Measurements

A system of measurement is a collection of units of measurement and rules relating them to each
other.

Examples: Metric System, Imperial System and United States Customary Units.

The Metric System is an internally agreed decimal system of measurement. The metric system is now
often used as a synonym for SI or the “System International”, the official system of measurement in
almost every country in the world.

• The Metric (or Decimal) System is made of units based on powers of 10.

• To convert units, all you need to do is move the decimal point. The prefix (beginning part of the
word, i.e. kilo or milli) describes the size given unit. For example, kilogram means 1000 grams.

• The US Standard system uses units that have no predictable relationship to each other.

For example: there are 2 cups in a pint, 4 quarters in a gallon, 16 ounces in a pound and 2000 pounds
in a ton.

• The metric system has three main units:

m - the meter for length

kg - the kilogram for mass
s - the second for time
Converting Metric Distances, Length,
Width and Height

To convert units, you divide or multiply according to the relationship between the two given units.

Elapse Time

Mass
Mass is the amount of material in an object. Mass is NOT weight!.

Weight is how heavy an object is and can be affected by

forces such as gravity.

w= (mass)(gravity) = mg.gravity= 9.8 m/s2.

You may weigh less on the moon, where there is no gravity but your mass is the same.

Making Other Units (Derived Units)

We can also combine the meter, kilogram and second to make new Units of Measurements

Example: Speed

Speed is how far something moves over a period of time, So it can be measured in meters per
second It means: How many meters does something travel in one second?

We can write it as meters/second, or simply m/s

Derived Units
Area in Square Meter or m2
A= L*W = (meters)(meters) = square meter or m2
● Area is length by length, so the basic unit of area is a square that is 1 meter on each side.
● The unit is meters x meters, which is written m2 (square meters)

Volume: Cubic Meter

V= length * width * height V= meters * meters * meters V= cubic meters or m3

Liter
a cube that is 1 meter on each side is a cubic meter and that is also equal to 1000 liters.

1 m3= 1000 Liters

Time : Hour
An hour is 60 minutes, and a minute is 60 seconds, an hour is:

60 * 60 = 3600 seconds

Day
A day is 24 hours so:

1 day= 24 *60*60= 86400 seconds

Speed
speed in meters per second (m/s)

Speed in kilometers per hour (km/h)

Scientific Notation
Is the way that scientist easily handle every very large
numbers or very small numbers. For example, instead of
writing 0.000000056, we write 5.6x10^-9.

Positive exponent shows that the decimal point is

shifted that number of places to the right.
Negative exponent shows that the decimal point is shifted that number of places to the left.

Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measured value to a standard or known value.

For example, if in a lab you obtain a weight measurement of 3.2 kg for a given substance, but the
actual or known weight is 10 kg, then your measurement is not accurate. In this case measurement is
not close to the known value.

Precision

refers to the closeness of two or more measurements to each other.

Using the example from the previous slide, if you weigh a given substance five times, and get 3.2 kg
each time, then your measurement is very precise.

Precision is independent of accuracy.

You can be very precise but inaccurate, and you can be also accurate but imprecise.

For example, if on average, your measurements for a given substance are close to the known value,
but the measurements are far from each other, then you have accuracy without precision.

Vectors
Scalars are quantities that are fully described by a magnitude (or numerical value) alone.

Vectors are quantities that are fully described by both a magnitude and a direction.

Vector Addition
Two vectors can be added together to determine
the result or the resultant.

Free -Body Diagrams

1-D Kinematics
Distance and Displacement Velocity, Time and Distance Relationships

An object is said to be non-uniform motion if it undergoes equal displacement in unequal intervals of

time.

• Distance – is a scalar quantity that refers to how much ground an object has covered during its
motion.

• Displacement- is a vector quantity that refers to how far out of place an object is it is the object’s
overall change in position.

Velocity
- The rate of change of your position, meaning how fast your position is changing per unit time.

- The displacement divided by time where displacement is defined as the difference between your
final and initial positions.

Constant velocity has units of distance per time.

Velocity is defined as displacement over time

The displacement refers to difference between your final and initial position. The time refers to how
long it took to get from your initial to your final position. The equation for velocity is:

Velocity vs. Time and Acceleration vs. Time Curves

Constant Velocity versus Acceleration
To have a constant velocity, an object must have a constant speed in a constant direction.
Constant direction constrains the object to motion in a straight path thus constant velocity means
motion in a straight line at a constant speed.

For example: A car at a constant 20 kilometers per hour in a circular path has a constant speed, but
does not have a constant velocity because its direction changes. Hence, the car is considered to be
undergoing an acceleration.

Constant Velocity versus Changing Velocity

Velocity-Time Graph
If the velocity- time data for such a car were graphed, then the resulting graph would like the graph
below.

Note that a motion described as a constant, positive velocity results in a line of a zero slope when
plotted as a velocity- time graph. Furthermore, only positive velocity values are plotted,
corresponding to a motion with positive velocity.

