INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

What is Statistics
9 Statistics is all about converting data into useful information to solve a problem
9 Statistics is concerned with scientific methods for collecting, organizing,
summarizing, presenting and analyzing data as well as deriving valid conclusions and
making reasonable decisions on the basis of this analysis.

Collecting Organising Summarizing Present Interpreting

data data data data data
 Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
Descriptive statistics
• Uses the data to provide descriptions of the population, either
through numerical calculations or graphs or tables.
• The process of collecting, compiling, summarizing, and
presenting data into graphical forms such as charts, graphs,
tables or numerical form such as averages and percentages
derived from them so that one can evaluate the data set easily.
• Example:
a) The percentage growth of Malaysia’s population from one
decade to the next
b)The average income of the 104 families in Maju Berhad is
RM 28 673 per annum
Inferential statistics
• Makes inferences and predictions about a population based on
a sample of data taken from the population in question.
• A decision, estimate, prediction, or generalization about a
population based on a sample. It consists of methods that use
sample results to help make decisions or predictions about the
population such as estimation, hypothesis testing, probability,
regression and etc.
• Example:
a)Based on the sample survey by a lecturer at a higher
learning institution, only 45% of diploma graduates further
their studies in the Bachelor’s program in local IPTA.
b)Department of Labour uses the average income of a sample
of several hundreds workers to estimates the averages income
of all 3 million workers.
Statistical Terms
y Research/Survey – A study that is done using the statistical methods in order to understand certain
problem.
y Element/Experimental units – the objects either people or things on which measurements in taken.
y Population – All elements under study either living or non-living object.
y Sample – subset or part of population.
y Sampling – the process of selecting sample from the interest population.
y Sampling frame – a list of sampling units used to select the sample.
y Sampling unit – the elements listed in the frame.
y Pilot survey – A study done on a small scale before the actual survey.
y Sample survey – A study done based on sample.
y Census – A study done on the entire population.
y Parameters – A summary measure/characteristics obtained from population.
y Statistics – A summary measure/characteristics obtained from sample.
y Data – A collection of observations, measurements or information obtained from study that is carried out.
y Variable/Attribute – Characteristics of the population under study.
 TYPES OF VARIABLES
y A variable is an attribute that describe a person, place, thing or idea. The value of the variable can “vary” from
one entity to another.
y Random variables and data can be classified into two main categories

measured according to their

specific categories or
characteristics.
Qualitative
variable Example:
gender (male, female), marital status
(single, married), races (Malay,
Indian, Chinese), grade (A, B, C)
Types of
Variable
Example:
assume only
Discrete no. of student, no of car,
exact values
no of book
Quantitative
variable Example:
can be expressed in a
Continuous certain degree of Distance traveled litters of
accuracy petrol, weight and height of
children.
LEVEL/SCALE OF MEASUREMENT
Level of measurement Example
Nominal Gender
x Classifies objects into categories Race
Religion
Ordinal Level of education
x Classified and rank the objects Stage of cancer
Agreement level
Interval Temperatures
x The value of interval variables cannot be meaningful multiplied or divided Shoe size
IQ scores

Ratio Salary
x Has meaningful zero point Weight
x The value of interval variables can be meaningful multiplied or divided Height
 SOURCES OF DATA

Data Explanation Advantage Disadvantage

Primary Data x First hand data x Accurate x Time consuming
x Researcher carried out the x Reliable x Costly
research and obtained the x Up to date x Requires a lot of man
data directly from power
respondent

Secondary Data x Data obtained from another x Less time x May not meet our
sources x Less Effort specific objective
x Inexpensive data
sources
 DATA COLLECTION METHOD
Advantage Disadvantage
Personal ƒ Obtained higher percentages of response than other ƒ The cost is high (pay interviewers, salary, travelling etc)
interview/ methods ƒ Expression of researcher can lead to bias
face to face ƒ Allows the interviewer to clarify any terms that aren’t
interview understood by the respondent

