Week 4: Recurrence Relations

Section…………………………………………………………………………………………….Page

Section 1: Sequences and Recurrence Relations ..………………………………………………...2

Section 2: Sigma Notation and Partial Sums of Sequences ..……………………………………..3

Section 3: Formulating Recurrence Relations and Solving Recurrence Relations………………..5

Section 3.1: Formulating Recurrence Relations …………………………………………………..5

Section 3.2: Solving Recurrence Relations ……………………………………………………….7

Section 3.2.1: Telescopic Method ………………………………………………………………....7

Section 3.2.2: Iteration Method ……………………………………………………………………8

Section 3.2.3: Back Tracking Method ………………….………………………………………….9

Section 3.2.4: Characteristic Root Method......................................................................................10

Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………………………….12

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 Section 1: Sequences and Recurrence Relations

Sequences
A sequence is an ordered set of numbers. For example: 1, 2, 3, 4, … is an example of a sequence.

We can see that, in the sequence given above, it is easy to tell what number comes next because the
sequence follows a particular pattern. This is exactly what we are going to look at: sequences that
follow a particular pattern.

But sometimes it is not easy to tell what number comes next as in the sequence: 1, 5, 9, 13, 17. As a
result, it is preferable to use a formula or rule which clearly defines the terms of the sequence.

Before we look at the formulae, we need to see that terms of the sequences are usually labelled with
subscripts as,

so that , where , can be used to represent the .

Sequences with a Formula for the term

For ,

 :
 :
 : ( ) ( ) ( )

We can see that the formula helps to determine any number, at any position, in the sequence
without having to first list all the previous numbers.

Recurrence Relations
A recurrence relation is a formula relating a term of the sequence to previous terms and to an initial
condition (or a list of first few terms of the sequence). But a recurrence relation together with an initial
condition is altogether called a recursive definition. For example,

 with , where
 with , where

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 For second one, we have the initial term as 4 and each term of the sequence will be 2 more than the
previous one, thereby giving:

Section 2: Sigma Notation and Partial Sums of

Sequences

Partial Sums of Sequences

Given the following formula of the sequence,

We have:

Therefore, we have a sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, …

If we were to pick the first three numbers/terms of the sequence and add them, we would have 2+5+6.
This is called a partial sum of the sequence, denoted by , because not all numbers of the sequence
have been added.

From the partially determined sequence above, we would have some partial sums as

To generalize, we would have

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 …

A partial sum of the sequence can be represented in a compact form called sigma notation and the
Greek capital letter sigma is used to mean “sum up”.

Examples

Example

Find the following summations

i)
ii)

Solutions

i)
ii)

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 Section 3: Formulating Recurrence Relations and
Solving Recurrence Relations

Section 3.1: Formulating Recurrence Relations

We will look at formulating recurrence relations and closed formulae of arithmetic sequences and
geometric sequences. The recurrence relations will definitely have their initial values presented as well.

Arithmetic Sequences
An arithmetic sequence is a sequence in which there is a constant difference (also called a common
difference) between any two consecutive terms. Given that the initial term of the sequence is
and the common difference is , then we have

with as a recurrence relation with an initial term

and

as the closed formula for the sequence

Example 3.1

Given the sequences below, find for each a recurrence relation and closed formula by assuming that the
initial term is the first listed value in the sequence.

i) 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, …

ii) 15, 13, 11, 9, 7, 5, ..

Solution 3.1

i) For the values we have in sequence, we have

. This indicates that the sequence is an arithmetic sequence since the
difference between any two consecutive terms/values in the sequence is constant.

Therefore, the common difference is 4 and the initial term is 1.

The recurrence relation is with

The closed formula is

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 ii) We have . This
indicates that the sequence is an arithmetic sequence since the difference between any two
consecutive terms/values in the sequence is constant.

Therefore, the common difference is -2 and the initial term is 15.

The recurrence relation is with

The closed formula is

Geometric Sequences
A geometric sequence is a sequence in which there is a constant quotient (called a common ratio)
between any two consecutive terms. Given that the initial term of the sequence is and the
common ratio is , then we have

with as a recurrence relation with an initial term

and

as the closed formula for the sequence.

