Marine Pollution Bulletin 199 (2024) 115976

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Marine Pollution Bulletin

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpolbul

From the closet to the shore: Fashion waste pollution on Colombian Central
Caribbean beaches
Nelson Rangel-Buitrago a, *, Adriana Gracia C. b
a
Programa de Física, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad del Atlántico, Barranquilla, Atlántico, Colombia
b
Programa de Biologia, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad del Atlántico, Barranquilla, Atlántico, Colombia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper examines the environmental effects of fashion waste on the central Caribbean coast of Colombia,
Fashion Waste highlighting significant ecological issues in coastal areas. A survey of 27 beaches found 503 items of fashion
Fast fashion waste, mainly shoes and sandals, with an average density of 0.93 items/m2. The distribution of this type of waste
Apparel
varies notably across different beach types, with exposed, rural, and remote beaches showing higher accumu­
Beaches
Caribbean coast of Colombia
lation, indicating a relationship between beach characteristics and waste concentration. Primary sources of this
waste include riverine transport, coastal tourism, and poorly managed sewage systems, impacting urban, rural,
and village beaches differently. The study reveals that longshore currents and oceanic movements, significantly
influence the transport and fate of this waste, with exposed beaches accumulating more fashion waste than
sheltered ones. The presence of driftwood also plays a vital role in trapping fashion waste along coastlines. The
findings highlight the need for effective management strategies to mitigate the impact of fashion waste,
providing crucial insights for local and national coastal managers and implications for managing fashion waste in
the Southern Caribbean and similar regions worldwide.

1. Introduction
“Apparel” refers to items worn on the body, typically encompassing
all types of clothing and footwear. This comprehensive term includes a
wide range of items such as shirts, pants, dresses, suits, coats, shoes,
boots, and accessories, forming an integral part of an individual's attire
(Choudhury, 2014). Apparel serves various functions, including
providing protection against environmental elements, adhering to social
and cultural norms, and expressing personal style or identity (Byun and
Sternquist, 2012).
Apparel is a fundamental component of fashion, which refers to the
prevailing styles and trends in human appearance at a particular time
and place. Fashion encompasses a range of elements, including apparel,
footwear, hairstyles, makeup, and even body posture, and is not static
(Choudhury, 2014). It evolves over time, influenced by cultural, social,
economic, and political factors, and acts as a form of self-expression and
autonomy (Byun and Sternquist, 2012). Fashion also mirrors societal
norms and values, intersecting frequently with art, design, and
technology.
The term “fast fashion” is a term that has gained notoriety and
characterizes the production and sale of affordably priced garments that
mimic current runway styles and that are rapidly circulated through
retail outlets to capitalize on contemporary trends (Ellen MacArthur
Foundation, 2017). This model is termed “fast fashion” due to its swift
processes encompassing design, production, distribution, and market­
ing, enabling retailers to offer a wide range of products and fashion
choices to consumers at competitive prices (Sohn et al., 2021).
The apparel/fashion industry is one of the world's largest and most
economically significant sectors, known for its global economic impact,
employment generation, and trade value (European Parliament, 2017).
Valued at hundreds of billions of dollars, this industry is a top sector in
the consumer goods market and employs millions worldwide, especially
in developing nations where textile and garment manufacturing are a
major economic driver (Sohn et al., 2021). As one of the most traded
commodities, apparel features a highly globalized supply chain,
encompassing raw material procurement, manufacturing, and con­
sumption across various regions. Consumer spending on clothing rep­
resents a significant portion of expenditures in most countries.
Additionally, the industry is marked by continuous innovation in fashion
design, manufacturing technologies, and evolving business models, such
as the rise of online retailing and a focus on sustainable fashion
practices.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: nelsonrangel@mail.uniatlantico.edu.co (N. Rangel-Buitrago).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.115976
Received 1 December 2023; Received in revised form 21 December 2023; Accepted 22 December 2023
Available online 27 December 2023
0025-326X/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N. Rangel-Buitrago and A. Gracia C. Marine Pollution Bulletin 199 (2024) 115976

However, not everything that glitters is gold, and the fashion in­
dustry, particularly in its traditional form, has not been environmentally
friendly (United Nations Environment Programme, 2020). Fashion,
especially apparel production, is characterized by high resource con­
sumption, including significant water, energy, and raw materials;
notably in cotton production which often uses harmful pesticides and
fertilizers (GIZ, 2019). This industry contributes considerably to pollu­
tion, with its production, dyeing, and treatment processes releasing
chemicals harmful to ecosystems, particularly affecting waterways, and
coastal areas (Barnes et al., 2009). The industry amplifies waste gener­
ation through the fast fashion trend, encouraging a culture of disposable
clothing. Additionally, the fashion industry significantly contributes to
global greenhouse gas emissions due to its energy-intensive production
and global supply chains (Kant, 2012). A notable environmental concern
is the shedding of microfibers from synthetic textiles like polyester,
which contribute to the growing problem of microplastics in oceans (De
Souza Machado et al., 2018).
The environmental impact of the fashion industry is starkly high­
lighted by several concerning statistics. Annually, of the 100 billion
pieces of apparel produced, 92 million tonnes end up in landfills,
reflecting a significant waste management challenge (United Nations
Environment Programme, 2020). The industry's carbon footprint is set
to rise alarmingly, with global emissions projected to increase to 50 % by
2030 (GIZ, 2019). In the past 15 years, there has been a 36 % decline in
the frequency of apparel use, exacerbating the issue of clothing waste
(Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017). Contributing to 20 % of global
wastewater, the fashion sector significantly impacts water resources
(Quantis, 2018). Economically, the industry faces a loss of approxi­
mately $500 billion yearly due to underutilization and lack of recycling
of clothes (Sandin and Peters, 2018). Fast fashion trends have doubled
clothing production since 2000, further intensifying environmental
2021, 2022), and Gracia et al. (2018) have identified a pressing envi­
ronmental issue in this region: the abundant presence of litter. However,
specific data on the scale, fate, impacts, and management of discarded
apparel as FW products in this area is still lacking.
Under the conditions of this coastline, the transport and accumula­
tion of litter are continuously converting this shoreline into a perfect
setting for FW accumulation. This paper aims to address this gap by
presenting a study of 27 beaches along Colombia's central Caribbean
coast. The study provides an initial assessment of the scale, fate,
collateral impacts, and management strategies for apparel products
accumulated as FW in this region. The findings are intended to assist
local and national coastal managers and planners in enhancing their
understanding and management of fashion-related waste, not only in
Colombia but across the Southern Caribbean region.
2. Study area
The surveyed beaches (sampling areas) encompass an 82 km coastal
stretch extending from Punta Roca in the Atlantico Department to
Galerazamba in the Bolivar Department (Table 1 and Fig. 1). Each of
these sampling areas corresponds to a specific litter cell, defined as a
coastal region where the movement of discarded apparel is primarily
contained within the confines of that cell. Cell demarcations are estab­
lished based on bathymetric characteristics and the coastal morphology,
both of which are critical determinants of FW movement within the cell
(Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2020). Notably, the boundaries of these cells
Table 1
Location of surveyed beaches on the central Caribbean coast of Colombia.
COD Name Location Exposure Typology Condition

