598 CHAPTER 14 DAYLIGHTING DESIGN

14.7 DAYLIGHT FACTOR selection of materials. Daylight in a building con-

sists of three components (see Fig. 14.18):
Daylight factor (DF) is defined as the ratio of interior
1. Sky component (SC)
illuminance (Ei) to available outdoor illuminance
2. Externally reflected component (ERC)
Ei indoor illuminance, at a givenpoint 3. Internally reflected components (IRC1 + IRC2)
DF =
EH outdoor illuminance
DF is the sum of these three components, each cal-
× 100% (14.1) culated individually for each location being con-
sidered. DF is a ratio, but the value of a given DF is
where EH is the unobstructed horizontal exterior
based upon contributions from these components:
ILLUMINATION

illuminance. The daylight factor concept is appli-

DF = SC + ERC + IRC.
cable only where the sky luminance distribution is
The sky component (SC) is that portion of total
known or can reasonably be estimated. The Com-
daylight illuminance at a point received directly
mission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE) defines
from the area of the sky visible through an aperture.
an overcast sky and a clear sky whose luminance
As the SC represents received light, it takes into
distributions are fixed for the purpose of calcula-
account reductions due to window obstructions
tions. Daylight factor cannot be used with skies
(mullions, etc.) and losses in transmission; that is,
with constantly changing luminance (partly cloudy
and direct sun) because under such conditions the SC = incident skylight − window losses
daylight factor at a given point also varies continu-
The externally reflected component (ERC) repre-
ously, making the concept useless as a calculation
sents light reflected from exterior obstructions onto
tool for absolute daylight values.
the point under consideration. This does not include
Daylight factor as a means of expressing inte-
ground-reflected light. ERC is of significance only in
rior daylight illuminance is both absolute and
built-up areas (where there are structures opposite
relative. With a given sky luminance distribution,
an aperture) and can be estimated as the portion of
variations in daylight illuminance inside correspond
the SC for that area of obstructed sky, reduced by
exactly to variations outside (i.e., the daylight factor
the percentage of the sky obstructed (RD) and the
remains the same). This assumes a minimal effect
reflectance factor (RF) of the obstruction; that is,
from obstructions and ground reflections. Thus,
the daylight factor allows determination of interior ERC = SC × RD × RF
daylight distribution for varying fenestration, spa-
Thus, if 25% of the sky is obstructed by a building
tial arrangement, and building orientation.
with a 20% RF, we have
Daylight factor is constant for a given space
and window configuration. Interior illuminance ERC = SC × 0.25 × 0.20
can easily be calculated by knowing the daylight
factors for locations in a given space and the exte-
rior illuminance derived from sky luminance data.
Daylight design analysis can use a combination of
minimum exterior illuminance and corresponding
minimum daylight factor requirements to pre-
dict daylight sufficiency under almost all exterior
conditions.

14.8 COMPONENTS OF DAYLIGHT

The general characteristics of daylight as a source
of light (versus electric lamps) were discussed in
Chapter 11. Understanding the components of day-
light is important to the design of apertures and the
Fig. 14.18 Total daylight factor (DF) is composed of the SC, ERC,
and IRC. The IRC, in turn, is subdivided into reflected sky light
and reflected ground light components. Note that surfaces deep
in the room are illuminated with rereflected light. (Drawing by
Erik Winter.)
 COMPONENTS OF DAYLIGHT 599

For this particular example, then

ERC = 5% of SC
to be added to the remaining 75% of SC (25% of the
sky was obstructed).
The internally reflected component (IRC) repre-
sents the light received at the point under consider-
ation that has been reflected from interior surfaces.
IRC is subdivided into reflected skylight (IRC1) and
reflected ground light (IRC2). IRC2 is generally

