Lesson 1 Motion

Motion – a continuous change in position with respect to a reference point for a particular time
interval.
Example, as a school bus leaves the school, it shows and demonstrates motion.
The bus is in motion because it’s position is changing.

Frame of reference/Reference point – anything that serves as the initial position of a moving
object.
- It is our basis in determining if an object is changing its position.

Distance – is the total length of the entire path that the object or a person traveled in moving
from one place to another.
- Distance is a scalar quantity.
 Scalar quantity means it is specified with magnitude alone.
 They are described with a single number indicating size, magnitude, or dimension.
Displacement – the shortest distance between the object’s initial and final positions.
- Displacement is a vector quantity.
 Vector quantity is described by both a magnitude and a direction.

- Displacement always follows a straight line, while distance does not always follow a
straight line.

Speed – refers to how far an object moves in a given time interval.

- How fast an object can cover a distance in a given amount of time.
- Also defined as the rate of change in distance.
- Since there is no direction involved, speed is considered as a scalar quantity.

 A fast-moving object has a high speed and covers a relatively large distance in a short
amount of time.
 A slow-moving object has a low speed and covers a relatively small amount of distance
in the same amount of time.
 Formula: Speed = distance ÷ time
Example: James went running at a distance of 120m in 30secs.
What was James’ average speed?
Given: Distance: 120m
Time: 30secs
Average speed: ?
Formula: Speed = distance ÷ time
Solution: Speed = 120m ÷ 30secs
Computation: Speed = 120m ÷ 30secs
Speed = 4m/s

Average speed – it represents the speed of the object throughout its travel.
Instantaneous speed – Refers to the speed of the object at a particular instant.

Velocity – speed with direction.

- How fast an object is moving and to which direction.
- Refers to the rate of change in displacement.
- It is a vector quantity.
 Formula: Velocity = displacement ÷ time

Example: What is Bea’s average velocity if her position changes from

15m east to 40m east during a three second time interval?

Given: Initial position: 15m east

Final position: 40m east
Time: 3secs
Formula: Velocity = displacement ÷ time
Solution: Velocity = 40m – 15m ÷ 3secs
Computation: Velocity = 25m ÷ 3secs
Velocity = 8.33m/s East

Acceleration – refers to the rate of change in speed or velocity of an object.

- How quick an object speeds up or slows down.
How can we say that an object is accelerating?
  The speed of the object is changing.
- A cyclist is travelling with a speed from 60km/h to 40km/h
 The direction of the object is changing.
- A dog is running 3m/s East, then 3m/s North.
 The speed and direction of the object is changing.
- A man is running 5m/s East, then 10m/s South.

 Positive Acceleration – an increase in speed or velocity.

 Deceleration – a decrease in speed or velocity.
 Formula: Acceleration = change in velocity ÷ time

Example: A car accelerates from rest to 24m/s in 6secs.

What is its average acceleration?

Given: Initial velocity: 0m/s

Final velocity: 24m/s
Time: 6secs
Formula: Acceleration = change in velocity ÷ time
Solution: Acceleration = 24m/s – 0m/s ÷ 6secs
Computation: Acceleration = 24m/s ÷ 6secs
Acceleration = 4m/s2

Lesson 2 Wave: Carrier of Energy

Wave – a travelling disturbance that carries energy from one place to another with or without a
medium.
Medium – a substance or material that carries the wave.
Types of Waves (according to presence or absence of a medium)

Mechanical Wave – It requires medium to propagate.

Examples: Sound waves, Water waves, etc.

Electromagnetic Wave – It does not require a medium to propagate.

Examples: Radio waves, visible lights, microwaves, x rays
- The electromagnetic waves are arranged according to their frequencies and wavelength in
an electromagnetic spectrum.

Types of Waves (according to the direction of motion of the vibrating particles)

Transverse Wave – A wave in which particles of the medium move in a direction perpendicular
to the direction where the wave moves.
- Moves vertically up and down
- Parts of a transverse wave
 Crest – highest part of a transverse wave.
 Trough – lowest part of a transverse wave.
Example: Sound wave

Longitudinal Wave – A wave in which particles of the medium move in a direction parallel to
the direction where the wave moves.
- Moves from left to right
- Parts of a longitudinal wave
 Compression – part of a longitudinal wave where the particles are closed.
 Rarefaction – part of a longitudinal wave where the particles are apart.