strain (Sohn et al., 2021). Additionally, textiles are a major source of A1 Punta Roca Barranquilla Exposed Rural Non-
microplastic pollution, accounting for nearly 10 % of yearly microplastic Cleaned
A2 Salgar Puerto Exposed Village Cleaned
dispersion (Barnes et al., 2009).
A3 Pradomar Colombia Exposed Resort Cleaned
One of the principal products of the apparel industry is Fashion A4 Pradomar Exposed Urban Cleaned
Waste (FW) which encompasses the materials and products discarded A5 Puerto Exposed Urban Cleaned
throughout the lifecycle of fashion items, from design to post-consumer Colombia
stages (United Nations Environment Programme, 2020). Included are A6 Puerto Exposed Urban Cleaned
Colombia
pre-consumer waste such as textile remnants, manufacturing off-cuts,
A7 Puerto Velero Tubara Exposed Remote Non-
and packaging materials, as well as post-consumer waste such as dis­ Cleaned
carded apparel and accessories. This type of waste is a byproduct of the A8 Puerto Velero - Sheltered Resort Cleaned
fast fashion industry's rapid turnover and mass production processes, A9 Punta Velero Sheltered Village Cleaned
A10 Mirador Sheltered Village Cleaned
which frequently lead to excess inventory and a culture of disposable
A11 Caño Dulce Sheltered Village Cleaned
clothing. A13 Playa Mendoza Sheltered Resort Cleaned
Beaches serve as transition ecosystems that link marine and terres­ A14 Turipana Sheltered Resort Cleaned
trial environments in the littoral zone (Davis and Fitzgerald, 2004; A15 Tubara Sheltered Rural Non-
McLachlan and Defeo, 2018; Jackson and Short, 2020), and fashion- Cleaned
A16 Palmarito Sheltered Village Cleaned
related waste, such as apparel, can pose a significant threat to these
A17 Playa Linda Sheltered Remote Non-
vulnerable ecosystems (Pilkey et al., 2011; Pilkey and Cooper, 2014). Cleaned
The infiltration of apparel in beach environments exerts substantial A18 Santa Veronica Juan De Exposed Resort Cleaned
pressures across various levels of the ecosystem, affecting individual Cajacoopi Acosta
organisms, populations, and entire communities, as well as impacting A19 Santa Veronica Sheltered Urban Cleaned
A20 Salinas Del Rey Sheltered Village Non-
the aesthetic quality and socio-economic aspects of these areas (Deudero Cleaned
and Alomar, 2015; Battisti and Gippoliti, 2018). A21 Loma De Piedra Sheltered Remote Non-
While the environmental impacts of the fashion industry, specifically Cleaned
FW are well-know, there has been a notable lack of focus on its mag­ A22 Aguamarina Sheltered Resort Cleaned
A23 Bocatocinos Exposed Rural Non-
nitudes and effects on coastal ecosystems, specifically beaches, where
Cleaned
many fashion-related products ultimately accumulate as waste. This A24 Punta Astilleros Exposed Rural Non-
oversight is striking, considering the significant amounts of discarded Cleaned
apparel found in various coastal regions worldwide, such as the beaches A25 Salinas De Piojo Exposed Remote Non-
of Accra in Ghana, and terrestrial environments like the Atacama Desert Galerazamba Cleaned
A26 Galerazamba Sheltered Village Non-
in Chile (United Nations Environment Programme, 2020). Cleaned
The central Caribbean coast of Colombia, comprising parts of the A27 Isla Arena Galerazamba Sheltered Remote Non-
Atlantico and Bolivar Departments and including six municipalities with Cleaned
a population of over 1.5 million, is facing rapid development. Studies by A28 Isla Arena Exposed Remote Non-
Cleaned
Williams et al. (2016), Rangel-Buitrago et al. (2017, 2018, 2019, 2020,

2
N. Rangel-Buitrago and A. Gracia C.
Fig. 1. The central Caribbean coast of Colombia with the locations of surveyed beaches.
coincide with natural features such as peninsulas, headlands, along with
engineered longshore hard structures, as these geographical elements
act as barriers impeding further FW displacement.
The central Caribbean coast of Colombia represents a semi-arid
tropical ecosystem under the influence of the Intertropical Conver­
gence Zone (ITCZ), characterized by an average annual temperature of
28.5 ◦ C (Sánchez-Páez et al., 1997). The region experiences a bimodal
precipitation pattern, featuring two distinct rainy seasons (April–May
and October–November) and two dry periods (December–March and
July–September), with recorded annual precipitation levels reaching up
to 2650 mm (Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2015). Wind velocities in this area
generally remain below 16 m/s, with occasional higher values associ­
ated with northerly to northeasterly winds during the dry season.
Conversely, lower wind speeds are observed during the rainy season,
typically linked to easterly winds (Gracia et al., 2018).
The average significant wave height in the study area measures 1.6
m, with an average peak period of 7.5 s. From November to July, the
prevailing wave system comprises northeast (NE) swells, while the
remainder of the year is characterized by waves originating from the
northwest (NW), west-southwest (WSW), and occasionally the south­
west (SW) (Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2015). This shift in wave direction is
concurrent with a reduction in significant wave heights, with the lowest
values occurring between August and October (1.4 m), whereas the
highest energy conditions manifest from November to July, occasionally
exceeding 2.5 m (Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2018). Extreme wave events,
3
Marine Pollution Bulletin 199 (2024) 115976
including Cold Fronts and Hurricanes, predominantly affect the study
area between January and March, and from July to November, respec­
tively, leading to heavy rainfall and strong winds. These wave dynamics
give rise to a longshore current predominantly flowing in a southwest­
ward direction, with occasional minor reversals to the northeast during
rainy periods when southerly winds prevail in certain areas, generating
short, high-frequency waves (Gracia and Rangel-Buitrago, 2020). Tides
in the region are characterized as mixed semi-diurnal, with maximum
amplitudes reaching 65 cm (Torres and Tsimplis, 2012).
3. Methodological approach
As a first step, each beach was classified using the typology definition
expressed in the Bathing Area Registration and Evaluation (BARE) sys­
tem (For more details see: Williams and Micallef, 2009). This classifi­
cation allows the categorization of beaches into five different classes
(remote, village, rural, urban, and resort) considering their accessibility,
environment, facilities, accommodation grade, and safety equipment. In
a second step, beaches were categorized according to their level of
exposure to waves on: i) Exposed beaches and ii) Sheltered beaches (e.g.,
beaches located on bays).
In each of the 27 beaches visited, sampling areas of 20 m2, located
between the low-tide mark and the backshore to cover the central beach
section, were defined. Fashion-related waste, specifically apparel, was
collected within these areas. Collected items were classified according to
N. Rangel-Buitrago and A. Gracia C.
the OSPAR (2010) system into shoes/sandals (code 44) and clothing
(code 54). Data were quantified as the number of items and corre­
sponding densities, with densities calculated by dividing the number of
collected items by the sampling area (20 m2) and presented as items per
square meter.
Two indexes were used to assess the impact of fashion waste along
the central Caribbean coast of Colombia. The first index used was an
adaptation of the Plastic Abundance Index (PAI) developed by Rangel-
Buitrago et al. (2022). Named the Abundance Index (AI) in this study,
this index measures the prevalence of FW on beaches by analyzing the
ratio between each type of apparel (shoes/sandals and clothing) and the
total apparel items collected (all FW). The AI for each surveyed beach
was calculated using a formula:
∑ 4.1. Beach characteristics
∑ Apparel type
log10 Fashion related waste
AI = *20
Area
Where AI represents the number of discarded apparel items per
square meter, factoring in the relationship between each apparel type
and the log10 of all collected FW. The AI classifies beaches based on
fashion waste presence, ranging from “very low abundance” to “very
high abundance” (Table 2). This index is calculated distinguishing be­
tween shoes/sandals (AI-S) and clothing (AI-C), the two typologies of
FW.
The second index used was the Fashion Wast Pollution Index (FWPI).
This index determines the extent of discarded fashion apparel items
relative to beach area, essentially evaluating the beach's state in terms of
the absence of FW. The FWPI was calculated using the formula.
∑
Fashion related waste
FWPI = *20
Length(m)*Width(m)
Where FWPI represents the collected apparel items per square meter,
based on the relationship among all FW (shoes/sandals and clothing) in
the sampling zone. This index categorizes beaches from “Very clean” to
“Extremely Dirty” (Table 3).
All data were further analyzed through Hierarchical Cluster Analysis
(HCA) to categorize beaches using a proximity matrix based on their FW
quantities and specific beach characteristics. This analysis was visual­
ized using a dendrogram graph, illustrating hierarchical relationships
between site and FW category clusters. Principal Component Analysis
(PCA) was conducted, treating beaches as “cases” and various types of
FW as “variables.” This analysis was pivotal in examining the correla­
tions among different categories of FW and assessing the degree of
variance in FW impacts across various beaches. The primary compo­
nents, F1 and F2, which capture most of the variance within the dataset,
were visually represented through scatter plots focusing on individual
beaches. The comprehensive statistical analyses, including the PCA,
were executed using the XLSTAT software, ensuring robust and reliable
data interpretation.
Table 2
Abundance Index (AI). This Index, which is first presented in this work, mea­
sures the prevalence of FW on beaches by analyzing the ratio between each type
of apparel (shoes/sandals and clothing) and the total apparel items collected (all
FW).
AI Prevalence of fashion waste (per Description
unit area)
0 Very low abundance / Absence No FW are seen
0.1 to Low abundance Some FW are on the sample unit
1
1.1 to Moderate abundance A considerable number of FW are
4 seen
4.1 to High abundance A lot of FW are on the sample unit
8 across types shows a significant disparity: 40.74 % of the beaches fall
>8 Very High abundance Most of the sampling unit is
composed by FW
4
Marine Pollution Bulletin 199 (2024) 115976
Table 3
Fashion Waste Pollution Index (FWPI). This index determines the extent of
discarded fashion apparel items relative to beach area, essentially evaluating the
beach's state in terms of the absence of FW.
FWPI Type Description
0–2 Very Clean No FW is seen
2.1–5 Clean No FW is seen over a large area
5.1–10 Moderate FW items can be detected
10.1–20 Dirty A lot of FW items are on the beach
> 20 Extremely Dirty Most of the area is covered by FW
4. Results and discussion
Among the surveyed beaches, 15 of them are classified as sheltered
compared to the 12 exposed to the open sea, indicating a prevalence of
more protected coastal environments in this region. The survey reveals a
diverse distribution in the types of beaches: 7 are categorized as villages,
closely followed by 6 resorts and 6 remote beaches. This distribution
demonstrates a balance between tourist-oriented locations and more
isolated areas. Rural and urban types are equally represented, with 4
beaches each, highlighting a blend of both developed and undeveloped
coastal regions. Regarding cleanliness, clean-up operations occur on 15
of the 27 beaches surveyed (Table 1). These 15 beaches are cleaned
manually (urban and village) or mechanically (resort) at least once a
week. During the holiday season, clean-up operations are conducted
daily, or even as often as twice a day (morning and afternoon). Due to
their exposure and localization, twelve beaches have never been sub­
jected to clean-up operations: A1 Punta Roca, A7 Puerto Velero -
Exposed, A15 Tubará, A17 Playa Linda, A20 Salinas del Rey, A21 Loma
de Piedra, A23 Bocatocinos, A24 Punta Astilleros, A25 Salinas de
Galerazamba, A26 Galerazamba, and A27-A28 Isla Arena (Table 1).
4.2. Magnitudes and distribution
Fashion waste was observed along the 27 beaches surveyed along
central Caribbean coast of Colombia (Table 4 and Figs. 2 and 3). A total
of 503 items (averaging 0.93 items/m2) were found, of which 73 % were
shoes/sandals (366 items), while the remaining 27 % were clothing
items (137 items).
Regarding the presence of shoes/sandals, the average across the
study area was 0.68 items/m2, although this value varied significantly
between beaches (Table 4 and Fig. 2). The highest abundance, both in
terms of quantity and density, was observed at A1 Punta Roca, a rural
exposed beach in the northernmost part of the study area, with 85 shoes/
sandals items equating to a density of 4.25 items/m2 (Table 4 and
Fig. 2). In contrast, no shoes/sandals were found on 11 beaches (A2, A3,
A4, A5, A8, A9, A10, A14, A16, A19, A22), all characterized by signif­
icant human influence (village, resort, and urban) and subjected to
clean-up operations.
As for clothing, the average across the study area was 0.25 items/m2,
but this figure also varied considerably between beaches (Table 4 and
Fig. 2). The highest abundances, both in amount and density, were noted
at A23 Bocatocinos, a rural exposed beach in the southernmost part of
the study area, with 23 clothing items, equivalent to a density of 1.5
items/m2 (Table 4 and Fig. 2). Clothing was not found on 4 beaches (A8,
A9, A10, A22), all of which have a touristic orientation (village and
resort) and are subjected to consistent clean-up operations.
The analysis of the AI-Shoes/Sandals Index along the surveyed bea­
ches reveals an average value of 8.53, classifying the area as having a
moderate abundance of shoes/sandals. The distribution of AI-S values
under the ‘Very Low’ category, no beaches were categorized with a
‘Low’ abundance, 3.70 % as ‘Moderate’, 22.22 % as ‘High’, and 33.33 %
N. Rangel-Buitrago and A. Gracia C. Marine Pollution Bulletin 199 (2024) 115976