ILLUMINATION
small, and IRC ≅ IRC1. IRC is, therefore, primar-
ily dependent upon interior surface reflectances
and upon the amount of window glazing, and
becomes a large portion of DF deep within an inte-
rior space (see Table 14.1 for wall reflectance fac-
tors and Fig. 14.19 illustrating IRC as a function of Fig. 14.19 Plot of the IRC of the daylight factor as a function
of amount of glazing, expressed as per DF (i.e., as a percent-
the amount of glazing). IRC is normally calculated
age of exterior illuminance). As expected, the effect of a lighter
using published interreflectance tables, as direct wall finish becomes more pronounced as the fenestration area
calculation is extremely complex. increases.
Typical curves for both horizontal and vertical
daylight factors for a room with single (unilateral)
sidelighting (windows on one side) are shown in
Fig. 14.20. These curves are produced by a long-
1. Use of simplifications, such as standard curves,
hand daylight-protractor-aided technique (Build-
tabular data, or the CIE method.
ing Research Station, London). Any change in
2. Use of a library of graphic light distribution
parameters, such as window dimensions or height
plots with varying parameters.
above the working plane, ceiling height, surface
3. Use of a less-laborious manual calculation
reflectance, ground reflection, and obstructions,
procedure. One such technique is known
alters these curves and requires recalculation and
commonly as the lumen method or the IES
replotting. Exact calculation of even a few vari-
method.
ants for a space is a tedious and time-consuming
4. Use of computer simulation software.
procedure.
The following manual methods describe Designers may use daylight factor criteria as
alternative approaches available to save time and a starting point for daylight design, translating the
increase accuracy: DF values (such as those given in Table 14.2) into

TABLE 14.1 Effect of Wall Reflectance Factor on the Proportion of IRC in the DF
30% Wall Reflectance 60% Wall Reflectance
IR C IR C
( %) ( %)
Distance from Window in ft (m) Total DF DF Total DF DF
0 30 1 31 3.5
5 (1.5) 16 1.9 17 6.5
10 (3.0) 5.5 5.5 6.3 16.9
15 (4.5) 2.1 14.3 2.9 37.9
20 (6.0) 1.3 23 2.1 52.4

Room data:
Room 24 × 28 ft (7.3 × 8.5 m) 70% ceiling reflectance
Window on 28-ft wall—one side only; 20% floor reflectance
Window area = 20% of floor area
 600 CHAPTER 14 DAYLIGHTING DESIGN
ILLUMINATION
Fig. 14.20 Typical daylight factor curves for horizontal (DFH) and vertical (DFV) illuminance for a room with large windows on one side
only. Note that the SC represents almost the entire DF near the window, but its proportion reduces at greater depths. There, interre-
flected light constitutes 50% of the available daylight.
actual illuminances in footcandles (lux) and com-
paring the results to recommended illuminance
values. As an example, consider two cities in the
United States that have overcast skies for appre-
ciable portions of the year—Columbus, Ohio
(40º N latitude), and Seattle, Washington (48º N
latitude). Table 14.3 compares illuminance values
calculated by the DF method with those recom-
mended by IESNA and the Chartered Institution
of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE). For most
of the year (with the exception of winter), day-
light provides all the light necessary for the tasks
in Table 14.2. In this case, where the available
exterior daylight is as low as 5000 to 7000 lux
(465 to 650 fc), supplemental electric lighting
would be required for all interior areas beyond
H feet (that is, one window height from the win-
dow—see Fig. 14.20).
In addition to the recommendations in
Table 14.2, the ratio between the minimum and
average daylight factor in a space, which relates to
contrast ratios, should be no less than 30%:
Dfmin
≥ 0.3
DFavg
The minimum daylight factor in any portion of
a space should not drop below 0.5%, which is
sufficient for circulation.
 GUIDELINES FOR PRELIMINARY DAYLIGHTING DESIGN 601

TABLE 14.2 Recommended Daylight Factors
Task
Ordinary seeing tasks, such as reading,
filing, and easy office work
Moderately difficult tasks, such as
prolonged reading, stenographic work,
normal machine tool work
Difficult, prolonged tasks, such as drafting,
proofreading poor copy, fine machine
work, and fine inspection
for performance analyses that include other param-
eters such as sky conditions, orientation, and wall
DFa
color, using computer simulation software, physi-
1.5–2.5% cal models, and calculations.
2.5–4.0% (a) The 2.5H Guideline
This longstanding guideline in the lighting design
4.0–8.0% field (Fig. 14.21) assumes that there will be suffi-
cient work plane illuminance from a window up to