Cont.
Note that a motion described as changing, positive
velocity results in a sloped line when plotted as a
velocity-time graph.

The slope of the line is positive, corresponding to the

positive acceleration. Furthermore, only positive
velocity values are plotted, corresponding to a
motion with positive velocity

A straight line is a curve with a constant slope. Since slope is acceleration on a velocity-time graph,
each of the objects represented on this graph is moving with a constant acceleration. Were the
graphs curved, the acceleration would not have been constant.

On a velocity-time graph
• Slope equals acceleration

• The “y” intercept equals the initial velocity

• When two curves coincide, the two objects have

the same velocity at that time.

On a velocity-time graph
• Straight lines imply uniform acceleration

• Curved lines imply non-uniform acceleration

• An object undergoing constant acceleration traces a straight line

On a velocity-time graph
• Positive slope implies an increase in velocity in the positive direction.

• Negative slope implies an increase in velocity in the negative direction.

• Zero slope implies motion with constant velocity.

Acceleration
- The rate of change of velocity with time.

- transforming a velocity-time graph to an acceleration- time graph means calculating the slope of a
line tangent to the curve at any point.

On an acceleration-time graph
• Slope is meaningless

• The “y” intercept equals the initial acceleration

• When two curves coincide, the two objects have the same acceleration at that time.

• An object undergoing constant acceleration traces a horizontal line

• Zero slope implies motion with constant acceleration

Free Falling Bodies

A free-falling object is an object that is falling under the sole
influence of gravity. That is to say that any object that is
moving and being acted upon only be the force of gravity is
said to be “in state of free fall”. Such an object will
experience a downward acceleration of gravity = 9.8 m/s^2

Simple formulas:

S = V0 t + ½ at2

Vf = V0 + at

Vf = V0 + 2aS

Where:

T = is the elapsed time

S = displacement from the origin of time

V0 = initial velocity

Vf = final velocity at time t

A = uniform rate of acceleration

Distinction Between Speed and Velocity

Speed describes only how fast an object is moving, whereas velocity gives both how fast and in what
direction the object is moving.
If a car is said to travel to 60 km/h, its speed has been identified. However, if the car is said to move at
60 km/hr to the north, its velocity has been now identified.

Velocity is defined as the rate of change of position with respect to time, which may also be referred
to as the instantaneous velocity to emphasize the distinction from the average velocity.

Average Speed = Distance Traveled/ Time of Travel

In contrast, the average velocity is often computed using:
Average Velocity= position/time = displacement/time
Speed
- Is a scalar quantity that refers to how fast an object is moving. Speed can be thought of as a the
rate at which an object covers distance.

- A fast moving object has high speed and covers large distance in short amount of time.

- A slow- moving object that has low speed covers small amount of distance in the same amount of
time.

- An object with no movement at all has a zero speed.

Average Speed vs. Instantaneous Speed

• Instantaneous Speed

- The speed at any given instant in time.

• Average Speed

- The average of all instantaneous speeds; found simply by a distance/ time ratio.

Motion in 2D
The constant Acceleration Equations

Like the 1-D equations, these apply to following conditions;

• The acceleration is
constant;
• the motion is measured
from t = 0
• the equations are vector
equations, but the
variables are not normally
written in bold letters. The
fact that they are vectors
comes in, however, with
positive and negative signs.
Projectile motion
An object dropped from rest is a projectile (provided that the influence of air resistance is negligible).

• An object that is thrown vertically upward is also a projectile (provided that the influence of air
resistance is negligible).

• And an object which is thrown upward at an angle to the horizontal is also a projectile (provided
that the influence of air resistance is negligible).

• A projectile is any object that once projected or

dropped continues in motion by its own inertia and is
influenced only by the downward force of gravity.

a projectile has a single force that acts upon it - the

force of gravity. If there were any other force acting
upon an object, then that object would not be a
projectile. The curve in which projectile travels is
known as Trajectory

Horizontal and Vertical components

Uniform Circular Motion

• an object to move along a curved circular path, the
direction of its velocity must change. It is because at each
point on the circular path tangent will give the direction.
• A change in velocity will cause the acceleration which will not be in the same direction as the
velocity. Therefore for an object to move along a circular path, there must be an acceleration that
will always be perpendicular to the velocity.

• The circular motion may be uniform as well as non –uniform.

Suppose you have a ball attached to a string and you move it constantly in a circular motion.

Then we observe two things:

1. The speed of the ball is constant. It traces a circle with a fixed center.

2. At every point of its motion, the ball changes its direction. Therefore, we can say that in order to
stay on a circular path, the ball has to change its direction continuously.

From the second point, an important result follows. Newton’s first law of motion tells us that there can
be no acceleration without a net force. So there must be a force associated with the circular motion.
In other words, for the circular motion to take place a net force has to act on the object. Thus, the
change in direction is a result of a centripetal force.