Table 4
Beach classification into one of the categories belonging to Abundance Index (AI) and Fashion Waste Pollution Index (FWPI).
COD Name AI-S AI-S Type AI-C AI-C Type FWPI FWPI Type Group

A1 Punta Roca 42.59 Very High 8.62 High 99 Extremely Dirty A

A2 Salgar 0 Very Low 1.85 Low 3 Clean D
A3 Pradomar 0 Very Low 1.23 Low 2 Very Clean D
A4 Pradomar 0 Very Low 1.23 Low 2 Very Clean D
A5 Puerto Colombia 0 Very Low 1.23 Low 2 Very Clean D
A6 Puerto Colombia 5.24 High 2.46 Low 9 Moderate C
A7 Puerto Velero 20.95 Very High 4.93 Moderate 42 Extremely Dirty B
A8 Puerto Velero 0 Very Low 0.00 Very Low 0 Very Clean D
A9 Punta Velero 0 Very Low 0.00 Very Low 0 Very Clean D
A10 Mirador 0 Very Low 0.00 Very Low 0 Very Clean D
A11 Caño Dulce 2.10 Moderate 1.23 Low 3 Clean D
A13 Playa Mendoza 4.29 High 1.23 Low 5 Clean D
A14 Turipana 0 Very Low 2.46 Low 4 Clean D
A15 Tubara 5.54 High 1.85 Low 8 Moderate C
A16 Palmarito 0 Very Low 0.62 Very Low 1 Very Clean D
A17 Playa Linda 12.72 Very High 4.93 Moderate 26 Extremely Dirty C
A18 Santa Veronica Cajacoopi 7.85 High 3.08 Low 14 Dirty C
A19 Santa Veronica 0 Very Low 1.23 Low 2 Very Clean D
A20 Salinas Del Rey 6.29 High 1.85 Low 9 Moderate C
A21 Loma De Piedra 11.17 Very High 4.31 Moderate 22 Extremely Dirty C
A22 Aguamarina 0 Very Low 0.00 Very Low 0 Very Clean D
A23 Bocatocinos 32.13 Very High 14.17 High 85 Extremely Dirty A
A24 Punta Astilleros 14.14 Very High 8.62 High 36 Extremely Dirty B
A25 Salinas De Galerazamba 19.47 Very High 7.39 Moderate 44 Extremely Dirty B
A26 Galerazamba 7.41 High 2.46 Low 12 Dirty C
A27 Isla Arena 12.30 Very High 2.46 Low 20 Dirty C
A28 Isla Arena 26.10 Very High 4.93 Moderate 53 Extremely Dirty B