Example: Water waves and electromagnetic waves

Characteristics of a Wave

1. Amplitude – The maximum distance from the equilibrium position to a crest or from the
equilibrium position to a trough.
- Height of the wave
- The measure of the energy the wave carries

2. Wavelength – Refers to the length of one complete wave.

 - From crest to crest, trough to trough

3. Frequency – is the number of waves passing through a given point in 1 sec.

- Measured in units called hertz (Hz)

4. Period – is the time taken to generate one complete wave.

5. Wave speed/velocity – how far a wave moves in a given amount of time.

 Formula: Velocity = wavelength x frequency

Example: A harp string supports a wave with a wavelength of 2.3m and a

frequency of 220 Hz. Calculate its wave speed.

Given: Wavelength: 2.3m

Frequency: 220 Hz
Formula: Velocity = wavelength x frequency
Solution: Velocity = 2.3m x 220 Hz
Computation: Velocity = 2.3m x 220 Hz
Velocity = 506m/s

Lesson 3 Sound Waves

Sound waves – are longitudinal waves created from a vibrating source.

- Sound waves are mechanical waves, means it requires a medium.

Speed of Sound
The speed of sound is different in various materials.
- Sound travels fastest in a solid medium, followed by liquids then gases.
- Sound waves travel more quickly in solids because the particles in it are closely packed
with each other.
Characteristics of Sound waves

1. Pitch – refers to the highness or lowness of sound.

- The frequency of a wave dictates the pitch of a sound.
- The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch of a sound.
- The human ear can only sense within the frequency range 20Hz – 20,000Hz (Audible
Frequencies)
- Above 20,000Hz (Ultrasonic Frequencies)
- Below 20Hz (Infrasonic Frequencies)

2. Loudness/Intensity – refers to how soft or how intense the sound is.

- Can be determined by the amplitude of the sound waves.
- Higher amplitude = Larger energy = Higher intensity
- Lower amplitude = Lesser energy = Lower intensity
- 0dB – 120dB (Human Hearing Range)
- 0dB (Threshold of Hearing)
- 120dB (Threshold of Pain)

3. Timbre - Tone Quality

- For differentiating two different sounds that have the same pitch and loudness.
- It is how we identify the difference between the quality of tone of one instrument from another.
- The tone quality depends on the waveform of the sound wave.

Lesson 4 Light Waves

Visible Light make us see the things around us.

Light
- Electromagnetic wave - does not need a medium in order to propagate
- Travels in a straight path
- Speed of 299,792,458 meters per second
- It takes 499 seconds or approximately 8 minutes for the light to travel from the sun to the
earth.
- a form of energy made of photons (Photons are the smallest unit of visible light)
 Our main source of light energy is the sun, it is an example of a natural source of light. It
is considered as a luminous object/body (can produce its own light).
  Lamps, bulbs and candles are examples of artificial sources of light.
- formed by vibration of electric and magnetic fields
- Light is considered to have dual nature - particle nature and wave nature

Electromagnetic Spectrum
- Radio Waves has the lowest frequency
- Gamma rays have the highest frequency
- The only frequency of the electromagnetic waves that is visible to the human eye is
called the visible light spectrum.
- The visible spectrum is also known as white light.
- The phenomenon in which a prism separates white light into component colors is called
dispersion.
- Component colors of white light: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet

Light – form of energy that travels in electromagnetic waves.