• Centripetal force is the force acting on a body in a circular path. It points towards the center
around which the body is moving.

As long as the ball is attached to the string, it will continue to follow the circular path. The moment
the string breaks or you let go of the string, the centripetal force stops acting and the ball flies away.

Non – uniform circular motion

It follows then that non-uniform circular motion denotes a
change in the speed of the particle moving along the
circular path.

Note: change in the velocity vector sizes, denoting change

in the magnitude of velocity.

The change in speed has implications for radial (centripetal) acceleration. There are two possibilities:

1. The radius of circle (radial force) is constant (like in the motion along a circular rail or motor track).
A change in velocity will change the magnitude of radial acceleration.

This means that the centripetal acceleration is not constant, as is the case with uniform circular
motion. The greater the speed, the greater the radial acceleration. A particle moving at higher
speed will need a greater radial force to change direction and vice-versa when the radius of the
circular path is constant.

2. The radial (centripetal) force is constant (like a satellite rotating about the earth under the
influence of a constant force of gravity). The circular motion adjusts its radius in response to changes
in speed.

This means that the radius of the circular path is variable, unlike the case of uniform circular motion. In
any eventuality, the equation of centripetal acceleration in terms of “speed” and “radius” must be
satisfied. The important thing to note here is that, although change in speed of the particle affects
radial acceleration, the change in speed is not affected by radial or centripetal force. We need a
tangential force to affect the change in the magnitude of a tangential velocity. The corresponding
acceleration is called tangential acceleration.

Centripetal Force

Centripetal Acceleration

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Inertial Frames
• A “frame of reference” is just a set of coordinates: something you use
to measure the things that matter in Newtonian problems, that is to say,
positions and velocities, so we also need a clock.

• A point in space is specified by its three coordinates (x,y,z) and an

“event” like, say, a little explosion, by a place and time: (x,y,z,t).

• An inertial frame is defined as one in which Newton’s law of inertia

holds— that is, any body which isn’t being acted on by an outside
force stays at rest if it is initially at rest, or continues to move at a constant velocity if that’s what it was
doing to begin with.

• An example of a non-inertial frame is a rotating frame, such as a carousel.

Newton’s First law of motion : Inertia

Newton's first law states that if a body is at rest or moving at a
constant speed in a straight line, it will remain at rest or keep
moving in a straight line at constant speed unless it is acted
upon by a force.

Newton’s second law of motion: Force

• It states that the rate of change of momentum of an object is
proportional to the applied unbalanced force in the direction
of the force. ie., F=ma. Where F is the force applied, m is the
mass of the body, and a, the acceleration produced.

Newton’s third Law of motion: action-reaction

Newton's third law states that when two bodies interact, they apply forces to one another that are
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

A free-body
diagram is a drawing of a part of a complete
system, isolated in order to determine the forces
acting on that rigid body.

Quantitative and Qualitative conclusion

Newton’s first law of motion states that a body at uniform motion or rest remains in the same state
until and unless a net external unbalanced force acts on it.
This is due to a property of the body termed as its inertia. Hence, this is also known as the law of
inertia. The greater the inertia of a body, the greater is its tendency to remain in the same state of the
motion and hence, the greater is the net force required to change its state of motion. Therefore, this
provides a qualitative definition of force.

Quantitatively, force can be defined as the physical quantity that is required to act upon a body to
change its state of motion.

Types of Friction
Static friction is a responsive force that increases to be equal and opposite to whatever force is
exerted, up to its maximum limit. Once the applied force exceeds f s(max) , the object will move.

Advantages and
Disadvantages of Static Friction
Advantages
• Makes motion on a surface possible (e.g., walking, running, driving, skating, and writing)

• Prevents slipping and sliding (e.g., a ladder can stay on the wall, and objects can pile up on top of
one another)

• Allows vehicles to stop using brakes

Disadvantages
• Makes it hard to push and pull an object

• Makes us slip on ice due to low friction

Kinetic friction is defined as a force that acts between moving surfaces. A body moving on the
surface experiences a force in the opposite direction of its movement. The magnitude of the force
will depend on the coefficient of kinetic friction between the two material.

Laws of Kinetic Friction

Here are some laws that the kinetic friction follows.

1. Acts in a direction opposite to the object’s motion

2. Proportional to the normal force

3. Independent of the area of contact between the surfaces

4. Independent of the sliding speed as long as the speed is not too high

Rolling Friction

In this type of friction, the object rolls over the surface

• A soccer ball coming to a stop after kicking it

• A golf ball coming to a stop after rolling over the green

• A roller skater coming to a stop

• A roller coaster slowing down before coming to a stop

Force
• a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's
interaction with another object.

• Whenever there is an interaction between two objects,

there is a force upon each of the objects.