as ‘Very High’ (Fig. 4). Punta Roca stands out with the highest AI-S value
while eleven beaches recorded an AI-S value of zero (Fig. 4). When
grouped by “Exposure”, locations categorized as “Exposed” exhibited
significantly higher AI-S values (mean around 14.04) compared to
“Sheltered” locations (mean around 4.12), suggesting greater quantities
or visibility of shoes/sandals waste in exposed areas. The analysis by
“Type” further highlighted that rural and remote areas had higher mean
AI-S values (around 23.60 for rural and 17.12 for remote) compared to
urban, village, and resort areas.
The AI-C Index shows an average of 3.13, classifying the study area
with a moderate abundance of clothing. The distribution of AI-C values
across types reveals that 18.52 % of the beaches fall under the ‘Very
Low’ category, 51.85 % with a ‘Low’ abundance, 18.52 % as ‘Moderate’,
11.11 % as ‘High’, and no beaches were classified as ‘Very High’ (Fig. 4).
Bocatocinos stands out with the highest AI-T value, while four beaches
recorded an AI-T value of zero (Fig. 4). Grouping by “Exposure” showed
that “Exposed” areas had higher average AI-T values (mean around
4.98) with more variability than “Sheltered” areas (mean around 1.64),
indicating a potential correlation between exposure and the presence of
textile waste. The analysis by “Type” revealed that "AI-T" scores were
generally higher in rural and remote settings (mean of around 8.32 for
rural, 4.83 for remote) compared to urban, village, and resort types.
The FWPI Index shows an average of 18.63, classifying the area as
dirty in terms of FW. The distribution of FWPI values across types in­
dicates that 33.33 % of the beaches are considered very clean (in terms
of FW), 14.81 % as “clean”, 11.11 % as ‘Moderate’ and ‘Dirty’, and
29.63 % as ‘Extremely Dirty’ (Fig. 4). Punta Roca stands out with the
highest FWPI value, while four beaches recorded an FWPI value of zero.
Locations classified as “Exposed” had markedly higher mean FWPI
values (about 32.58) compared to “Sheltered” ones (mean around 7.47),
suggesting a greater degree of fashion-related pollution in exposed areas
(Fig. 4). Diving deeper into the data by “Type”, rural and remote areas
exhibited the highest average FWPI values (57.00 for rural, 34.50 for
remote), significantly more than urban, village, and resort types.
A Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) was developed to elucidate
similarities and differences among beaches with respect to fashion waste
abundance (Fig. 5). The HCA identifies natural groupings and facilitates
the visualization of similarity or dissimilarity levels among surveyed
beaches. According to FW abundance, this analysis delineates four
groups of Central Caribbean beaches in Colombia (Fig. 5):
Group A: Comprising two sites, A1 and A23, this group represents
the most environmentally impacted locations in terms of fashion-
related waste. These exposed, rural, and uncleaned sites have the
highest average values for shoes/sandals (73.5) and textile waste
(18.5), indicating significant accumulations of these items. Corre­
spondingly, the pollution indices, FWPI and AI, are the highest
among all groups, averaging 92.0 and 37.4, respectively. This group
encompasses areas requiring urgent attention and intervention to
mitigate environmental degradation.
Group B: Consisting of sites A7, A24, A25, and A28 (exposed,
remote, rural, and uncleaned), this group shows a high level of
fashion-related waste. The average quantities of shoes/sandals and
textile waste are 33.3 and 10.5, respectively, higher than those in
Group A. This suggests a more significant human activity impact. The
pollution indices, FWPI and AI, also higher, average 43.8 and 20.2,
pointing to a substantial environmental impact.
Group C: Encompassing eight sites (Exposed - sheltered / various
typologies), including A6, A15, A17, A18, A20, A21, A26, and A27,
this group is characterized by a moderate to high environmental
impact from fashion-related waste. Average values for shoes, san­
dals, and textiles are 15 and 4.7, respectively, indicating a notable
presence of these waste types. The total pollution index (FWPI) and
the AI average 15 and 8.6, respectively, suggesting these sites are
considerably polluted.
Group D: Including a significant number of sites (A2, A3, A4, A5, A8,
A9, A10, A11, A13, A14, A16, A19, and A22), this group is charac­
terized by its minimal environmental impact in terms of fashion-
related waste. The average values for shoes, sandals, and textiles
are relatively low (around 0.30 and 1.5, respectively), indicating a
lesser presence of these waste types. The total pollution index (FWPI)
and the AI are also on the lower end (averaging around 1.8 and 0.5),
suggesting these sites are relatively clean with minimal to moderate
pollution. This group represents areas that are either well-managed,
less frequented, or inherently less susceptible to fashion-related
waste accumulation.

5
N. Rangel-Buitrago and A. Gracia C.
Fig. 2. Fashion waste densities.
After defining these four groups, determining the environmental
information via principal components analysis (PCA) is instrumental for
evaluating the status of Central Caribbean beaches in Colombia (Fig. 5).
The PCA revealed that the first principal component (PC1) accounts
for approximately 95.8 % of the variance, representing a measure that
captures the most significant variation in pollution and FW character­
istics across the sites. The second principal component (PC2), account­
ing for an additional 1.7 % of the variance, captures variations not
identified by PC1. The dominance of PC1 suggests that most sites can be
effectively differentiated and analyzed based on this single composite
measure, simplifying the complexity of the data into a principal factor
reflecting an overall ‘environmental impact’ score.
The scatter plot of the first two principal components, colored by the
identified clusters, effectively demonstrates the PCA's dimensionality
reduction while preserving the data's essence (Fig. 5). The clear sepa­
ration of clusters in this two-dimensional space validates the distinct
environmental characteristics of each cluster. Groups D and C, charac­
terized by low to medium pollution and waste, are distinctly separated
from the other groups, indicating their unique environmental impact.
Group B (highly impacted sites) and Group A (high pollution and waste
sites) are also distinguishable but are closer to each other, reflecting
their higher levels of waste and pollution. This visualization not only
corroborates the cluster analysis findings but also provides an intuitive
understanding of the relationships among these sites in terms of their
principal underlying environmental characteristics.
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This analysis further reveals the numerically significant presence of
apparel at each of the surveyed beaches. Similarly, it confirms a high
degree of pollution related to FW across the entire study area. In this
context, the clusters formed following the application of Hierarchical
Cluster Analysis (HCA) differentiate between:
• Group A - “Extremely Polluted Sites”: The defining characteristic
of this group is the extremely high abundance of fashion waste,
particularly in shoes/sandals and textile waste, indicating a signifi­
cant environmental impact (e.g., A1 Punta Roca).
• Group B - “Highly Polluted Sites”: This group is primarily char­
acterized by notably high levels of fashion-related waste and pollu­
tion, although slightly lower than Group A. (e.g., A24 Punta
Astilleros).
• Group C - “Moderately Polluted Sites”: The key characteristic here
is the moderate to high presence of various types of fashion waste,
such as shoes, sandals, and textiles, combined with moderate
pollution indices (e.g., A6 Puerto Colombia – Urban).
• Group D - “Low Pollution Sites”: The principal characteristic of this
group is the low abundance of fashion waste, suggesting effective
management, reduced human activity, or inherent resistance to
fashion waste accumulation (e.g., A22 Aguamarina).
4.3. Sources, accumulation patterns, and fate
After identifying the magnitudes and collateral effects of FW in the
study area, two critical questions arise: Where does this waste origi­
nate, and what are its pathways and ultimate fates?
Buoyancy is a pivotal property that can serve as an indicator for
determining sources and tracing delivery paths (Cheshire et al., 2009;
Rech et al., 2014). Shoes and sandals, predominantly made of plastics,
exhibit buoyancy largely determined by the type of plastic used, the
design of the footwear, and the presence of air cavities. Footwear fash­
ioned from low-density plastics, such as polyethylene or specialized
foams, typically floats due to its lower density relative to water. The
design of a shoe is a crucial factor in its buoyancy; designs that include
hollow spaces or air pockets, as seen in many sandals or foam-based
shoes (e.g., Crocs), promote flotation. In contrast to fabric, most plas­
tics used in footwear are non-porous, which inhibits water absorption
and thus enhances buoyancy. However, the addition of elements like
metal buckles or reinforced soles can increase the overall density of the
footwear, potentially diminishing its buoyancy.
For textiles, buoyancy characteristics are determined by factors such
as the material's density, the structure of its weave, and the degree of air
entrapment. Materials with a density lower than water, like lightweight
synthetic fabrics (e.g., polyester, nylon), inherently tend to float, espe­
cially when dry. The weave of the fabric also plays a significant role;
loosely woven fabrics can trap air, increasing buoyancy, while tightly
woven materials may absorb water, become denser, and sink. The ca­
pacity of a fabric to float is also dependent on its water absorption
capability and saturation level. Initially, many fabrics may float,
particularly if they are dry or contain air pockets. However, with pro­
longed water exposure and subsequent saturation, their density in­
creases, often leading to reduced buoyancy. Additionally, treatments to
make fabrics water-repellent can notably affect these characteristics,
potentially extending the duration of flotation.
The observed magnitudes and composition of fashion waste in the
study area facilitate the identification of three specific sources:
• Riverine Transport: Fashion items discarded or lost within river
systems can travel considerable distances across the basin (Fig. 6).
This dynamic indicates that fashion waste found in the area may
have originated far inland. The research area is influenced by three
river basins – Caribe, Mallorquin, and Magdalena – which direct
fashion-related waste towards the coastlines of the Atlantico and
Bolivar departments. The Magdalena River basin, Colombia's largest
N. Rangel-Buitrago and A. Gracia C. Marine Pollution Bulletin 199 (2024) 115976