Telephone ƒ This method provide information from wide geographical ƒ Interviewers have limitation in asking questions
access ƒ Lower response rate
ƒ The process of interviewing quicker and less expensive
Direct ƒ The researcher will get the answer spontaneously and get ƒ Time consuming
observation the answer correctly ƒ Validity and reliability may be problematic
ƒ Requires skilled observer
ƒ Does not provide complete information for more complex jobs

Questionnair ƒ Cheaper than personal interviews ƒ Normally, the rate of response is quite low
e ƒ The research coverage is wider ƒ It may be biased because only particular types of people will reply
ƒ No interviewer influence ƒ Only very simple questions can be asked
ƒ The respondent has more time to think of proper response ƒ Not able to interact with the respondent
Sampling Technique
WHY NEED SAMPLING?
Sampling is required whenever the process of implementing the research become costing and timely.

‫ ض‬Simple random sampling

Every elements in the
Probability sampling
population has equal
chance to be selected as
sample.
(SRS)
‫ ض‬Systematic sampling
‫ ض‬Stratified sampling

Sampling technique ‫ ض‬Cluster sampling

Not all elements in the
Non-probability population has equal
sampling chance to be selected as
sample.
‫ ض‬Quota sampling
‫ ض‬Convenience sampling
‫ ض‬Judgmental sampling
‫ ض‬Snowball sampling
 PROBABILITY
Y SAMPLING
Simple
e Random
m Samplingg (SRS)
¾ Each item has the same chance of being selected as a sample.
¾ Characteristic of SRS
a) Target population must homogenous
b) Must have complete sampling frame
¾ Example
i) Lucky Draw method
ii) Random Number
Population : 12 students
Sample size : 4 students
 Systematic Sampling
A sample obtained by selecting every kth member of the population where k is a counting number

Step
1. Identify the population size (N), and sample size (n).
2. Obtained the range k by dividing the population size by the sample size. Sampling Interval,

3. Randomly select one element th element is selected.

N from the first k elements in the list (using SRS). Suppose the r
k
4. Lastly sample every kth element n in the population begins with the r element until a sample of size n obtained.
r th, (r+k)th, (r+2k)th, ..., (r+(n-1)k)th

Population : 12 students N = 12
Sample size : 4 students n=4

ே ଵଶ
k= = =3
௡ ସ

Let say we randomly choose to starts with second

students

Student no 2,5,8 and 11 will be selected

Stratified
d Sampling
y Stratified random sampling
y Applicable for population that is categorized such as according to sex, races, etc.
y Characteristics of the population:
Step 1: Group the students based on course
y Elements in each stratum are homogeneous Group 1 : Tourism
y Elements between the strata are heterogeneous Group 2 : Foodservice
Group 3 : Culinary

Step 2: Find the number of sample for each

group
ଷ
Want to select 4 students Tourism= ×4=1
ଵଶ
Population : 12 students ଺
Foodservice= ×4=2
Sample size : 4 students ଵଶ
ଷ
Culinary= ×4=1
ଵଶ

Step 3: Choose randomly using SRS or

Systematic Sampling from each strata (course)
 Clusterr Sampling
Applicable for a population that is divided into homogeneous or similar cluster. Elements in the cluster are heterogeneous.
How to use cluster sampling?
y A population is divided into clusters (using naturally occurring geographic or other boundaries)
y Then clusters are randomly selected.
y A sample is collected by taking all elements in the selected clusters.

Population : 6 campus Randomly choose two campus

Sample size : 2 campus using SRS or Systematic
Sampling
Non-Probability Sampling
Non-Probability
Description
Sampling
Convenience ¾ The selection of elements or sampling units is left primarily to the interviewer
sampling ¾ Recommended for:
a. Pilot study
b. Generating idea
c. Insights/opinion
d. Hypothesis/conclusion
Judgemental ¾ Population elements selected based on the judgement or expertise of the researcher. He believes
sampling the elements are represents of the population of interest
Snowball ¾ An initial group of respondent is selected usually at random and were asked to recommend other
sampling who belongs to the target population of interest.
¾ The initial sample/subject selected using probability sampling
¾ The respondents, having the similar characteristics
Quota sampling ¾ Similar to the convenience sampling except the number allocated for each group of respondents is
based on the population statistics.