Distance & Displacement

● Distance (d)
- The total length of the path traveled by an object or how far an object travels. Distance
does not depend on the direction. Is scalar.
- Ex. The ant walked 3cm.
● Displacement (Δd)
- Distance that depends on the direction. Therefore, it is Vector.
- Positions:
A. (Forward, North, East, Up, 12 o'clock) = (+)
B. (Backward, west, south, down, 6 o’clock, 9 o’clock) = (-)
To calculate displacement:
(+) 5cm - forward
- (-) 2cm - backward
—------------------------------------------
(+) 3cm
*Scalar - Quantity that has magnitude only.
- Examples: Distance, speed, and mass.
*Vector - Quantity that has magnitude and direction.
- Examples: Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration.

Speed and velocity

● Speed (v)
- Is what tells us how fast an object is moving. The rate of change in distance traveled is
Not affected by direction. SI unit = m/s = meter per second.
2 types of speed:
A. Average speed (v with a line on top)
- V1 + V2 / 2
B. Instantaneous speed
- Speed at a particular time you look at the speedometer or speed at a particular instant
(mph)
*Speedometer- Is a device that measures speed.
● Velocity
- Tells how fast an object is moving and where it moves. It is Classified as a vector. IS the
rate of change in an object’s displacement.
- V1 = initial position (start) Keyword: From
- V2 = final position (end/finish) Keyword: To

Acceleration
 ● Acceleration (a with an arrow on top)
- Is the rate of change in velocity.
- Formula: a = v2 - v1 / Time
- SI unit: m/s/s or m/s^2
Example: Finding Acceleration
What is the acceleration of a car that goes from 10 m/s to 20 m/s in 10 seconds?
Data:V1 = 10 m/s (from), v2 = 20 m/s (to), Time = 10 seconds
Formula: a = v2 - v1 / Time
Solution: a = 20 - 10 / 10 = 1m/s/s
Formula & Example: Finding time:
How long will it take for a car to reach 40 m/s if it accelerates at a rate of 2m/s/s from rest?
Data: v2 = 40 m/s (Reach), v1 = 0 m/s (from rest), a = 2m/s/s (at a rate)
Formula: t = v2 - v1 / Acceleration
Solution: t = 40m/s - 0m/s / 2 = 20s
Formula & Example: Finding v2:
What will be the final velocity of a car if it accelerates at a rate of 2 m/s/s from rest in 10
seconds?
Data: V1 = 0 m/s (from rest), a = 2m/s/s (at a rate), t = 10 seconds.
Formula: v2 = a × t + v1
Solution: v2 = 2 × 10 + 0 = 20 m/s(v2)
Formula & Example: Finding v1:
At what speed did a car start to move to reach the speed of 40 m/s in 10 seconds if it
accelerates at a rate of 2 m/s/s?
Data: v2 = 40 m/s (reach the speed of), t = 10s, a = 2m/s/s (rate of)
Formula: v1 = v2 - a × t
Solution: 40 - 2 × 10 = 20m/s (v1)

Formula & Example: Finding distance:

How far will a car travel if it will accelerate at a rate of 2 m/s/s from rest in 10s.
Data: a = 2m/s/s, v1 = 0 m/s (from rest), t = 10 seconds
Formula: d = v1 × t + a × t ^2 / 2
Solution: 0 × 10 + 2 × 10^2 = 0 + 2 × 10 = 20^2= 200 / 2 = 100m (d)

Formula & Example: Finding distance (without a given acceleration)

How far will a car travel if it will halt to a stop from a rate of 40 m/s in 10 seconds?
Data: v2 = 0m/s (to a stop), v1 = 40m/s (from a rate), t = 10s
Formula: d = v1 + v2 / 2 × t
Solution: 40 + 0 / 2 × 10 = 200m
● Picturing motion
- line graphs used to represent changes and patterns in an object’s motion.
3 types of motion graph

* Slope – A basic graph model for understanding graphs in physics.