Fig. 3. Geographical distribution of Abundance Index (AI) for shoes - cloth as well as Fashion Waste Pollution Index (FWPI).

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N. Rangel-Buitrago and A. Gracia C. Marine Pollution Bulletin 199 (2024) 115976

Fig. 4. Examples of fashion waste items found along the central Caribbean Coast of Colombia.

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N. Rangel-Buitrago and A. Gracia C. Marine Pollution Bulletin 199 (2024) 115976

Fig. 5. Groups and similarity levels between beaches and pfashion waste presented by the use of Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering (AHC) and Principal
Components Analysis (PCA). These analyses allow the separation of four groups of beaches.

Fig. 6. Fashion waste generating activities or sources observed along the study area. Riverine Transport, Tourism and Recreational Activities and Wastewater and
Sewage Systems.

9
N. Rangel-Buitrago and A. Gracia C.
river system, covers 257,430 km2, accounting for 25 % of the
country's landmass and 65 % of its total area (Gracia et al., 2018). It
includes 724 municipalities, where 80 % of Colombia's population
resides. 334 of these municipalities (46 %) lack solid waste man­
agement systems (Restrepo et al., 2018). The smaller Caribe and
Mallorquin basins, covering 1360 km2 in the Atlantico Department's
coastal region, are equally significant. These basins comprise 10 of
the 23 municipalities in the department and include 26 smaller rivers
that flow directly into the sea. The area, home to 1,463,600 people
(58 % of the department's population), faces the widespread issue of
indiscriminate solid waste disposal, leading to its accumulation in
the study area.
• Tourism and Recreational Activities: Coastal tourism, including
beachcombing, camping, and beach parties, often leads to the
accumulation of fashion waste on beaches (Fig. 6). Items like shoes,
sandals, and cloth can be left behind accidentally or discarded
intentionally on the beach. Urban, rural, and village beaches, char­
acterized by medium to high human activity, frequently accumulate
fashion items left by visitors. Along the study area the behavior is
clear: individuals discard old or damaged items on beaches after
activities like eating, drinking, and picnicking. Compounding the
issue of fashion waste littering are inadequate collection and disposal
systems. The problem is aggravated by the limited availability of
disposal facilities, sometimes none, and is further intensified by a
general lack of environmental awareness and responsibility among
beachgoers.
• Wastewater and Sewage Systems: Inadequately managed sewage
and wastewater systems also contribute to this issue, particularly
when they transport solid waste (Fig. 6). In the area studied, these
systems are ill-equipped to properly filter and process solid waste.
This is due to outdated technology, insufficient filtration systems,
and facilities overwhelmed by the volume of waste. As a result, solid
items such as clothing, shoes, and plastics are unintentionally carried
with wastewater into natural water bodies and along the coast. This
problem is more acute in areas lacking comprehensive waste
Fig. 7. Transport routes of fashion waste along the coast are correlate with diffracted wavefronts originating predominantly from the northeast (NE), and occa­
sionally from the northwest (NW) and southeast (SE). In oceanic waters, the movement of fashion waste is primarily governed by two dominant currents The
Caribbean Current and The Panama-Colombia Gyre (PCG).
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management policies, where some sewage systems discharge directly
into the coast and the ocean without adequate treatment.
The presence of FW in the study area prominently reflects the in­
fluence of longshore current transport (Fig. 7). Current patterns under
two scenarios – average and extreme – indicate that the transport routes
of fashion waste along the coast correlate with diffracted wavefronts
originating predominantly from the northeast (NE), and occasionally
from the northwest (NW) and southeast (SE). These wave directions
foster a dominant south-southwest (S-SW) oriented longshore current,
which facilitates the movement of fashion waste along the central
Caribbean coast of Colombia from the northeast/east (NE/E) to the
southwest/west (SW/W). Additionally, the combination of longshore
transport and extreme runoff contributes to the southward migration of
significant amounts of fashion waste.
In oceanic waters, the movement of fashion waste is primarily gov­
erned by two dominant currents (Fig. 7): i) The Caribbean Current, a
warm ocean current recognized for moving substantial volumes of water
and flowing west-northwestward through the Caribbean from the east
along the coast of South America, entering the Gulf of Mexico. This
current's dynamics have been documented by Wust (1963) and Morrison
and Nowlin (1982); ii) The Panama-Colombia Gyre (PCG), a cyclonic
current that flows in a counter-clockwise direction relative to the
Caribbean Current. The characteristics of the PCG have been detailed in
studies by Schott and Molinari (1996), and Mooers and Maul (1998).
Apart from the wave regime, which influences fashion waste trans­
port along beaches, the wave exposure and beach typology are equally
crucial in determining a beach's capacity to retain or lose such waste
(Critchell et al., 2015; Williams et al., 2017).
A Kruskal-Walli's test, an ideal non-parametric method for datasets
not adhering to normal distribution or variance homogeneity, yielded a
p-value of 0.026 (Fig. 8). This value falls below the standard threshold of
0.05, indicating a statistically significant difference in FW accumulation
between ‘Exposed’ and ‘Sheltered’ sites. This value underscoring the
significant influence of environmental exposure on the accumulation of
N. Rangel-Buitrago and A. Gracia C.
Fig. 8. the Kruskal-Walli's test demonstrate a significant relationship between beach exposure as well as typology and total fashion-waste accumulation.
FW. It specifically reveals that exposed sites tend to accumulate more
FW than their sheltered counterparts.
Exposed beaches, directly impacted by incoming NE-W waves,
typically accumulate greater amounts of fashion waste. In contrast,
sheltered beaches, receiving the same waves but in a reflected and
dissipated form, tend to accumulate less FW. This is the case of A7
Puerto Velero - Exposed and A8 Puerto Velero - Resort. Although part of
the same sand spit system, they exhibit markedly different waste den­
sities (A7: 2.1 items/m2, A8: 0 items/m2) due to varying levels of
exposure.
Further insights from the Kruskal-Wallis test demonstrate a signifi­
cant relationship between beach typology and total waste accumulation
(Fig. 8). With a p-value of 0.0022, the test confirms statistically signif­
icant differences in the total amount of waste across different site types,
including Rural, Village, Resort, Urban, and Remote. This distinction is
critical, as it emphasizes that the nature of the site significantly impacts
waste accumulation levels, providing an understanding of how envi­
ronmental and human factors affect FW distribution.
Each site type has inherent characteristics that influence FW accu­
mulation. Urban areas, typically with high population density and ac­
tivity, may experience elevated waste levels due to increased human
activities and consumption. Conversely, rural, or remote areas might
accumulate less waste but currently face FW management challenges
due to limited accessibility and resources. Resorts and villages may
exhibit varied patterns in FW accumulation, influenced by their man­
agement and location.
Driftwood, characterized by its irregular and often branched
Fig. 9. Some environmental impacts related with Fashion-waste along the study area. Primary and secondary microplastics formation, alteration of sand movement
and dune formation, scenery alteration. Also, fashion items, becoming entangled with driftwood is frequently observed across the study area.
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structure, plays a pivotal role in trapping FW along coastlines, thereby
highlighting a significant interplay between natural and anthropogenic
materials in marine ecosystems (Terich, 2019; Kennedy and Woods,
2012; Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2021). The phenomenon of fashion items,
including clothing, shoes, and fabric fragments, becoming entangled
with driftwood is frequently observed across the study area (Fig. 9).
Driftwood tends to form accumulations on many beaches (mostly
remote and rural), creating mounds that act as natural barriers. These
barriers effectively trap floating fashion waste, predominantly trans­
ported by longshore currents. The trapping and subsequent accumula­
tion of fashion waste due to driftwood typically occur when the energy
driving these items along the coast is insufficient to propel them past
these natural obstructions.
Notable driftwood accumulations, such as those observed at A23 -
Bocatocinos, form complex three-dimensional structures that effectively
capture substantial quantities of fashion waste. Data from Rangel-Bui­
trago et al. (2021) on driftwood magnitudes in the study area, along
with findings from this research, indicate a strong correlation between
high densities of fashion waste and the presence of driftwood (i.e., A1
Punta Roca). The interaction of driftwood with dynamic coastal pro­