• When the interaction ceases, the two objects no longer experience the force. Forces only exist as a
result of an interaction.

Types of Forces : Contact and Non-contact

Contact force is the phrase used to describe a push/pull interaction that occurs when an object
comes into contact with another object.

Non-contact force is a type of force that acts on the object, without any physical contact with it, the
most familiar type of non-contact force is gravity which confers with the weight. In comparison to the
contact forces, only there are a few noncontact forces.

Contact force
1. Air resistance force is the force exerted on an object when it
comes in contact with air by traveling through it. It is friction
between the air and another object or a person. When a
downhill speed skier goes down a slope at a high rate of speed,
the skier experiences air resistance force.

• Other situations where air resistance force is at play

include:
• an airplane flying through the air
• a skydiver parachuting from an airplane to the ground
• riding a bicycle
• pitching a baseball to a batter
• passing a football to a wide receiver

2. Applied force occurs when a person or object directly applies force to

another object, causing it to move. When you push a computer mouse
that is sitting on a flat surface, this is an example of contact force
between your hand and the mouse. The mouse would not move unless a
force, in this case your hand, was in contact with it.

Other examples include:

• using your hand to pull out a desk chair so you can sit down
• kicking a ball in a way that causes it to move
• pushing an item to knock it over
• twisting the lid on a jar to open it
• pulling or pushing on a door to open or close it

3. Frictional force, also known as friction, is any force that opposes

motion. In other words, it is a force that tries to slow or stop something
from moving. Friction causes heat. The frictional force you are most
familiar with is probably the one generated when you rub your hands
together to keep them warm. It happens whenever two objects slide
against one another.

Other examples of friction include:

• going down a slide on the playground; you slow down at the bottom because friction
overcame gravity (which sped you up when you were going down)
• a cross-country skier traveling across the snow on skis attempting to overcome the sliding
friction trying to slow him or her down
• pulling a piece of furniture from one spot to another such that it slides along the floor causes a
great deal of friction
 • sliding a glass of water across a table to another person (the glass slows then stops due to
friction between the bottom of the glass and the table)
• rubbing two pieces of wood together as a method of starting a fire
without using a match

4. Normal force is the name for the force that keeps objects in place
when they are resting on an object that is stable. It is the type of force
that a surface, such as a shelf or a floor, exerts on an object that is resting
on it. A book that is laying flat on a desk is kept in place due to the normal
force exerted by the desk. No force would be exerted if the book was not
in contact with the desk, so this is a contact force.

Other examples include:

• a glass of water placed on a table

• containers of food sitting on the shelf of a refrigerator
• canned goods placed on the shelf in a pantry
• a person standing on the floor or ground
• a lamp placed on an end table

5. A spring (elastic force) is an elastic object that stores mechanical

energy, such as a coiled spring or rubber band. Spring force is the
force created when an external force causes a spring to change its
shape. When the force is removed, the spring goes back to its ordinary
shape. If you've ever used a click top ink pen, you have seen spring
force at work. Click the button on the top of the pen to release the
writing tip, then click it again to hide it away. This action is linked to a
coiled spring inside the cap of the pen.

Other situations where spring force is created include:

• pressing keys on a computer keyboard

• letting out or pulling in a retractable dog leash
• a piece of elastic that changes shape and snaps when pulled and released before returning
to its original shape
• the cords and harnesses used by bungee jumpers
• a slinky toy

6. Tension is a pulling force. It occurs when objects like wires, ropes,

cables, or rods are pulled tightly from both ends. The tighter the
object is being pulled in opposite directions, the greater the tension
is. Applying too much tension can cause the object to break. Playing
tug of war is an example of a situation in which tension force is
applied to a rope.

Other situations where tension force can be seen include:

• a car that is being towed behind another vehicle using chains

• the cable that water skiers hold onto while being pulled by a boat
• the cable that the chairs of a ski lift travel go up and down
• a suspension bridge, such as the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco
• the cable in an elevator that lifts and lowers it
Non-Contact
1. Gravitational Force

This type of force is responsible for bringing the items that are tossed back to
the air. When any object is at rest on the surface, it exerts a downward force
that is equal to its weight and this downward force is known as the
gravitational force.

2. Electrostatic Force

This force is very similar to the gravitational force, the main difference here is
gravitational force acts between masses, and an electrostatic force acts
between the two charged bodies.

3. Magnetic Force

Consider, if you push the ends of the magnet together the second magnet
will bounce off, this is the result of the magnetic force. It is also responsible for
the attraction of iron by the force of magnets. The magnetic force of the
magnet goes on decreasing with an increase in the distance of the magnets.

4. Strong Nuclear Force

It is a short-distance force, which takes place between the fundamental

particles within the nucleus. A strong nuclear force is charge independent and
acts equally between a proton and a proton, and a neutron and a neutron,
and a proton and a neutron, the strong nuclear force is the strongest force in
nature. Because its range is small, strong nuclear force mediates both nuclear
fission and fusion reactions.