Who gets to play the role of the slope? Velocity.
Who gets to play the role of the y-axis or the rise? Displacement.
Who gets to play the role of the x-axis or the run? Time.
What does all this mean? It means that if you are given a Displacement vs. Time graph, to find
the velocity of an object
during specific time intervals simply find the slope.
Displacement (Position)-Time Graph:
To interpret and understand motion graphs:
1. If the line’s position is not changing (straightly), that means there is no change as time
passes by and the object is at rest.
2. If the line’s position is continuously headed upward, the distance traveled by the object
as time passes by is increasing and is moving at a constant velocity.
3. If the line’s position is continuously headed downward, the distance traveled by the
object as time passes by is decreasing and is also moving at a constant velocity, and the
object could have returned to its original position.
4. If the line is forming a dome/arch-like structure(downward), it means the position of the
object changes as time passes by, or it is slowing down, or the distance traveled
decreases as time passes by
5. If the line is forming a curved line upwards, it means the distance traveled rapidly as time
passes by, or the object is speeding up.
Displacement vs. Time graph

To interpret and understand motion graphs:

1. This means there is no change as time passes

by and the object is at rest.

2. This means the distance traveled by the object

as time passes by is increasing and is moving at a constant velocity.

3. This means the distance traveled by the object

as time passes by is decreasing and is also moving at a constant velocity, and the object
could have returned to its original position.
 4. it means the position of the object changes as
time passes by, or it is slowing down, or the distance traveled decreases as time passes
by

5. it means the distance traveled rapidly as time

passes by, or the object is speeding up.

Acceleration-Time Graph

As time passes by the acceleration remains constant, and the object speeds
up constantly.

As time passes by the acceleration remains constant, the object slows

down constantly.

As time passes by the acceleration remains zero the object moves at

constant velocity or the object is at rest.

Additional info: When the speed is negative, it means it returns back to its starting position.
Ticker timer vs ticker tape
● Ticker timer
- Is used in laboratories to measure speeds that use electricity to make a flexible metal
strip move up and down fifty times per second. Each time it moves down, it presses on a
piece of paper and leaves a dot on a piece of ticker tape.
- These two tools are used to make braille. But, braille has patterns and sequences. This
is why this tool can be used as an example for the acceleration and the speed and
overall, the motion of objects. This is because the ticker timer stops and goes fast
depending on the pattern. Therefore, it accelerates and measures time at the same time.
But besides time, ticker timer is also used to determine velocity, acceleration, types of
motion, and distance.
● To determine time:
Ticks: 50 dots per second ( 50/1) = 1 tick = 0.02s.
Formula: no. of ticks × 0.02 / ticks (cancel out the two “ticks” and just multiply the number of
ticks and 0.02)
● To determine velocity:
Velocity = distance(cm) / time
● To determine acceleration:
a. Find the initial(v1) and final(v2)
b. Determine time of 1 part. (given distance)
c. a = v2 - v1 / t
● To determine distance:
- simply measure the distance between the first dot and the last dot.
● Type of motion:
- Look at the gaps between the dots.
A. Constant velocity
- When gaps are equally spread.
- Bigger gaps mean faster speed.
B. Increasing velocity
- Gaps between dots increasing
C. Decreasing velocity
- Gaps between dots decreases