Example 3.2

Given the sequences below, find for each a recurrence relation and closed formula by assuming that the
initial term is the first listed value in the sequence.

3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, …

Solution 3.2

For the values we have in sequence, we have .

This indicates that the sequence is a geometric sequence since the quotient between any two
consecutive terms/values in the sequence is constant.

Therefore, the common ratio is 2 and the initial term is 3.

The recurrence relation is with

The closed formula is

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 Section 3.2: Solving Recurrence Relations

Solving a recurrence relation is about finding a closed formula (a function of ) which satisfies the
recurrence relation and its initial condition. To solve recurrence relations we will look at three different
methods for three different cases.

Section 3.2.1: Telescoping Method

Telescoping method shows a way to solve recurrence relations of the form where
has a known closed formula. If we rewrite the recurrent relation as
, the left-hand side will always give you and the right hand
side sum will always need that we know its closed formula. When all terms on the left hand
side cancel out by subtraction to leave only , we say the recurrence relation has telescoped.

Example 3.3

Solve the recurrence relation whose initial term is .

Solution 3.3

Rewriting the above expression under sums (partial sums), we have

The closed formula for the recurrent relation is therefore going to be

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 Section 3.2.2: Iteration Method
When we have, for example, a recurrence relation of the form , the sums on the left
hand side will not telescope. It is for this case that we will need the iteration method to find the closed
formula for the recurrence relation.

Here, we will have to iterate the process of finding the next term by starting with a known initial
condition up until we have .

Example 3.4

Solve the recurrence relation with .

Solution 3.4

Simplifying further, we will have

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 Therefore, the closed formula will be

Section 3.2.3: Back Tracking Method

Using the back tracking method, the closed formula for the recurrence relation is determined from the
term equation given, which has lower terms in the sequence. This has to do with taking a linear
recurrence defining and replacing the terms with a relation that defines
(where at a each corresponding stage gets replaced with …).

Let us look at an example to understand better:

Example 3.5

Solve the following linear recurrence relation using back tracking method
with

Solution 3.5

First, we have

And then, by taking the linear recurrence relation and replacing the terms , we
have

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 Finally, the closed formula is
because

Section 3.2.4: The Characteristic Root Method

The characteristic root method is used to solve linear homogeneous recurrence relations with constant
coefficients.

Linear homogeneous recurrence relations with constant coefficients

A recurrence relation is a linear homogeneous relation of degree if it is of the form

where are constant coefficients.

Any given linear homogeneous relation of degree is always associated with a polynomial of degree
which we call a characteristic equation and it is of the form

We have a characteristic equation of degree which means, solving for it, we will have to find its
roots .

Linear homogeneous recurrence relations of degree 2

A linear homogeneous recurrence relation of degree is of the form and its
characteristic equation will be of the form .

The Characteristic Root Method

The linear homogeneous recurrence relation of degree 2, having the form , can
be solved using the characteristic root method.

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 Definition:

Given a recurrence relation , the characteristic polynomial is

giving the characteristic equation:

If and are two distinct roots of the characteristic polynomial, i.e. solution to the characteristic
equation, then the solution to the recurrence relation is

If , then the solution to the recurrent relation will be

Where and are constants determined by the initial conditions.

Example 3.6

Solve the recurrence relation with and .

Solution 3.6

The recurrence relation is from which we take the characteristic equation

When we factorise, we get ;

Solving for , we get and as characteristic roots.

Therefore, the solution to the recurrence relation will have the form

To solve for a and b, we plug n=0 and n=1 in the solution form above to get a system of equations with
two unknowns:

Solving this system, we get and , which finally gives the solution to the recurrence
relation as

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 Bibliography

Gersting J. L. (2014). Mathematical Structures for Computer Science (7th ed.).

W.H. Freeman and Company.

Levin O. (2017). Discrete Mathematics: An Open Introduction . (2th ed.).

University of Northern Colorado

Rosen K. H. (2011). Discrete Mathematics and its applications (7th ed.).

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

Susanna S. E. (2010). Discrete Mathematics with Applications. (4th ed.).

Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning

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