used as nuclear reactor. Moreover,
coals are burned up to generate electricity. Furthermore,
batteries for electric cars need minerals like nickel,
copper, and lithium. In
agriculture and gardening, we used organic and inorganic
fertilizers for the plants grow healthy. These minerals
include Nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. For the
acidity of the soil, we use lime.
In the pharmaceutical industry, they make supplements
THE BOOK LOUNGE PH I 13
and medicine that contain many minerals that keep us
strong and healthy like Calcium, Magnesium and Zinc.
Contrary to the advantages of this minerals, these could
also harm us. Talc products could have a mineral called
“asbestos” that can trigger cancer which is why some
cosmetic companies discontinue using it. Power plants
like nuclear power plants uses radioactive minerals
produces radioactive waste. Burning of coals releases
tons of carbon dioxide and other harmful gases that
contributes to the global warming. Wastes of the
factories eventually go to the bodies of water and affects
the creatures them permanently.
Ore Minerals- Location and Processes
Mining is the process of mineral extraction from a rock
seam or ore. Ore Mineral is a natural rock or sediment
containing one or more valuable mineral. The minerals
can range from precious metals and iron to gemstones
and quartz. A lot of technologies are now at use to
make mining easier. These mining industries are helping
the economy of the country and also delivers bad
effects in the environment.
Methods of Mining:
1. Surface Mining – is used to extract ore minerals
located near the surface of the earth. The soil and rocks
that covered the ores are removed through explosives
and blasting. Blasting is a controlled use of explosives
and gas exposure to break rocks. Surface mining could
be:
o Open-pit mining - This is the most common type of
surface mining. Open pit means a big hole (or pit) in the
ground. The pit in mine is created by blasting with
explosives and drilling. It is used to mine gravel and
sand and even rock.
2. Strip mining – This mining type involves the removal
of a thin strip of overburden (earth or soil) above a
desired deposit, dumping the removed overburden
behind the deposit, extracting the desired deposit,
creating a second, parallel strip in the same manner,
and depositing the waste materials from that second
(new) strip onto the first strip.
3. Dredging – This is the process of mining materials
from the bottom of a body of water, like in rivers, lakes,
and oceans.
b. Underground mining – is used to extract the rocks,
minerals and other precious stories that can be found
beneath the earth’s surface. In underground mining,
miners should create a tunnel so they can reach the ore
minerals. More explosives and blasting devices are
involved which makes it more expensive and dangerous
as compared to surface mining.
Mineral processing is the process of extracting minerals
from the ore, refining them, and preparing these
minerals for use. The primary steps involved in
processing minerals include:
1st. Sampling – is the removal of a portion which
represents a whole needed for the analysis of this
material.
2nd. Analysis – is important to evaluate the valuable
component in an ore. This includes chemical, mineral
and particle size analysis.
3rd. Comminution – is the process where the valuable
components of the ore are separated through crushing
and grinding. This process begins by crushing the ores to
a particular size and finishes it by grinding the ores into
a powder form.
4th. Concentration – involves the separation of the
valuable minerals from the raw materials
5th. Dewatering – uses the concentration to convert it
to usable minerals. This involves filtration and
sedimentation of the suspension and drying of the solid
materials harvested from this suspension
Earth Energy Resources and Human Activities
Fossil fuels are the remnants of plants and animals that
died millions of years ago. These provide most of the
energy support in transportation, electricity, and
industries. They are natural and finite resources that are
very abundant and has a cheaper cost production
compare to other resources present on Earth. These are
considered as Non-Renewable Resources. There are
three types of fossil fuels formation: coal, oil, and natural
gas.
1. Coal- It is a primary fossil fuel present on Earth. Coal
resources are found where forest trees, plants and
marshes existed before being buried and compressed
millions of years ago. The combustion of coal releases air
pollutants such as acid rain inducing sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen oxides (NOx), and mercury. The mining process
can also be very damaging to the environment, often
resulting in the destruction of vegetation and top-soil.
The Philippines uses approximately 50% of coal
resources to produce energy and electricity. There are
four major ranks of coal.
THE BOOK LOUNGE PH I 14
Anthracite - hard, brittle, and black lustrous coal, often
referred to as hard coal.
bituminous coal - has a high heating value for coal used
in electricity generation.
subbituminous coal - has a higher heating value than
lignite.
lignite - least concentration of carbon.

