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Perceived service quality and life satisfaction: The mediating role of the
actor's satisfaction-with-event

Article in International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship · July 2012

DOI: 10.1108/IJSMS-13-04-2012-B003

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Perceived service quality and life satisfaction:
the mediating role of the actor’s
satisfaction-with-event
Keywords
positive psychology
corporate responsibility
service quality

Lung Hung Chen

Assistant Professor, Department of Recreation and Leisure Industry

Management, National Taiwan Sports University, Taiwan
Correspondence address: PO Box 59182, Taipei 100, Taiwan
Email: fjudragon@gmail.com
Mei-Yen Chen
Professor and Director, Department of Recreation
and Leisure Industry Management, College of Management
National Taiwan Sports University, Taiwan
Tel: +886 3 328 3201 Email: meiyen686@gmail.com
Yun-Ci Ye
Doctoral student, Institute of Physical Education
National Taiwan Sports University, Taiwan
I-Wu Tung
Associate Professor, Department of Leisure Management
Tungnan University, Taiwan
Chih-Fu Cheng
Professor, Department of Physical Education
National Taiwan Normal University,Taiwan
RESEARCH PAPER
Abstract
The aim of this study was to integrate the hierarchical
model of the perceived service quality (PSQ) theory with
the bottom-up theory of satisfaction. It was hypothesised
that satisfaction with sporting events would mediate the
relationship between PSQ and life satisfaction. Study 1
was conducted to translate the Perceived Service Quality
questionnaire (PSQQ) (Brady & Cronin, 2011) into
Chinese and to validate it for sporting events.
Study 2 was conducted to examine the main
hypothesis. The results indicated that satisfaction-with-
event partially mediated the relationship between PSQ
and life satisfaction. The results are discussed in terms
of both the examined theories.

Shen Tung
Professor, Department of Sports and Leisure Acknowledgement
National Quemoy University, Taiwan This study was supported by a grant from the National Science
Council of Taiwan made to Mei-Yen Chen.
Peer reviewed (NSC98-2410-H179-005 & NSC 99-2410-H-179 -012)

Executive summary

The links between perceived service quality (PSQ) economic outcomes (such as repeat purchase)
and satisfaction in a sporting events context have and positively influence investment, finance and
received much attention. Empirical evidence has been switching behaviour. However, social outcomes (e.g.
accumulated which indicates that these links enhance life satisfaction) in a sporting event context have only

l JULY 2012 l International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship 249

 PSQ and life satisfaction
attracted minimal research attention. Researchers have
argued that this may be because social effects may not
be aligned with organisations’ profit interests (Dagger &
Sweeney, 2006; Kotler, 1984).
Based on Thwaites’ (1999) theatrical analogy –
actors, audience and theatre – previous studies have
examined the PSQ/satisfaction relationship, in a
sporting event setting, from the audience (spectator)
perspective (Alexandris, Zahariadis, Tsorbatzoudis
& Grouios, 2004; Theodorakis, Alexandris & Ko,
2011; Tokuyama & Greenwell, 2011). Few studies,
however, have examined this relationship from the
actor (participant) perspective. The primary goal of
this study, therefore, was to examine the relationship
RESEARCH PAPER
between PSQ and life satisfaction via the actor’s
satisfaction-with-event.
To test the hypothesised model, we conducted two
independent studies using cross-section survey design.
In Study 1 we employed confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA) to examine the psychometric properties of the
Perceived Service Quality questionnaire (PSQQ) – with
some slight wording modification for the sporting
events context. Data were collected from 436 athletes
attending the National Middle School Athletic Games
(NMSAG) in Nantou County, Taiwan, on 26-30 April
2008. The results indicated that the PSQQ provided an
adequate fit to the data and demonstrated appropriate
psychometric properties.
In Study 2, in order to conclude the pattern of
mediation in the proposed model, we conducted
structural equation modelling to compete the fit index
between the full mediation model and the partial
mediation model. The study sample was composed
of 482 athletes in the National Intercollegiate Athletic
Games (NIAG) in Changhua County, Taiwan, on
9-13 May 2008. The results showed that the partially
mediated model offered a better fit than the fully
mediated model. The R-squared values of the actor’s
satisfaction-with-event and life satisfaction were
modest. Moreover, in order to minimise the potential
for common method variance (CMV) (Podsakoff
& Organ, 1986), we took several procedural and
statistical remedies. Such remedies included
250 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
respondent anonymity, psychological separation,
reducing item ambiguity, and Harman’s single-factor
test i.e. both exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and CFA
approaches (Podsakfoff et al, 2003).
The conclusions of this study have significance in
terms of both theoretical contribution and practical
implication. In respect of theoretical contribution, this
study utilises the PSQ theory and the bottom-up theory
of satisfaction to investigate the relation between PSQ
and life satisfaction. The study found that the actor’s
satisfaction-with-event partially mediated both PSQ and
life satisfaction. This indicates that sports participants
who experience good service quality are more likely
to be satisfied by a specific sporting event – and this,
in turn, will enhance these individuals’ well-being.
The study acts to highlight the actor’s perspective in
order to broaden previous sports marketing studies
(e.g. Ko & Pastore, 2005; Koo et al, 2009; Miyoung
& Haemoon, 1998; Theodorakis, Alexandris & Ko,
2011; Tsitskari, Tsiotras & Tsiotras, 2006; Westerbeek
& Shilbury, 2003).
In practical terms, this study provides a basis
for service providers to design and implement
specific positive service experience programmes.
Such programmes may allow participants to obtain
individual satisfaction in the service delivery process
of sporting events, thereby effectively increasing and
facilitating psychosocial benefits in order to influence
positive behavioural intention and loyalty.
Introduction
Customer PSQ has traditionally been an important
consideration in marketing. PSQ, across different
industries, is closely related to several factors,
including: customer satisfaction (Falk, Hammerschmidt
& Schepers, 2010; Ueltschy, Laroche, Tamilia &
Yannopoulos, 2004); commitment (Davis-Sramek,
Droge, Mentzer & Myers, 2009); loyalty (Chiou &
Droge, 2006); and repurchase intention (Lin, Lee
& Jen, 2008; Murray & Howat, 2002). With some
exceptions, the main aim of assessing service quality
l JULY 2012 l