5. Weak Nuclear Force

This force mediates the beta decay of a neutron, in which the

neutron decays into a proton. And in this process, it emits a beta
particle and an uncharged particle called the neutrino. It plays an
important key role in the supernova, both the strong and weak forces
form an important part of quantum mechanics.
Dot or scalar product
A dot product, by definition, is a mapping that takes two vectors
and returns a scalar. which is a real number, and thus, a scalar.

• Algebraically, the dot product is the sum of the products

of the corresponding entries of the two sequences of
numbers.
• Geometrically, it is the product of the Euclidean
magnitudes of the two vectors and the cosine of the angle between them. These definitions
are equivalent when using Cartesian coordinates

The dot product, also called the scalar product, of two vector s is a number ( Scalar quantity)
obtained by performing a specific operation on the vector components. The dot product has
meaning only for pairs of vectors having the same number of dimensions

Work done by force

Work was described as taking place when a force acts upon an object to cause a displacement.
When a force acts to cause an object to be displaced, three quantities must be known in order to
calculate the work. Those three quantities are force, displacement and the angle between the force
and the displacement.

Where:

F = Force

d = Displacement (sometimes S)

cos = cosine (x - component)

θ = the angle between forces

Work as a scalar or dot product
Work done is dot product of force and displacement.

Work done is equal to product of magnitude of force and magnitude of displacement and cosine of
an angle between them.

The Area Under the Force vs. Position Graph

Work is not always force times distance, but it turns out that the
work done by any force (or at least the component of the
force in the direction of motion) will always equal the area
under the force
vs. position graph.

Work Done Against Gravity

Climbing stairs and lifting objects is work in both the scientific and
everyday sense—it is work done against the gravitational force. When
there is work, there is a transformation of energy. The work done against
the gravitational force goes into an important form of stored energy.

Figure 1. If the object is lifted straight up at constant speed, then the force needed to lift it is equal to
its weight mg. The work done on the mass is then W = Fd = mgh. We define this to be the gravitational
potential energy (PEg) put into (or gained by) the object-Earth system.

Converting Between Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy

We define the change in
gravitational potential energy
ΔPEg to be ΔPEg = mgh, where,
for simplicity, we denote the
change in height by h rather than
the usual Δh. Note that h is
positive when the final height is
greater than the initial height, and vice versa.

Elastic potential energy

Elastic potential energy is energy stored as a result of applying a force to deform an elastic object.
• The energy is stored until the force is removed and the object springs back to its original shape,
doing work in the process.

• The deformation could involve compressing, stretching or twisting the object.

• The coil spring of a wind-up clock

• An archer's stretched bow
• A bent diving board, just before a divers jump
• The twisted rubber band which powers a toy airplane
• A bouncy ball, compressed at the moment it bounces off a brick wall

How can we calculate elastic potential energy for an ideal spring?

Hooke's law
When studying springs and elasticity, the 17ᵗʰ century physicist Robert Hooke noticed that the stress vs
strain curve for many materials has a linear region. Within certain limits, the force required to stretch
an elastic object such as a metal spring is directly
proportional to the extension of the spring.

Where:

k is some positive number known as the spring

constant.

F – is spring force is a conservative force and conservative forces have

potential energies associated with them.

x – length it has been compressed or expanded

From the definition of work we know that the area under a force vs
displacement graph gives the work done by the force.

Figure 1 shows a plot of force vs displacement for a spring. Because the

area under the curve is a triangle and no energy is lost in an ideal spring,
the elastic potential energy U can be found from the work done

What is Conservative Forces

A conservative force is a force done in moving a particle from one
point to another, such that the force is independent of the path
taken by the particle.

It depends only on the initial and final position of the particle.

Gravitational force and elastic spring forces are two such
examples of conservation forces.

The total work done by gravity on the body is given as follows:

No matter how complicated the path taken by the particle might be, we can easily find out the work
done by gravity on the particle using the above expression just by knowing the vertical displacement.
From this, we can conclude that the gravitational force doesn’t depend on the path taken but only
depends on the initial and final position. Hence, the gravitational force is a conservative force.

Properties of Conservative Forces

If a force has the following properties, then it is said to be a conservative force.

• When the force only dependent on the initial and final position irrespective of the path taken.
• In any closed path, the work done by a conservative force is zero.
• The work done by a conservative is reversible.

What is Non-Conservative force?

A non-conservative force is a force for which the work done depends on the path taken. Friction is
an example of a non-conservative force. A force is said to be a non-conservative force if it results in
the change of mechanical energy, which is nothing but the sum of potential and kinetic energy. The
work done by a non-conservative force adds or removes mechanical energy.

For example, when work is done by friction, thermal energy is dissipated. The energy lost cannot be
fully recovered.