● The nature of Waves

What is a wave?
- A wave is a disturbance that propagates through a medium or space. A wave
cannot exist in only one place but must extend one place to another.
- It provides a mechanism by which energy is transmitted from one location to another
without the physical transfer of matter between these locations. The source of a wave is
always from something that is vibrating.
Waves disturbance
- Rhythmic disturbances that carry energy without carrying matter.
 ● Types of waves:
1. Mechanical waves
- These require a medium to pass through because without the medium, there can be no
propagation. An elastic medium behaves as if it were an array of particles connected to
springs with each particle occupying an equilibrium position. A displacement produced
by an energy source.
- Examples: sound waves, ocean waves, etc.
*Medium
- Any region through which a wave disturbance propagates.
2. Electromagnetic waves (em wave)
- These can travel without a material medium and does not require one to propagate. Is a
disturbance of electric and magnetic fields traveling through space.
- Examples: light, radio waves, television waves, microwaves, x-rays.
- Speed: 3 × 10 ^8 m/s
3. Longitudinal waves
- A wave in which the displacement of particles of the medium is parallel to the direction of
propagation of the wave. It’s motion is a continuous wave disturbance parallel to the
direction the pulses are traveling. Energy is transferred from particles to particle along
the medium with-out motion of the medium as a whole.
- Compression - the region of the longitudinal wave in which the distances separating the
vibrating particles is less than their equilibrium. When a compression is released, it
attempts to return to its equilibrium position. Thus, they compress the region adjacent to
the compressions.
- Rarefractions - the region of a longitudinal wave in which the vibrating particles are
farther apart than their equilibrium positions. Rarefractions travels along a medium just
as compressions do.
4. Sound waves (subtype)
- Molecules in the air about some average position creating the compressions and
rarefractions. The frequency of sound is called “pitch”
5. Transverse waves
- A wave in which the displacement of particles of the medium is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the:
a. Pulse - a single non-repeated disturbance
b. Crest - downward displacement (positive pulse)
c. Trough - downward displacement (negative pulse)
A.b.c is the displacement of particles of the medium caused by the pulse that are perpendicular
to the direction in which the pulse travels.
If a pulse is produced in the middle of a medium, the disturbance will move in both directions.

● Characteristics of waves
1. Frequency (f) - the number of crests (or troughs) passing through a given point in a unit
time, usually a second number of vibrating oscillations or cycles per unit time
- Unit: hertz/ hz: One hertz is equivalent to one cycles per second; dimensionally, it is s^-1
- Ex: ticker timer: it’s frequency is 50 hz
 2. Period (T) - amount of time required for one complete oscillation. And is the reciprocal of
frequency. Is measured in seconds
- F=1/t and T=1/f
3. Wavelength (Lamda: λ) - is the distance between two points that occupy the same
relative position on the wave. Is the distance advanced by the wave mentioned in one
period and is often measured from crest to crest along a wave or from trough to trough
along waves.
4. Amplitude (A) - maximum displacement of vibrating particles of the medium from their
equilibrium positions. It is related to the energy which it transports. ( the higher the
amplitude, the louder the sound.

5. Wave speed - related to frequency & wavelength, it is the speed of a wave. (duh)
- v= λ × t
- Speed of light (electromagnetic radiation) : 3 x 10^8 m/s

● Properties of waves
- A ripple tank set up is used in experiments on the wave properties, which are:
a. Reflection - Wherein the ripples bounce back after it hits a wall, mirror, or any barrier.
b. Refraction - is the bending of a wave when it travels through media of different densities.
It's a simulation of a ripple tank experiment in which there is a glass plate on the left side
to create a shallow part. The right side has no glass plate. Thus, it is the deeper part.
c. Diffraction - is the bending of a wave when it enters small openings or travels through
edge of a medium
d. Interference - this happens when two waves meet and the light bonds indicate
destructive interference
- Types: Destructive interference - When opposite parts of a wave meet at one’s trough it
when the opposite parts of two waves meet like the crest of blue wave and meet the
trough of a green wave causing the amplitude to decrease. Constructive interference -
when the same parts of the waves meet like the crest of the blue wave and meets the
crest of the green wave or trough meet trough causing the resulting wave to have higher
amplitude.
Additional info:
Penumbra - the partially shaded outer region of the shadow cast by an opaque object.
Umbra - the fully shaded inner region of a shadow cast by an opaque object