cesses, influenced by beach topography, wave action, and ocean cur­
rents, further augments the capture and retention of fashion-related
debris. This is particularly evident in areas where ocean currents natu­
rally deposit driftwood, as observed in the study area.
N. Rangel-Buitrago and A. Gracia C.
4.4. Collateral effects
The environmental impact of FW on beach environments can be
significant, primarily due to the materials used in these products and the
way in which they are discarded and accumulated in the environment.
Shoes, sandals, and clothing, particularly those made from synthetic
materials such as polyester, nylon, and rubber, contribute to the for­
mation of microplastics (Fig. 9). Primary Microplastics are released by
textiles and enter the coastal environment directly through various
routes, including runoff from urban areas, sewage discharge, and direct
deposition from sources like shipping and recreational activities
(Andrady, 2011). On the other hand, secondary microplastics are the
result of the breakdown of larger plastic items, such as shoes and sandals
(Barboza and Gimenez, 2015). These larger items degrade into smaller
fragments over time due to environmental factors such as UV radiation
from the sun, physical abrasion from waves and sand, and biological
degradation. Microplastics are a significant concern along the study area
as they originate, among other sources, from the vast amounts of fashion
waste that is improperly disposed of or accumulates in these beaches.
Currently, they reach densities of 1109 MPs/kg (Rangel-Buitrago et al.,
2022) and they represent a major pathway by which plastic enters the
marine food web.
Chemical leaching from footwear and clothing significantly impacts
the beach environment (Andrady, 2022). Chemicals used in apparel
manufacture, including dyes, adhesives, plasticizers like phthalates,
flame retardants, and other synthetics, are released into the beach
environment when fashion waste is accumulated. This leaching, exac­
erbated by environmental exposure to seawater, sunlight, and abrasion,
leads to the contamination of sand and seawater. These chemicals can be
highly toxic to marine life, potentially disrupting endocrine systems and
causing reproductive and developmental problems, or directly impact­
ing health and survival across a broad spectrum of marine organisms,
thereby affecting the entire marine food web. Additionally, these sub­
stances can alter the chemical balance and quality of the beach envi­
ronment, affecting pH levels and the ecological health of the area. The
persistent nature of some of these compounds means they do not easily
degrade in the environment, leading to accumulation and increased
toxicity over time. This not only threatens marine life but also poses risks
to humans, particularly those who depend on marine resources or
frequently visit these beaches.
Discarded footwear and clothing in beach environments can lead to
significant habitat disturbance, primarily by altering the natural dy­
namics of sand movement and dune formation (Rangel-Buitrago et al.,
2023 - Fig. 9). Beaches and dunes, inherently shaped by wind and waves,
can be disrupted when items like shoes, sandals, and clothing are left
behind. These items can obstruct sand flow, leading to localized erosion
or the unnatural accumulation of sand. This disruption affects the
structure of dunes, which play a critical role in protecting coastlines
from erosion and providing habitats for various species. Additionally,
when these discarded items cover vegetation crucial for dune stabili­
zation, they block essential sunlight and air, potentially causing the
death of these plants. This loss can destabilize dunes, increasing the
vulnerability of coastlines to erosion and extreme weather events.
Furthermore, fashion waste can create microhabitats that attract
invasive species or can serve as raft for their transport (Rech et al.,
2014). For example, these items can collect water and form small pools,
serving as breeding grounds for non-native plants and insects o tahy can
move an invasive species for long distances. These invasive species can
then outcompete the native flora and fauna, leading to biodiversity loss
(Winston et al., 1997). The presence of this waste on beaches can affect
species that rely on specific habitats. Shorebirds and turtles, for
example, need specific conditions for nesting, and the presence of
fashion waste can deter them from nesting in these areas, altering their
breeding behaviors and locations.
Birds can and often do use pieces of cloth for nesting (Ryan, 1987).
Birds are opportunistic when it comes to building their nests and will use
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Marine Pollution Bulletin 199 (2024) 115976
a wide variety of materials that they find in their environment. Cloth
fragments, along with other materials like twigs, leaves, feathers, and
even human-made items like paper and plastic, can be incorporated into
their nests (Ryan, 1987; Wilcox et al., 2015; Battisti and Gippoliti,
2018). Cloth pieces can be attractive to birds because they are soft and
can provide insulation and comfort for the eggs and chicks. Birds may
use cloth strips to line their nests, making them warmer and more
secure. This behavior is especially common in urban and village areas
where natural nesting materials may be less available, and birds have
adapted to use what is present in these environments, including dis­
carded clothing and textiles.
Fashion waste also presenting risks of entanglement and ingestion
that lead to harmful consequences (Wilcox et al., 2015). Entanglement is
particularly hazardous as animals can become ensnared in various
components of these items, such as straps, laces, or larger fabric pieces.
This is commonly observed in seabirds, which may become entangled in
strings or elastic bands from clothing, impairing their ability to fly or
forage. Sea turtles are another example, often getting caught in sandal
straps or cloth pieces, restricting their movement and surfacing ability,
which can lead to exhaustion, injury, or death. In severe cases, entan­
glement can cause amputations or deformities in growing animals due to
the constriction caused by the entangling materials.
In addition to entanglement risks, discarded footwear and clothing
pose a significant ingestion hazard to various marine animals (Scher­
eiber and Burger, 2001). Small fragments, particularly those broken
down from larger items, are often mistaken for food. For instance, sea
turtles may consume small rubber pieces from footwear, mistaking them
for jellyfish, their natural prey, leading to intestinal blockages or in­
juries. Similarly, birds are known to pick up and ingest fabric pieces or
small particles from shoes, resulting in digestive issues or the intro­
duction of toxic substances into their bodies. This ingestion not only
affects the individual animal's health but can also lead to broader
ecological impacts if the toxic substances are transferred through the
food chain.
The consequences of these interactions with discarded footwear and
clothing extend beyond immediate physical harm to individual animals.
They have far-reaching ecological implications, potentially impacting
the reproductive success, feeding behaviors, and vulnerability to pred­
ators of affected animals. Moreover, the ingested materials, particularly
plastics, can accumulate and transfer harmful substances through the
food chain, potentially affecting higher trophic levels, including
humans. The durability and persistence of these materials in the envi­
ronment mean that their effects can be long-lasting, influencing multiple
generations of wildlife. This highlights the critical need for improved
waste management and increased awareness of the impacts of littering
in coastal and marine environments.
The accumulation of fashion waste on beaches can detrimentally
impact their appeal to tourists (Fig. 9). According to Williams and
Micallef (2009) and Rangel-Buitrago (2019) the environmental integrity
of a beach is crucial and acts as a vital prerequisite for fostering coastal
tourism. From a socio-economic perspective, a significant presence of
fashion waste on beaches can elicit negative responses from visitors,
primarily due to perceived dirtiness (Corraini et al., 2018) and dimin­
ished aesthetic appeal (Williams et al., 2016). Consequently, the pres­
ence of fashion waste on a beach can be a decisive factor for tourists to
avoid or leave the area (Ryan et al., 2013; Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2013).
For coastal communities dependent on or aspiring to depend on tourism
for economic sustenance, the presence of fashion waste can significantly
reduce local revenue streams (Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2017).
Shoes and cloth can also contribute to the formation of Anthrosols.
Anthrosols are entirely human-made soils, comprised of litter items like
glass, plastics, shoes, cloth, and rubber (Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2023;
Rangel-Buitrago and Neal, 2023). These litter-derived soil layers can
mix with the O Horizon, which contains organic matter, and/or the A
Horizon, consisting of mineral matter and humus, in soil profiles.
Because these layers contain datable materials, they can provide relative
N. Rangel-Buitrago and A. Gracia C.
dating information for all layers above them (which are younger than