is to gain insight into how to maximise an organisa-
tion’s profit. Although minimal research has been done
in this area, researchers have begun to reflect on the
possibility that the beneficial effects of PSQ might go
beyond an organisation’s profit interests (Dagger &
Sweeney, 2006; Kotler, 1984). For example, PSQ
could contribute to an individual’s well-being, such
as in life satisfaction. Research studies in this area
include Dagger and Sweeney’s (2006) work as well
as Kotler’s (1984) concept that well-being can be
enhanced through the exchange process between
service providers and consumers.
This study integrates Ko and Pastore’s (2005)
hierarchical model of PSQ and Andrew and Withey’s
(1976) bottom-up theory of satisfaction using data
from sporting events held in Taiwan to explain the
possible linkage between the two constructs. In
addition, the study investigates the proposal that
satisfaction regarding a specific experience or event
(defined here as ‘satisfaction-with-event’) could
possibly be a mediator of the relationship of PSQ and
life satisfaction, based on the bottom-up theory of
satisfaction and previous findings (Chen, Ye, Chen
& Tung, 2010). Through this examination, a clearer
picture could be obtained of how consumer well-being
could be enhanced through marketing activities.
Theory of service quality
PSQ can be defined as “the difference between what
is expected from each of the service dimensions and
what a consumer perceives he or she receives from
them” (Shonk & Chelladurai, 2008, p.588). Based
on this definition, the smaller the discrepancy, the
higher the service quality the individual will perceive.
Previous studies have proposed several models as
researchers’ guidelines: the two-dimensional model
(Grönroos,1984); the three-dimensional model (Rust
& Oliver,1994); and the SERVQUAL five-dimensional
model (Parasuraman, Zeithaml & Berry, 1985). A
further model for PSQ was proposed by Brady and
Cronin (2001) which was hierarchical as well as
multidimensional. This model has been used as a
theoretical framework to better account for complexity
l JULY 2012 l International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
PSQ and life satisfaction
in individual perception (Dabholkar et al, 1995).
Brady and Cronin’s model of PSQ utilises three main
latent constructs to form the basis of the construct of
service quality: interaction quality, service environment
quality and outcome quality. Interaction quality can
be understood as the interaction between service
providers and customers, as well as interactions
between consumers. This dimension emphasises that
a service’s processes may also be more important
than its outcome. The physical environment quality
encompasses how the physical environment can
influence customers’ service evaluations and how that
service often requires the customer to be involved
in the process – i.e. that surroundings can influence
RESEARCH PAPER
customers’ perceptions of service quality. The third
dimension (outcome quality) focuses on the outcome
of the service act and on what consumers gain
from the service. This dimension can be treated as
the service product that is directly relevant to the
customer’s evaluation once the service is complete
(Rust & Oliver, 1994).
It should be noted that most previous research in
the service industry has been carried out from the
customer perspective (e.g. Gowan, Seymour, Ibarreche
& Lackey, 2001; Kuo, Wu & Deng, 2009). Thwaites’
(1999) theatrical analogy suggests that PSQ in sports-
related events can be investigated from three different
perspectives: actor, audience and theatre. The actor
is the sports participant, the audience is the customer
and the theatre is the event manager. However, service
quality cannot be investigated in all industries from
the actor’s perspective and the fact that it can be for
sporting events is one of their most important charac-
teristics. Shonk and Chelladurai (2008) indicate that
individuals with different concerns can be interested
in different dimensions of service quality. For example,
athletes who participate in sports events may be
more concerned with outcome quality (e.g. how the
schedule is arranged) than with other dimensions (Ko
& Pastore, 2005). As research is rarely conducted from
an actor’s perspective, the information that this study
adds to this theoretical gap may provide a significant
contribution to PSQ theory.
251
 PSQ and life satisfaction
Integrating the hierarchical model of perceived
service quality and the bottom-up theory of
satisfaction
Most research on service quality theory has focused
on how to maximise an organisation’s profit.
However, providing high service quality can increase
an organisation’s profit as well as contributing to
individuals’ well-being. The bottom-up theory of
satisfaction suggests that individuals have beliefs
in areas of their lives that are laden with values
(Andrews & Withey, 1976). Individuals hold these
beliefs in relation to employment, family, education,
free time and other aspects of life. Under this theory,
it is assumed that satisfaction with respect to events
RESEARCH PAPER
can influence satisfaction in other domains as well
as influencing global life satisfaction (Lee, Sirgy,
Larsen & Wright, 2002). Customer satisfaction
can be conceptualised as one form of satisfaction-
with-event. Global life satisfaction could be seen as
satisfaction assessed in various situations and in terms
of various events. Previous studies have provided
direct and indirect evidence to support the positive
link between lower levels of satisfaction and overall
life satisfaction (Headey, Veenhoven & Wearing,
1991; Leonardi, Spazzafumo & Marcellini, 2005;
Leonardi, Spazzafumo, Marcellini & Gagliardi, 1999;
Scherpenzeel & Saris, 1996).
The bottom-up theory of satisfaction proposes that
PSQ is a possible antecedent of life satisfaction that
can trigger lower levels of evaluation (e.g. satisfaction
with sporting event). In addition, Diener, Emmons,
Larsen and Griffin (1985) suggest that judgment of
satisfaction results from “what is thought to be an
appropriate standard” (p. 71). In other words, level of
satisfaction is related to how much discrepancy exists
between the standard an individual holds internally
and their expectations (Wu & Yao, 2006). It can be
supposed, therefore, that an individual’s perceived
degree of service quality can be understood with
reference to, and in comparison with, the standard
they hold internally. When the PSQ is high, the
252 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
discrepancy between expectation and the standard
held internally will be smaller and satisfaction-
with-event will be higher. In a number of studies,
researchers found that PSQ was closely linked to
satisfaction-with-event (e.g. An & Noh, 2009;
Koo et al, 2009; Kuo et al, 2009; Lenka, Suar &
Mohapatra, 2009, 2010; Mägi & Julander, 1996;
Miyoung & Haemoon, 1998; Oh, 1999;
Theodorakis, Alexandris & Ko, 2011; Wang, Lo &
Yang, 2004; Westerbeek & Shilbury, 2003).
This study theorises that when the PSQ theory and
the bottom-up theory of satisfaction are combined, PSQ
can be expected to be associated with satisfaction-
with-event, as well as with global life satisfaction. Two
independent studies were conducted to test this. The
first study tested the validity of the questionnaire used
in both studies – the PSQQ (Brady & Cronin, 2001).
The PSQQ was originally developed for use with a
sample of employees from various industries whose
jobs were not related to sport but involved preparing
fast food, providing dry cleaning services, developing
photographs and working at amusement parks. It
was not clear, therefore, if the questionnaire could
be applied effectively in a sporting events context.
The aim of Study 1 was to use CFA to examine the
psychometric properties of the PSQQ (with slight
wording modification to adapt it to sporting events)
with a sample of athletes. It was expected that the
modified PSQQ would exhibit satisfactory reliability
and validity. If the questionnaire were valid, it would
increase confidence in conducting Study 2. In Study
2, it was hypothesised that satisfaction-with-event
would mediate the relationship between PSQ and life
satisfaction for a sample of athletes, using structural
equation modelling.
l JULY 2012 l