● Sound waves
 - Sound is produced when a vibration causes pressure variation in the medium. Any
vibrating object can be a source of sound waves. This type of waves need a material to
pass through (medium). It propagates in three dimensions. The 3-D sound waves are
approximately spherical.
- It can be represented in two dimensions:
a. Wavefront - represents the compression.
b. Rays - shows the direction of wave motion.
*The ear is an explicit sound detector! It can detect sound waves over a very wide range of
frequencies. It is sensitive to an enormous range of wave amplitude.
● Characteristics of sound waves
1. Pitch
- Refers to how high or low a sound is. The pitch of a sound depends on the frequency. A
high frequency has a high pitch, whereas a low frequency has a low pitch. Unit: Hertz
(Hz) is also used to measure pitch.
- Ultrasonic - sound waves of frequency above 20,000 Hz
- Infrasonic - those of frequency below 20 Hz
Hearing capacities:
- Healthy humans can hear from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. We are most sensitive from 440 Hz
to 7,000 Hz. Dogs - up to 35,000, bats - 100,000 Hz, etc.
- Ultrasonic sound has a frequency greater than 20,000 Hz.
Pitches of String (chordophones)
- The thinner the string, the higher pitch. The shorter the string, the higher the pitch. The
tighter the string, the higher the pitch
2. Loudness
- Depends upon the sense of hearing and is very hard to measure. But Distance from the
source affects the loudness of a sound. Loudness is
human perception of intensity. It is measured on the
decibel

3. Timbre
- The tone color of a sound is used to distinguish
between two different sounds that have the same pitch
and loudness. This tone quality is very important since
it helps us to identify what produced the sound.
Kinds:
Pure tones - soft and pleasant tone quality

Complex tones - with waveforms

that are nearly sinusoidal share the
same characteristics.
 ● Speed of sound: 344 m/s in air at 0 C°. changes by 0.6 for every celsius degree from
0C°. Sound travels faster in solids than gasses and liquids because the particles of a
solid are more compact and close to each other, making it easy for the sound to spread
itself as vibrations. Pass - spread - extend - vibrate - sound
● How humans perceive sound:
- Hearing process: sound enters the ear and goes through the ear canal then reaches the
eardrum, then the eardrum will vibrate. Those vibrations will pass through the ossicles -
semicircular canals - cochlea - /* converts the vibrations to electrical signals - auditory
nerve - brain to interpret sound.
- How do humans produce sound (speaking)?: our vocal folds produce sound by coming
together. The larynx being the one that blows the vocal folds apart. Then makes sounds
(vibrations) as air passes through during exhalation of the air from the lungs.

● Light
- Light is the reason why we can see things, and the
colors of things.
- Visible light can be separated into a
Spectrum.
*Red through violet
- Visible light is very
small part of a
larger spectrum, the
electromagnetic wave
spectrum.
● All EM waves
travel at the
same
speed, the speed of light (c).
- In a vacuum, v = c = 3.00 × 108 m/s

● Brightness & Intensity

- Illumination is measured in lumens (lm).
Illumination depends on the brightness of the source and
the distance from the source. Intensity is inversely
proportional to the distance from the source.

● Electrostatics
- Is The buildup of charges in an insulator.
- Charge - can be positive or negative
a. Positive charged object - the material that loses electrons
b. Negative charged object - the material that gains electrons
*Flowing electrons = electricity
- Excess electrons in a material will transfer to the closest/adjacent conductor, thus
creating a spark.
Charged particles:
Proton (p+) - positive. Is in the nucleus
Electron (e-) - negative. Is in the orbital / electron cloud
Neutron (n0) - no charge. Is in the nucleus
- To calculate a neutral atom:
p+ = e-
13 p+
13 e-
If, n0 = 27 - 13 = n0 = 14
a. Strong nuclear force
- Binds the nucleus together.
b. Weak nuclear force
- Holds the electron and the nucleus.

● Electric field lines

a. Positive charge: (p+)
- Field lines that radiate outwards. Thus, losing electrons.
b. Negative (e-)
- Field lines that radiate inwards. Thus, gaining electrons.
*Was first studied first by Thales of miletus. But William Gilbert found out that other things can
be charged.
- Electric forces are created between all electric charges
● Law of charges:
a. Attraction - if two objects have opposite charges.
- But when one is charged, and the other is neutral. There will be an attraction
b. Repulsion - if two objects have the same charges.