Source: Millet and Bedrick (1980).
a
Use the smaller DF values for southern latitudes with plentiful
winter daylight.
14.9 GUIDELINES FOR PRELIMINARY
DAYLIGHTING DESIGN
Guidelines provide the designer with a variety of
broadly based rules useful during the conceptual
and schematic stages of design. Based upon design
experience and lighting research, these guidelines
assume overcast sky conditions. During design
development, they may be used as a starting point
ILLUMINATION
a distance of 2.5 times the head height of the win-
dow above the work plane—assuming clear glaz-
ing, overcast skies, no major obstructions, and a
total window width that is approximately half that
of the exterior perimeter wall.
(b) The 15/30 Guideline
This preliminary design guideline assumes that
a 15-ft-wide (4.6-m) zone from a window wall
(Fig. 14.22) can be daylit sufficiently for office
tasks. The next 15-ft (4.6-m) zone can be partially
daylit and supplemented with electric lighting.
Zones farther than 30 ft (9.1 m) from the window

TABLE 14.3 Horizontal Illuminances (EH) from Overcast Sky, at Selected Times, in Columbus,
Ohio, and Seattle, Washington, Corresponding to the Recommended DF
Available DF Illuminance Illuminance
10 AM Solar Daylight, EH Recommendation fc (lux) Calculation fc (lux)d
Location Altitudea fc (lux)b (%)c from DF Recommendation
Columbus June 21 2100 (22,500) 1.5–2.5 31–52 (338–563) 28–47 (300–500)
40º N latitude 60º 2.5–4 52–84 (563–900) 47–70 (500–750)
4–8 84–167 (900–1800) 70–93 (750–1000)
Mar./Sept. 21 1400 (15,500) 1.5–2.5 21–35 (225–375) 28–47 (300–500)
41º 2.5–4 35–56 (375–600) 47–70 (500–750)
4–8 56–112 (600–1200) 70–93 (750–1000)
Dec. 21 700 (7500) 1.5–2.5 11–18 (113–188) 28–47 (300–500)
21º 2.5–4 18–28 (188–300) 47–70 (500–750)
4–8 28–56 (300–600) 70–93 (750–1000)
Seattle June 21 1950 (21,000) 1.5–2.5 29–49 (315–525) 28–47 (300–500)
48º N latitude 56º 2.5–4 49–78 (525–840) 47–70 (500–750)
4–8 78–156 (840–1680) 70–93 (750–1000)
Mar./Sept. 21 1220 (13,000) 1.5–2.5 18–30 (195–325) 28–47 (300–500)
36º 2.5–4 30–48 (325–520) 47–70 (500–750)
4–8 48–97 (520–1040) 70–93 (750–1000)
Dec. 21 500 (5400) 1.5–2.5 8–13 (81–135) 28–47 (300–500)
14º 2.5–4 13–20 (135–216) 47–70 (500–750)
4–8 20–49 (216–532) 70–93 (750–1000)