the litter items) and all layers below them (which are older than the
litter items).
4.5. Management considerations
In Colombia, mirroring a global trend, the widespread use of apparel
has escalated into a grave environmental crisis with multi-faceted re­
percussions. The magnitude of the FW issue has reached such heights
that it is now recognized at the governmental level as a complex and
pressing challenge. This problem is not just a theoretical concern; it
manifests palpably in everyday life. Despite the implementation of
policies aimed at curbing the rapid turnover of fashion and controlling
marketing practices, the issue persists. It is exacerbated by consumer
behavior, where our market choices, often misguided, continue to fuel
the production and consumption of these products.
The situation surrounding apparel use in Colombia is multifaceted
and begins with the significant role the textile industry plays in the
nation's economy. According to DANE, the textile industry accounted for
8.6 % of Colombia's GDP in 2021. This economic impact is further
highlighted by data from Nexmoda, Raddar, and Sectorial, which noted
that last year, Colombian household spending on fashion reached COP
27.7 trillion, marking a 21 % increase from the same period in 2020.
Comparatively, the production of the entire industry in 2021 grew by
15.1 %, and sales increased by 16.1 %. Employment in the sector also
saw a rise of 16.2 %, as reported by ANDI. On an individual level, it is
estimated that an average Colombian consumes between 7 and 15 kg of
textiles and fashion annually. However, this consumption has a down­
side; on average, >1000 tons of textiles and clothing are discarded each
month. This data paints a picture of a thriving industry but also un­
derscores the environmental challenges posed by the high levels of
production and waste in the fashion sector in Colombia.
Colombia's approach to managing fashion waste involves the same
legislative and collaborative efforts to reduce plastic waste. The country
has enacted Ley 2232 of 2022, focusing on the gradual reduction of
certain single-use plastics, a significant contributor to fashion waste.
Additionally, a unanimous Congressional decision led to the prohibition
of manufacturing, marketing, and use of these plastics. By 2025, prod­
ucts made from plastic must include at least 70 % recycled material, a
requirement that will increase to 90 % by 2030. This is part of the Na­
tional Pact Colombia Free of Single-Use Plastics, which involves various
sectors working towards sustainable substitutes for single-use plastics.
Furthermore, the government encourages businesses to transition to­
wards eco-friendly materials, an initiative supported by the presence of
375 Green Businesses engaged in waste transformation and
management.
The use of fashion apparel has escalated into a critical environmental
challenge, spiraling beyond control and resulting in multifaceted im­
pacts. Presently, the accumulation of FW is leading to adverse evalua­
tions in environmental indices and significantly degrading the
environmental quality of beaches, particularly in Colombia's strategi­
cally important regions. This alarming trend is evidenced by this study
along the central Caribbean coast of Colombia, highlighting the urgent
need for effective waste management and environmental protection
strategies in these key coastal areas. This study underscores the pressing
issue of fashion waste accumulation and its detrimental effects on beach
ecosystems, calling for immediate action to mitigate.
Fashion waste has emerged as one of the most significant environ­
mental crises of our times. Unless there is a change in the current
approach to production, consumption, and waste management in the
fashion sector, the environmental and social repercussions could be
profound and irreversible. The global fashion industry, already a major
contributor to waste and pollution, is estimated by the Ellen MacArthur
Foundation to potentially account for a quarter of the world's carbon
budget by 2050. This could lead to an alarming increase in waste volume
and greenhouse gas emissions, with projections by the World Bank
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Marine Pollution Bulletin 199 (2024) 115976
suggesting that emissions could soar to over 2.8 billion tons annually.
Additionally, the widespread use of synthetic fibers like polyester is
likely to intensify microplastic pollution in oceans, with around 35 % of
such pollution originating from laundering synthetic textiles, as noted
by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The industry's
substantial consumption of water and raw materials could further
exacerbate resource depletion and ecological imbalance, considering
that producing a single T-shirt requires about 2700 l of water. Moreover,
the continued use of harmful dyes and chemicals in textile production
poses significant threats to biodiversity. At the same time, the demand
for cheap labor could continue to perpetuate exploitative working
conditions in developing countries. This grim outlook underscores the
urgent need for a transformative shift towards sustainable practices and
a circular economy in the fashion industry to avert these potential crises.
The escalating accumulation of fashion waste in coastal and marine
environments is a multifaceted issue, stemming not only from its
excessive use but also from the evident shortcomings in existing man­
agement strategies. A comprehensive approach to mitigate or even
eliminate the excessive use of apparel and its associated impacts must
encompass the entire lifecycle of these products. This includes their
production, distribution, usage, and methods of disposal, recovery, and
recycling. Such an approach necessitates the active involvement of all
economic sectors, as well as the broader public, to be effective. Given the
significant environmental problems associated with the presence of FW
and their considerable quantities, the current management practices
along the central Caribbean coast of Colombia can be deemed far from
optimal. Addressing this issue requires a concerted effort to improve
waste management systems and promote sustainable practices across
the fashion industry.
Managing the fashion waste problem requires a multifaceted
approach that involves both industry-wide changes and individual ac­
tions. Key strategies to address this issue include:
• Sustainable Production: Encouraging the fashion industry to adopt
sustainable production practices is crucial. This involves using eco-
friendly materials, reducing harmful chemicals and dyes, and mini­
mizing waste during manufacturing. Companies like Patagonia are
leading by example, utilizing recycled materials and organic cotton
to lessen reliance on virgin resources and harmful production
practices.
• Circular Economy: Transitioning towards a circular economy model
extends the lifecycle of products. This approach involves designing
products for durability, reuse, and eventual recycling, moving away
from the traditional linear model of ‘take, make, dispose’. Initiatives
like H&M's garment collecting program encourage customers to
bring in old clothes for recycling, aiming to prolong material life
cycles and reduce waste.
• Recycling and Upcycling: Promoting the recycling and upcycling of
textiles and garments is essential. This can range from large-scale
recycling operations to small-scale or individual efforts to repur­
pose old clothing into new items. Brands such as Reformation
upcycle vintage clothing and use sustainable fabrics, transforming
old materials into fashionable, eco-friendly apparel.
• Consumer Awareness and Behavior Change: Educating con­
sumers about the environmental impact of fast fashion and fostering
more sustainable consumption habits are key. This means buying
less, choosing sustainable brands, opting for second-hand or vintage
clothing, and responsibly disposing of old clothes. Apps like ‘Good on
You’ provide valuable information on various brands' sustainability
practices, helping consumers make informed choices.
• Policy and Regulation: Implementing policies and regulations to
support sustainable fashion practices is critical. Governments can
offer incentives for sustainable practices, establish production stan­
dards, and manage waste effectively. The European Union's Waste
Framework Directive, for example, sets guidelines for member states
N. Rangel-Buitrago and A. Gracia C.
to enhance resource use efficiency and waste management in various
sectors, including fashion.
• Innovative Technologies: Investing in and adopting new technol­
ogies aids in sustainable textile production, efficient recycling pro­
cesses, and the development of environmentally friendly materials.
Companies like Worn Again Technologies are at the forefront,
developing textile recycling technologies that separate, decontami­
nate, and extract materials like polyester and cellulose from non-
reusable textiles.
• Collaborative Efforts: Involving various stakeholders, such as
fashion brands, governments, NGOs, and consumers, in a joint effort
to tackle the fashion waste problem is imperative. Collaborations
often lead to more effective solutions than isolated efforts. The
Sustainable Apparel Coalition, for instance, unites brands, retailers,
and NGOs to collectively reduce the environmental and social im­
pacts of apparel production.
• Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Implementing EPR