Properties of Non-Conservative Forces

It has the opposite properties of conservative forces.

The properties are given below:

• It is path dependent therefore it also depends on the initial and final velocity.
• In any closed path, the total work done by a non-conservative force is not zero.
• The work done by a non-conservative is irreversible.

Work done by force: Sample Problems

Diagram A.

W = (100 N) * (5 m)* cos(0 degrees) = 500 J

The force and the displacement are given in the problem statement. It is said (or shown or implied)
that the force and the displacement are both rightward.

Since F and d are in the same direction, the angle is 0 degrees.

Diagram B.

W = (100 N) * (5 m) * cos(30 degrees) = 433 J

The force and the displacement are given in the problem statement. It is said that the displacement
is rightward. It is shown that the force is 30 degrees above the horizontal. Thus, the angle between F
and d is 30 degrees.

Diagram C

W = (147 N) * (5 m) * cos(0 degrees) = 735 J The displacement is given in the problem statement. The
applied force must be 147 N since the 15-kg mass (Fgrav=147 N) is lifted at constant speed. Since F
and d are in the same direction, the angle is 0 degrees.
 2 QA ND

REVIEWER

Moments of Inertia/rotational inertia

It depends on the mass of the object, its shape and its

relative point of rotation.

Iz = MR2 (1 Kg)(0.001 m)2

= 1 kgm2

where:

I – moment of inertia

M – mass

R – distance between axis and rotation (m)

Unit: kgm2

Conservation of linear momentum dictates that

when a mass strikes an equal mass at rest and
sticks to it, the combination must move at half
the velocity, because the product of
mass and velocity must remain
constant.

Using a string through a tube, a mass is

moved in a horizontal circle with
angular velocity ω. If the string is pulled
down so that the radius is half the
original radius, then conservation of
angular momentum dictates that the
ball must have four times the angular velocity. This is because the product of moment of inertia and
angular velocity must remain
constant, and halving the radius
reduces the moment of inertia by a
factor of four.

With the appropriate balance of

force, a circular orbit can be
produced by a force acting toward
the center. Acting perpendicular to
the velocity, it provides the
necessary centripetal force to keep
it in a circle.

If a spinning wheel and axle is

supported by one end of the axle,
then the torque produced by the
weight of the wheel and axle
produces a torque that is
perpendicular to the angular
momentum of the wheel. This changes its direction but not its magnitude, causing the tip of the axle
to trace out a circle. This is called precession, and is analogous to the orbit of a mass under a central
force.

The moment of inertia formula helps to calculate the moment of inertia in a body.
Note: It depends on the shape and mass distribution of the body and on the orientation of the
rotational axis.

Torque is a measure of how much a force acting on an object

causes that object to rotate.

In other words, torque is the cross product between the distance

vector (the distance from the pivot point to the point where
force is applied) and the force vector, 'a' being the angle
between r and F.

Magnitude and direction of torque

The magnitude of the torque with respect to a given axis of rotation can be approached as the
force times the lever arm with respect to that axis.

The lever arm is the perpendicular distance from the

axis of rotation to the line of action of the force. The
direction of the torque is given by the right hand rule.

Examples:

A few examples of static torque are as follows:

A person pushing a closed-door is applying a static door because the

door isn't rotating despite the force applied. Pedaling a cycle at a
constant speed is also an example of static torque as there is no
acceleration.
 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
Sir Isaac Newton
first scientist to precisely define the gravitational force, and to show that it
could explain both falling bodies and astronomical motions.

But Newton was not the first to suspect that the same force caused both
our weight and the motion of planets. His forerunner Galileo Galilei had
contended that falling bodies and planetary motions had the same
cause.
Some of Newton’s contemporaries, such as Robert Hooke, Christopher Wren, and Edmund Halley,
had also made some progress toward understanding gravitation. But Newton was the first to propose
an exact mathematical form and to use that form to show that the motion of heavenly bodies should
be conic sections—circles, ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas.

Universal Gravitation
states that two bodies in space pull on each other with a force
proportional to their masses and the distance between them. For
large objects orbiting one another—the moon and Earth, for
example—this means that they actually exert noticeable force on
one
another.

Gravitational Field
the region of space surrounding a body in which another
body experiences a force of gravitational attraction.

the field of force surrounding a body of finite mass in which

another body would experience an attractive force that is
proportional to the product of the masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Examples:

When something has a high position, its gravitational potential energy is high.

For example, a book on a high bookshelf has higher potential energy than a book on the bottom
shelf because it has farther to fall. Other examples of items with gravitational potential energy
include:

1. A raised weight
2. Water that is behind a dam
3. A car that is parked at the top of a hill
4. A yoyo before it is released
5. River water at the top of a waterfall
6. A book on a table before it falls
7. A child at the top of a slide
 8. Ripe fruit before it falls

Orbit
An orbit is a regular, repeating path that one object in space takes around another one.