Characteristics of Light: Intensity and Color

Light Intensity
- The power of light
- It is the quantity that measures the amount of light illuminating a surface.
 Photometry - the science of measuring the intensity or brightness of the light.
 Brightness - qualitative expression of light intensity.
 Brightness - It is the visual perception in which a light source appears to be emitting
light or a surface to be reflecting light.
 Luminous Intensity - It is the amount of light that the objects produce. (measured in
terms by candela)
- The brightness of light depends on how far you are from the source.
- The closer you are to the source of light; the brighter the light that you will see.
- If you are farther from the source; the dimmer the light that you will see.
- The intensity of light depends upon the amount of light or the number of photons that
pass a certain area or space.
- The intensity or brightness of light is also related to the wave's amplitude.
- The higher amplitude corresponds to a brighter light while the lower amplitude
corresponds to a dimmer light.
Color
- The color of the light depends on the frequency or wavelength of the radiation that
reaches the eye.
- Visible light falls in the wavelength range of 400 nanometers to 750 nanometers.
- As the wavelength increases, the frequency decreases.
- Red has the longest wavelength, and violet has the shortest wavelength.
- Red has the lowest frequency, and violet has the highest frequency.
- The color white represents the combination of all the wavelengths of visible light; while
black is the absence of the wavelengths.

Charging Process

Atom – the smallest unit of matter.

 Protons – Positively charged particles
 Electrons – Negatively charged particles
 Neutrons – Particles with neutral charge

- Only electrons are transferred or gained by objects when they undergo charging processes.
- When electrons are transferred or an object loses electron, the object become POSITIVELY
CHARGED.
- If the object gains or acquires electrons, the object becomes
NEGATIVELY CHARGED.
- When an object does not lose nor gain electrons, the object has a
NEUTRAL CHARGE.
- In order to charge an object, we need to change the number of electrons in the object.

Law of Conservation of Charges

“Charges cannot be created nor destroyed, but can be transferred from one material to another.
The total charge in a system must remain constant.”

Law of Charges
“Like charges repel, Unlike charges attract”

3 Types of Charging Processes

1. By Friction – can occur by rubbing two different materials.
- The electrons from the surface of one of the objects
move to the surface of the other.
- It gives a positive charge to one substance and
a negative charge to the other.

How would you know if an object will either gain or lose electrons?
The triboelectric series is an arrangement of materials/substances according to their ability to
gain or lose electrons.

2. By Conduction – happens when electrons are transferred from one material to another by
direct contact.
- Involves the direct physical contact of a charged object to a neutral object.
- During conduction, the same charge is created in the neutral object.
- Materials that allow electrons to flow freely are called conductors.
- Materials that do now allow electrons to easily flow through them are called insulators.
 Electroscope – An early scientific instrument used to detect the presence of an electric
charge on an object.
3. By Induction – A charging process where an object can be charged without actual contact
with any other charged object.
- Induction creates a temporary and opposite charge in that other object with no contact.
- Electrons move within the object making the closest side oppositely charged.

Methods of Heat Transfer

Solid, Liquid, Gas are made up of atoms and molecules.

- These atoms and molecules are always in motion and they have kinetic energy.
- The energy that is moving or vibrating particles possess is called Thermal Energy.

 Thermal Energy – refers to the energy possessed by an object or system due to the movement
of particles within the object or the system.
- When thermal energy is transformed, Heat is always produced.
 Heat – the energy that transfers from a body with a higher temperature to a body with lower
temperature.
- The transfer of energy is due to temperature difference.

3 Methods of Heat Transfer

1. Conduction
- Takes place between objects that are in direct contact with each other.
- Heat energy is directly transferred to a material.
- most effective in solids

 Conductors – materials that allow thermal energy to readily flow through them.
- Example: silver, copper, steel, and aluminum
 Insulators – materials that transfer heat poorly
- Example: plastic, rubber, or wood.

2. Convection
- Most effective in fluids (materials that flow: liquid and gases)
- Method of heat transfer through the circulation of liquid and gas.
- Transfer of energy by the rising or sinking of matter due to density differences.
Convection Currents:
 When the water molecules are
The relatively cooler and heated, they become less
denser molecules begun dense.
moving downwards and starts Since they became less dense,
sinking. they will now rise.

COOLER HEATED
DENSER LESS
DENSE
SINK
RISE

3. Radiation
- Heat moves through empty space (outer space)
- No medium like water, air, nor any solid material where heat can travel through.
- Transfer of heat by means of electromagnetic waves.

 We can feel the heat coming from the sun, though we cannot touch it.