policies makes manufacturers responsible for their products' entire
lifecycle, including disposal and recycling. In France, EPR legislation
requires companies to either manage their own waste or contribute
to eco-organizations that handle the collection and recycling of
textile waste.
According to the results obtained in this study, it is necessary to
implement specific fashion waste management strategies tailored to
different site types and levels of exposure. This requires a nuanced un­
derstanding of the unique challenges and opportunities presented by
each combination. Here are some targeted strategies that could be
effective:
Strategies For Urban Beaches:
• Implement robust public waste bins with frequent collection.
• Encourage recycling actions through conveniently located and well-
marked recycling stations.
• Conduct public awareness campaigns about fashion waste and its
impact.
• Focus on waste segregation at the source to improve recycling rates.
• In less exposed areas, place more emphasis on education and
incentivization programs for waste reduction and recycling.
Strategies For Rural and Remote Areas:
• Establish community-led waste collection points for gathering waste
for periodic collection, crucial in areas with less frequent waste
services.
• Implement strategies for reducing waste generation.
• Provide education on sustainable waste practices, focusing on recy­
cling and reuse.
• Encourage self-sufficient waste management practices due to lower
population density and potentially limited waste collection services.
Strategies For Resort and Village Areas:
• Ensure ample waste disposal options are available in areas with high
tourist traffic.
• Implement policies for businesses to manage their waste effectively.
• Encourage visitors to minimize their waste footprint through
educational signage and campaigns.
• Develop waste management programs involving local communities
and businesses, focusing on sustainable practices like recycling and
local waste reduction initiatives, such as banning single-use items.
Incorporating cleaning operations into the management of fashion
waste is crucial. Cleaning operations can be effectively integrated into
the overall strategy in the following ways:
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Marine Pollution Bulletin 199 (2024) 115976
• Regular Cleaning Schedules: Implementing regular cleaning
schedules in high-traffic areas, such as urban centers, beaches, and
tourist spots, is essential. This ensures that waste is consistently
removed before it accumulates to problematic levels.
• Specialized Clean-Up Campaigns: Organizing specialized clean-up
campaigns in areas heavily impacted by fashion waste, such as
coastal areas or waterways, can be effective. These campaigns can
involve local communities, NGOs, and corporate volunteers,
fostering a sense of communal responsibility.
• Advanced Waste Collection Methods: Utilizing advanced waste
collection methods, like vacuum-powered systems in urban areas or
floating barriers in water bodies, can help in efficiently collecting
smaller waste particles, including microfibers from clothing.
• Integration with Recycling Programs: Cleaning operations should
be integrated with recycling programs. Collected fashion waste
should be sorted to separate recyclable materials, which can then be
sent to appropriate recycling facilities.
• Public Participation: Encouraging public participation in cleaning
operations through community-led initiatives. This can include
organizing beach clean-ups, street cleaning events, and educational
programs in schools and communities.
• Technological Assistance: Employing technology such as drones or
AI-based systems to identify and target areas with high waste accu­
mulation can make cleaning operations more efficient and targeted.
By integrating these elements, cleaning operations can play a vital
role in effectively managing fashion waste, preventing environmental
degradation, and maintaining the aesthetic and health of public spaces
and natural environments.
Adapting these strategies to the Caribbean of Colombia context is
crucial, considering factors like local culture, economic conditions, and
existing infrastructure. Collaboration with local communities and
stakeholders ensures that the strategies are not only effective but also
sustainable in the long term. This might include organizing community
workshops or collaborating with local environmental groups to tailor
approaches to specific needs and conditions.
5. Conclusions
The investigation of FW along the central Caribbean coast of
Colombia highlights the substantial environmental implications associ­
ated with the global apparel industry. This industry's considerable eco­
nomic contribution is counterbalanced by its environmental
ramifications. The textile sector in Colombia, constituting a notable
portion of the national GDP, is paralleled by a significant volume of
fashion waste generation. This dichotomy accentuates the necessity for
integrating economic development with environmental conservation.
This work shows varied degrees of fashion waste accumulation across
distinct beach typologies, signify the complex interplay between
anthropogenic activities, coastal geomorphology, and ecological integ­
rity. The heterogeneity in fashion waste distribution across diverse
beach classifications - remote, village, rural, urban, and resort - demands
waste management strategies that are congruent with the specific at­
tributes and challenges of each beach category.
The detrimental effects of fashion waste extend beyond accumula­
tion, encompassing microplastic pollution, chemical leaching, alteration
of habitat structures, and facilitation of invasive species incorporations.
These impacts are particularly pronounced in coastal ecosystems, where
fashion waste not only disrupts natural processes but also poses direct
threats to fauna through entanglement and ingestion hazards. Focusing
on the central Caribbean coast of Colombia, this study offers critical
insights into these impacts, with broader implications for coastal regions
worldwide. Methodologically, the application of analytical tools such as
the Apparel Index (AI) and Fashion Waste Pollution Index (FWPI),
combined with Hierarchical Cluster Analysis and Principal Components
Analysis, provides a robust framework for assessing fashion waste's
N. Rangel-Buitrago and A. Gracia C.
impact. This approach elucidates the variation in pollution levels across
different beach types and evaluates the efficacy of prevailing waste
management practices. These analytical methods serve as pivotal in­
struments in guiding policy development, enabling local and national
authorities to formulate more efficient strategies for fashion waste
management.
The identification of primary fashion waste sources - riverine trans­
port, tourism activities, and inadequately managed sewage systems -
underscores the imperative for an integrated approach to waste man­
agement. The study underscores the significance of coastal dynamics,
including longshore currents and oceanic movements, in the trans­
portation and destiny of fashion waste, highlighting the need to consider
geographical and climatological factors in devising waste management
solutions. Variability in waste accumulation between exposed and
sheltered beaches, as well as among different beach typologies, indicates
that both environmental conditions and anthropogenic factors consid­
erably influence fashion waste distribution. This understanding is vital
for developing targeted interventions to mitigate fashion waste's impacts
on coastal ecosystems.
This study advocates for a multifaceted strategy in managing fashion
waste, encompassing sustainable production methods, circular economy
principles, recycling and upcycling initiatives, heightened consumer
awareness, comprehensive policy frameworks, and technological inno­
vation. The global fashion industry, with its substantial environmental
footprint, necessitates an urgent transition towards sustainable practices
to mitigate its impact on marine ecosystems and beyond. Specifically, in
Colombia, the implementation of tailored waste management strategies,
cognizant of varying site types and exposure levels, is essential. This
requires a nuanced comprehension of the local context and challenges,
coupled with stakeholder collaboration, to ensure the strategies' long-
term sustainability and efficacy. The insights derived from this study
provide a foundational model for addressing the fashion waste chal­
lenge, not only in Colombia but also in coastal regions globally, where
harmonizing economic growth with ecological conservation is increas­
ingly imperative.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Nelson Rangel-Buitrago: Writing – review & editing, Writing –
original draft, Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Software, Re­
sources, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation, Funding
acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. C.
Adriana Gracia: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft,
Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Software, Resources, Project
administration, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition,
Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
This work is a contribution from “Geología, Geofísica y Procesos
Marino-Costeros”, Universidad del Atlantico.
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