An object in an orbit is called a satellite. A satellite can be natural, like Earth or the moon. Many
planets have moons that orbit them. A satellite can also be man-made, like the International Space
Station.

Planets, comets, asteroids and other objects in the solar system orbit the sun. Most of the objects
orbiting the sun move along or close to an imaginary flat surface. This imaginary surface is called the
ecliptic plane.

Kepler’s laws of planetary motion

They describe how (1) planets move in
elliptical orbits with the Sun as a focus,
(2) a planet covers the same area of
space in the same amount of time no
matter where it is in its orbit, and (3) a
planet's orbital period is proportional to
the size of its orbit (its semi-major axis).

Kepler's Third Law implies that the period

for a planet to orbit the Sun increases
rapidly with the radius of its orbit.

Sample problems:

1. Two spherical objects have masses of 200 kg and 500 kg. Their centers are separated by a distance
of 25 m. Find the gravitational attraction between them.

2. Two spherical objects have masses of 3.1 x 105 kg and 6.5 x 103 kg. The gravitational attraction
between them is 65 N. How far apart are their centers?

Using this formula find F (gravitational attraction)

Gravitational
Potential energy

Sample problems:
1. Calculate the increase in potential energy when a crane
lifts a 2,000-kg car a vertical distance of 10 m. The
acceleration due to gravity (g) is 10 m/s2.

2. A football player throws a ball with a mass of 0.34 kg.

What is the gravitational potential energy of the ball when it
is 5.0 m above the ground?

3. A can of soup has a mass of 0.35 kg. The can is moved

from a shelf that is 1.2 m off the ground to a shelf that is 0.40
m off the ground. How does the gravitational potential
energy of the can change?

Periodic Motion
What is periodic motion?
It is the motion repeated in equal intervals of
time. for example,

• by a rocking chair, a bouncing ball, a

vibrating tuning fork, a swing in motion, the
Earth in its orbit around the Sun, and a water
wave.

• Waves that can be

represented by sine curves are periodic.

Units
In SI units, the unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz), named after the German
physicist Heinrich Hertz (Heinrich Hertz): 1 Hz indicates that an event repeats
once per second. A traditional unit of measure used with rotating mechanical
devices is revolutions per minute, abbreviated RPM. 60 RPM equals one hertz
(i.e., one revolution per second, or a period of one second). The SI unit for
period is the second.

Angular Frequency
It refers to the angular displacement per
unit time (e.g., in rotation) or the rate of
change of the phase of a sinusoidal
waveform (e.g., in oscillations and
waves), or as the rate of change of the
argument of the sine function.

Mechanical Waves
What is a mechanical wave?
It is created by a vibrating motion that travels through a
conductive (non-vacuous) medium.

Sound results from the longitudinal motion of the particles

of the medium through which the mechanical sound
wave travels.

What is sound?
vibrations that travel through the air or another medium and can be heard when they reach a
person's or animal's ear.

a : a particular auditory impression : tone.

b : the sensation perceived by the sense of hearing.

c : mechanical radiant energy that is transmitted by longitudinal pressure waves in a material

medium (such as air) and is the objective cause of hearing.

Longitudinal waves
the particle displacement is parallel to the direction of wave propagation.

• The particles do not move down the tube with the

wave; they simply oscillate back and forth about
their individual equilibrium positions.

• The wave is seen as the motion of the compressed

region (ie, it is a pressure wave), which moves from
left to right.
• The P waves (Primary waves) in an earthquake are examples of Longitudinal waves. The P waves
travel with the fastest velocity and are the first
to arrive.

Transverse Waves

the particle displacement is perpendicular to

the direction of wave propagation.

• The particles do not move along with the

wave; they simply oscillate up and down
about their individual equilibrium positions as
the wave passes by.

• The S waves (Secondary waves) in an earthquake

are examples of Transverse waves. S waves
propagate with a velocity slower than P waves,

arriving several seconds later.

Wave pulse vs Period wave

A pulse is just a special type of wave - a solitary wave. A pulse refers to a disturbance that travel from
one location to another location through a medium. While, A wave refers to the disturbance or
variation that travels through the medium.

L wave vs T wave
 Superposition: destructive and
constructive
Interference

the net effect of the combination of two or

more wave trains moving on intersecting or
coincident paths. The effect is that of the
addition of the amplitudes of the individual
waves at each point affected by more than
one wave.
 Standing wave

also called stationary wave, combination of two

waves moving in opposite directions, each
having the same amplitude and frequency. The
phenomenon is the result of interference; that is,
when waves are superimposed, their energies
are either added together or canceled out.

Doppler
effect
What is
Doppler
effect?

The effect describes the change in the observed frequency of

a wave when there is relative motion between the wave source
and the observer.