*Electroscope is the device used to study protons, electrons, neutrons, and the laws of charges.
- A good example to study the laws of charges is spray paint. It is use to study how the
paint (which has e-) will stick to the material which has to be p+

● Free electrons - an electron that is not attached to an atom or molecule and is free to
respond to outside forces.
a. When an object is positively charged, it is missing some free electrons.
b. When an object is negatively charged, it has excess or too much free electrons
*charges can be transferred by conduction
● 3 types of charging process:
1. Charging by friction - friction is depending on the materials being rubbed together.
2. Charging by conduction - the process in which an object gets charged with contact.
(Balanced) = positive + neutral
3. Charging by induction - the process in which an object gets charged without contact.
(Unbalanced) = negative + neutral
Conductor - allows the flow of electrons and heat (energy)
Insulator - does not allow the flow of electrons and heat (energy)
 ● Electricity and magnetism
A. Newton’s law of universal gravitation
- States that every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force along a
line joining them.
Formula: Fg = G [(m1m2)/r^2]
Fg - Gravity
G = 6.67 x 10^-11 Nm^2 / Kg^2
m1 & m2 = mass (kg)
R2 = separation distance (m) = 1.0 x
B. Coulomb’s law
- Is an experimental law of physics that quantifies the amount of force between two
stationary, electrically charged particles.
Formula: Fe = k [(q1q2) / r^2]
Fe - Electrostatic force
k - 9 x 10 ^9 Nm^2 / C^2
q1 & q2 = charge
r^2 =separation distance
● The charge of protons and electrons differ in magnitude ( + / - ). Whereas the charge of
a neutron is 0.
Charge Charge (coulomb) Mass

P+ (-) 1.602 x 10^-19 1.673 x 10^-27

E- (+) 1.602 x 10^-19 9.109 x 10^31

N0 (Most passive) 0 1.675 x 10^-27

How to solve for gravity:

To solve for gravity, simply just multiply the G ( 6.67 x 10^-11 Nm^2 / Kg^2 ) and the given m1
and m2 but only the number (ex: 1.67, 9.109, 1.0) for an easier process. And then add the
exponents of the x10 together And round up the answer, if possible. In other words, just use
Newton's law (formula). Do not forget your integers. And move the decimal if necessary
How to solve for electric force:
To solve for electric force, simply just multiply the K (9 x 10 ^9 Nm^2 / C^2) to the given q1 and
q2 but only the number (ex: 1.60, 1.0) for an easier process. Then add the exponents of the x10
together. And round up the answer, if possible.Do not forget your integers. And move the
decimal if necessary. In other words, Just use the Coulomb's law (formula)
Remember:
Electric force is bigger than gravity
● Electric current
- The direction that positive charges move. Both positive and negative charges can carry
currents. But in metal conductors, electrons are the only one that can move
- I = q (charge)=(c) / t (time)=(s)
● Earthing and grounding
 - Earthing is the process of transferring charge from a charged object to the earth.
Wherein grounding is discharging a charged object and transferring the energy to
the ground.
● Earthing
- Means the connection of non-current carrying part of the equipment to the earth
- Process: Lightning - Type of earthing - earth
- Is a circuit connecting parts of the electrical system to the sound. The earthing system
thus regulates the conductors with respect to the earth’s conduction surface. It is used to
keep people safe by preventing electric shocks.
- It is also used to prevent damage to electrical appliances and devices by
preventing/blocking excessive currents from running through circuit to also prevent
electrical hazards.
Types of earthing:
1. Plate earthing
- Requires a copper or galvanized iron to be buried vertically into the earth in an earth pit
dug more than 10 feet into the ground. These earth pits are then filled with charcoal and
salt in alternate layers.

2. Pipe earthing
- A pipe of galvanized steel is placed in the soil instead of a plate. The pipe is drilled with
holes for connecting the earthing wires.