2. Oil- Most of the oil that we are using today started

forming millions of years ago. Oil is an organic material,
Nuclear power plants use heat produced during nuclear
mostly algae, which was buried in mud at the bottom of
fission to heat water. The heat produced during nuclear
the sea and lakes. Once extracted, crude oil is processed
fission in the reactor core is used to boil water into
in oil refineries to create fuel oil, gasoline, liquefied
steam, which turns the blades of a steam turbine. As
petroleum gas, and other non fuel products such as
the turbine blades turn, they drive generators that
pesticides, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, and plastics.
make electricity.
It is used mainly for the production of transportation
Geothermal energy is the heat that comes from the
fuels and petroleum-based products. The Philippines
sub-surface of the earth. It is contained in the rocks and
imports crude oil and petroleum from Saudi Arabia and
fluids beneath the earth's crust and can be found as far
Russia.
down to the earth's hot molten rock, magma.
3. Natural gas- It is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that
gas with a mixture of methane. It is the Earth’s cleanest
is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies
fossil fuel and is odorless and colorless in its natural
such as solar heating, photovoltaics, solar thermal
state but still responsible for the greenhouse effect. This
energy, solar architecture, molten salt power plants and
came from sedimentary rock formation that underwent
artificial photosynthesis.
high pressure. The Philippines’ main source of energy is
the Malampaya natural gas field which is located at Wind energy is a form of solar energy. Wind energy (or
Palawan Island. wind power) describes the process by which wind is
used to generate electricity. Wind turbines convert the
kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. A
generator can convert mechanical power into
electricity. Some of the most recent developments are
the Bangui Wind Farm, Burgos Wind Farm, and
Caparispisan Wind Farm in Ilocos Norte.

______________________________________________

The Philippines' top mineral exports are copper, gold

How are fossil fuels formed?
After millions of years underground, the remains of
prehistoric plants and animals [the compounds] that
make up plankton and plants turn into fossil fuels. The
sediments change into rock as the temperature and
pressure increase. Thus, plant and animal remain were
altered and slowly changed into crude oil and natural
gas.
and nickel. Other target minerals include quartz, mica,
iron, gypsum, feldspar, chromite, calcite and sulphur.
Some target non-metallic minerals are sand and gravel,
limestone, marble, clay and other quarry materials -
Lexology, Mining of the Phil
Most copper is used in electrical equipment such as
wiring and motors. This is because it conducts both heat
and electricity very well, and can be drawn into wires. It
also has uses in construction (for example roofing and

THE BOOK LOUNGE PH I 15

plumbing), and industrial machinery (such as heat
exchangers).
COPPER - It is used in building construction, electronic
products, equipment, machinery, and alloys.
•Antimicrobial Copper
The major gold producing areas in the Philippines are
districts of Baguio and Paracale located on the Island of
Luzon and Marasa, and the locations in Mindanao such
as Surigao and Masbate. Gold in the Philippines exists as
placer and lode deposits, which attracts all mines of all
different sizes.
COBALT
-Cobalt is a bluish-white, lustrous, hard, brittle metal.
-It is ferromagnetic.
-Cobalt is used in alloys for aircraft engine parts and in
alloys with corrosion/wear resistant uses.
-Cobalt is widely used in batteries and in electroplating.
-Cobalt salts are used to impart blue and green colors in
glass and ceramics.
-Radioactive 60Co is used in the treatment of cancer.
-Bauxite, the principal source of the popular metal
aluminum.

GOLD
-Gold conducts electricity, does not tarnish, is very easy
to work, it is malleable and ductile, has a wonderful
color and a brilliant luster.
- Gold is used in jewelry and arts; dentistry and
medicine; medallions and coins; ingots as a store of
value.
-small amount of gold is used in almost every
sophisticated electronic device. This includes cell
phones, calculators, personal digital assistants, GPS
units, and other small electronic devices.
-A crown made from dental gold alloy
-Gold is used as drug
PLATINUM -Platinum is a rare and expensive mineral.
-It is much rarer than Gold.
-Platinum is widely used as a catalyst for chemical
reactions.
Platinum is used in jewelry, decoration and dental work.
LITHIUM
-Lithium is the lightest metal and the least dense solid
element.
-The most important use of lithium is in rechargeable
batteries for mobile phones, laptops, digital cameras
and electric vehicles.
ZINC -Zinc is currently the fourth most widely consumed
metal in the world.
-It has strong anticorrosive properties and bonds well
with other metals.
POTASH - is primarily used as a fertilizer to support
plant growth, increase crop yield and disease resistance,
and enhance water preservation
-

The metal and its alloys are also used for electrical
contacts, fine resistance wires and medical/laboratory
instruments.

Alloy - of platinum and cobalt is used to produce strong

permanent magnets.

Iron Ore - is the source of iron for the world's iron and
steel industries.
-radioactive iron -black iron oxide -prussian blue

SILVER -Silver has many uses in our modern day lives

-Traditionally used for jewelry and silverware
-Silver is the best thermal and electrical conductor of all
the metals.

THE BOOK LOUNGE PH I 16

Environmental Impacts of Mineral Consumption,
Mining and Processing

-Surface Mining
- open pits like Bingham Canyon near Salt Lake (or
Helena, MT)
Bingham Canyon open pit Cu sulfide mine, Utah The
World’s largest hole in the ground

-It ruptures a weathered barrier and exposes the

interior to the environment.

-Sub-surface mining
- less impact on site, but still exposes ore to water

-materials are relatively toxic when exposed at the

surface

*water > weathering, solution >toxic metals + sulfuric

acid into surface & groundwater environment

-Est. 550,000 abandoned mines in USA contaminate

19,000 rivers and streams

-Collapse of old excavations poses a serious threat as

well

- Acidic and Fe-rich water from an abandoned

subsurface tunnel pours into Beartrap Greek, which
flows into prime trout waters of the Blackfoot River,
Montara

THE BOOK LOUNGE PH I 17