Waves come in a variety of forms: ripples on the surface of a

pond, sounds (as with the siren above), light, and earthquake
tremors all exhibit periodic wave motion.
Examples of Doppler Effect in Everyday Life

1. Sirens
2. Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP)
3. Police Radar Guns
4. Pulse Doppler Radar
5. Doppler Echocardiogram
6. Laser Doppler Anemometer
7. Audio Applications
8. Satellites
9. Astronomy
10. Developmental Biology
11. Sonic Boom

Sound waves
Sound waves are a type of energy that's released when an object
vibrates. Those acoustic waves travel from their source through a
medium, like air or water, and when they come into contact with
our eardrums, our brains translate the pressure waves into words or
music, or signals we can understand.

Sound waves fall into three categories: longitudinal waves,

mechanical waves, and pressure waves.

Rarefaction is the reduction of an item's density, the opposite of

compression.

What are the three types of sound frequencies?

1. Low Sound-Frequency Waves.

2. Medium Sound-Frequency Waves.
3. High Sound-Frequency Waves.

What are the parameters of sound?

The three parameters of sound. The character of a sound is

controlled by the three distinct properties pitch, loudness and
timbre.

1. The pitch of a sound is how high or low the sound is. A high
sound has a high pitch and a low sound has a low pitch. A tight
drum skin gives a higher pitched sound than a loose drum skin.

2. Loudness is termed as how loud or soft a sound seems to a

listener. The loudness of sound is determined by the intensity or amount of energy in sound waves.
The unit of intensity is the decibel (dB). As decibel levels increase, sound waves have greater intensity
and sounds are louder.

3. Timbre refers to the character, texture, and color of a

sound that defines it.
What are the 5 characteristics of a sound wave?

There are five main characteristics of sound waves:

1. wavelength, the spatial period of a periodic wave—the distance over which the wave's shape
repeats.
2. amplitude, the maximum displacement or distance moved by a point on a vibrating body or
wave measured from its equilibrium position.
3. frequency, the rate at which current changes direction per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz),
an international unit of measure where 1 hertz is equal to 1 cycle per second.
4. time period, the time taken by a complete cycle of the wave to pass a point.
5. sound velocity, through a given material is the distance that the sound energy will propagate
in that material in a given time, and it is a function of material density, acoustic impedance
and temperature.

Speed of sound (Velocity)

It refers to how fast the disturbance is passed from particle to
particle. Since the speed of a wave is defined as the distance
that a point on a wave (such as a compression or a rarefaction)
travels per unit of time, it is often expressed in units of

meters/second (abbreviated m/s).

Bulk modulus

The bulk modulus of elasticity of a fluid is a

measure of how compressible that fluid is when
under a
certain pressure.

Young’s modulus
It is a measure of the ability of a material to
withstand changes in length when under lengthwise
tension or compression. Sometimes referred to as
the modulus of elasticity.
Specific gravity, pressure and depth
What is Specific gravity?

Sometimes called as relative gravity is a dimensionless

quantity that is defined as the ratio of the density of a
substance to the density of water at a specified
temperature and pressure.

Density of an object

Volume

a scalar quantity expressing the amount of three-dimensional space

enclosed by a closed surface.

Unit : m3
 Blaise Pascal (1623–1662)

was a French mathematician,

physicist and philosopher. He
developed the modern theory
of probability. He also
formulated the concept of
pressure (between 1646 and
1648) and showed that the
pressure in a fluid is transmitted
through the fluid in all
directions (i.e. Pascal's law).

Pascal’s principle

also called Pascal's law, in fluid (gas or liquid) mechanics, statement

that, in a fluid at rest in a closed container, a pressure change in one
part is transmitted without loss to every portion of the fluid and to the
walls of the container.

Pressure

the perpendicular force per unit area, or the stress at a point within a

confined fluid.

Archimedes
Archimedes, (born c. 287 bce, Syracuse, Sicily
[Italy]—died 212/211 bce, Syracuse), the most famous
mathematician and inventor in ancient Greece.
Archimedes is especially important for his discovery of
the relation between the surface and volume of a sphere and its circumscribing cylinder.

Archimedes Principle

Physical law of buoyancy, discovered by

the ancient Greek mathematician and
inventor Archimedes, stating that any body
completely or partially submerged in a fluid
(gas or liquid) at rest is acted upon by an
upward, or buoyant, force, the magnitude of
which is equal to the weight of the fluid.

Buoyancy
the tendency of a body to float or to rise when submerged in a fluid
testing an object's buoyancy. b chemistry : the power of a fluid to exert
an upward force on a body placed in it the buoyancy of water also :
the upward force exerted.

Depth
defined as the distance from top down
or front to back, or the intensity of
color or sound. An example of depth is
a swimming pool being six feet deep.
An example of depth is the darkness of
a purple dress.

How does a ship floats?

The air that is inside a ship is
much less dense than water. The
average density of the total
volume of the ship and everything inside of it (including the air) must be less than the same volume of
water.