a
From Appendix D.1.
b
From Fig. 12.3.
cFrom Table 14.2.
dFrom CIBSE and IESNA recommendations (Tables 11.4, 11.5, 11.7, and 11.8).
 602 CHAPTER 14 DAYLIGHTING DESIGN
Fig. 14.21 Section shows the 2.5H guideline, which assumes
that sufficient daylight for the desk plane will be delivered at a
depth 2.5 times the height of the window above the desk plane.
(Drawing by Jonathan Meendering; © 2004 Walter Grondzik; all
rights reserved.)
ILLUMINATION
would receive very little daylight. In schematic
design, these areas might ideally be allocated to
circulation.
(c) The Sidelighting and Toplighting
Daylight Factor Guideline
The size of windows, clerestories, or skylights may
be estimated by using the simple formulas in Table
14.4, Parts A and B, which provide target daylight
factor values. These design guidelines consider two
factors: the height of the window in the wall and the
window or skylight area compared to the floor area
for each daylit space.
For an example of such a calculation, see the
example previously discussed in Chapter 8: the
two-story office building in Oregon (shown in
Fig. 14.22 Plan shows the 15/30 guideline, which assumes
that sufficient daylight will be delivered to the desk plane at a
15-ft (4.6-m) distance from the window wall. The 15- to 30-ft
(4.6- to 9.1-m) daylight zone will need supplementary electric
lighting, and the zone beyond 30 ft (9.1 m) will receive virtually
no daylight. (Drawing by Jonathan Meendering; © 2005 Walter
Grondzik; all rights reserved.)
Fig. 14.23c) of the Emerald People’s Utility District.
Briefly, after selecting a target value of DFav = 4.0%
from Table 14.2, the windows and clerestories (as
skylights) were sized, using the DF guidelines for
sidelighting and for the vertical monitor skylight
from Table 14.4:
window (or skylight ) area
DFav = 0.2
floor area
Applied to the entire typical bay,
DFav =
(97 ft 2 north + 97 ft 2 south + 132 ft 2 clerestory)
(0.2)
1440 ft 2
= 0.45, or 4.5%
slightly above the target DFav of 4.0%.
Note that in this example, DFmin from the side-
lighting occurs near the center of the building, at
about the point (on the second floor) where the
most light is available from the skylight. There-
fore, a relatively even daylighting distribution is
expected on the upper floor. This is helped by the use
of lightshelves and the T-shaped windows shown in
Fig. 14.23. The seasonal window size question (more
needed in winter, less in summer) was answered in
this example by the use of deciduous vines outside
the south windows. In winter and cool spring, the
vines are bare of leaves. Warm weather brings leafy
shade lasting well into the warm fall.
Table 14.4, Part C, shows design guidelines for
buildings with an atrium that provides daylight-
ing to surrounding offices. Because the lowest day-
light factor will occur in offices on the lowest floor
(deepest within the atrium), the designer might find
the required atrium aspect ratio first for the lowest
floor and then size the atrium on that basis. This
design approach would provide a higher daylight
factor in all the offices higher in the atrium. The
atrium aspect ratio = [(length × width)/height2].
For a detailed discussion of the relationship of
atrium size, rentable office floor area, and latitude,
see DeKay (1992).
14.10 DESIGN ANALYSIS METHODS
Because of the variability of daylight, the designer
may provide a balance of illumination to save elec-
tric energy and reduce utility costs while addressing
 DESIGN ANALYSIS METHODS 603

TABLE 14.4 Daylight Factor Design Estimates for Overcast Sky Conditions

PART A. SIDELIGHTINGa, b

 window area 
DFav = 0.2 
 floor area 

 window area 
DFmin = 0.1 
 floor area 

ILLUMINATION
PART B. TOPLIGHTINGc
Vertical monitors:

 skylight glazing area 

DFav = 0.2  
 floor area
North-facing sawtooth:

 skylight glazing area 

DFav = 0.33  
 floor area
Horizontal skylights:

 skylight glazing area 

DFav = 0.35  
 floor area

PART C. BUILDINGS WITH ATRIUMd

Source: Parts A and B: Millet and Bedrick (1980). Part C: Brown and DeKay (2000).
a
Assumes windows in one wall of a room with relatively light-colored surfaces.
b
Window height/room depth relationships based on the works of R. G. Hopkinson (1966) and others at the British Research Station.
c
Assumes an even distribution of such skylights in the roof so that an even distribution of light results in the room below: thus, only aver-
age DF, no minimum, is listed.
d
Based on model tests of a square atrium with white walls open to the sky. “No windows” average atrium wall reflectance = 70%. “50%
windows” average atrium wall reflectance = 40%. DF values are for an office of 9 × 9 × 3 m (30 × 30 × 10 ft). The window opening to
the atrium is 1.5 m high × 9 m long (5 ft high × 30 ft long), and the sill height is 0.85 m (2.8 ft).