3. Rod earthing
- Requires the burying of a rod made of copper or galvanized iron. This is when
electrodes are embedded in the soil and thus decrease the resistance of the earth as
required.

4. Wire earthing
- Are when several horizontal trenches are dug and strip electrodes are buried inside
these trenches. These electrodes are made of copper/galvanized iron/steel.

5. Waterman method
- It calls for the use of waterman or galvanized iron pipes. These pipes are buried in the
earth and earthing clamps are used to reduce the resistance for the electrical
connection.
● Lightning
- Lightning happens when the negative charges (electrons) in the bottom of the cloud are
attracted to the positive charges (protons) in the ground. It usually strikes the highest
point in a charged area because that point provides the shortest path for charges to
reach the ground. It is considered a massive charge.

● Heat
 - Heat is energy in motion (or transit). It is the transfer of energy from a place that has
high temperature to a place that has low temperature until they reach thermal
equilibrium. Heat only moves toward low temperature. It is incorrect to say an object
contains heat, nothing contains heat.
*Thermal contact - a condition in which the two systems can have heat exchange.
*Thermal equilibrium - a condition in which the two systems reached the same temperature.

● Thermal energy (or internal energy)

- Is the sum of energy within an object and/or the sum of the potential energy and kinetic
energy of the molecules of the objects.

Hot object—-------------------------transfer the heat into the—-----------------------------------Cold object

-thermal energy decreases. -Thermal energy
increase
-temperature decrease -Increase in
temperature.
Heat transfer
- Heat always moves from a warmer place to a coller place. Hot objects in a cooler room
will cool into room temperature. Wherein Cool objects in a warmer room will heat up to
room temperature
Heat vs. temperature
- Heat is expressed in Joule (J) as it is a form of energy. It can also be expressed in
Calorie (1 Kcal / 1000 cal.) and calorie (4.184 J)
- Temperature is the measure of hotness and coldness of a material. And is expressed in
different scales. Temperature is also related to the average kinetic energy of the
molecules in a material.
Common temperature scales:
Temperature conversion:
Kelvin (K°) to celsius (C°) : (K°) - 273.15°
Celsius (C°) to Kelvin (K°) : 273.15 + (C°)
Celsius (C°) to Fahrenheit (F°) : 1.8 x C° + 32
Fahrenheit (F°) to Celsius (C°) : 1 / 1.8 x (F° - 32)

● Ways of heat transfer

*Heat can still flow when the two objects are not in thermal contact
1. Conduction
- Particles near a heat source move faster resulting in collision with the nearby particle.
(domino effect = heat spreading) =.Heat - particle - collision - particle.
- Conduction works best or most efficiently in solid because of solid’s particles being
compact. Specifically, metals. Because metals have free electrons. Therefore, the
electrons are free to move and collide. It is heat transfer by direct contact with the
source of heat : the particles vibrate when in contact with the heat and pass energy
through vibration to other particles.
2. Convection
- The particles spread out and become less dense because of heat. Cool = sink, Less
dense. Warm = Rise, more dense.
- Ex: water movement (boiling) - when the warm water is hot enough (that is in the bottom
of the container) it will rise. Then after the warm water rises, the cool water sinks. Then
it is the cool water’s turn to get hotter.
3. Radiation
- Heat transfer through electromagnetic waves or transfer of thermal energy by em waves
through a medium (transparent material) or empty space. Radiation Travels in a straight
line and can travel through a vacuum, but do not require particles in order to travel
- The heat energy from the sun reaches earth through radiation
- The best surface for reflecting heat radiation is a shiny white object. And the best
surface for absorbing heat radiation is A dull black object.
- EM waves carry the thermal energy AWAY from the object with the higher energy (i.e.
warmer object) to the object with lower energy (i.e. colder object)

(to be continued if ever there are more topics)

Made by: B07-Layog, Juan

Sources: My notes, and ms’ ppts