Study 1
Methodology
Sample
The sample was made up of 436 young Taiwanese
athletes (Male=276; Female=160) who participated
in the NMSAG. The age range of the participants
was 13-18 years (M=17.4, SD=3.2). Participants
were competitors in sports including track and field
(n=72), table tennis (n=64), badminton (n=58),
tennis (n=49), volleyball (n=42), taekwondo (n=39),
archery (n=35), swimming (n=35), judo (n=22) and
handball (n=20). The athletes reported 1.5 to 2 years
of competitive experience at interschool level.
Procedure
Data collection was via self-administered
questionnaires completed by athletes at NMSAG.
Researchers collected data on the last day of the
four-day NMSAG wearing official T-shirts to identify
themselves. A research site was also set up. After
obtaining consent from the athletes, the survey
administrators explained the aim of the study
and requirements. The questionnaire took 20-25
minutes to complete. When the questionnaires were
completed, the athletes were asked to return them
in the provided envelope to the survey administrator.
Participation was voluntary. A convenience sampling
procedure was used to select 600 athletes who
completed the survey during the event, and 436
questionnaires (a response rate of 72.67%) were
usable for further analyses.
Instruments
Perceived Service Quality questionnaire (PSQQ)
Participants’ overall service quality was assessed
using the PSQQ (Brady & Cronin, 2001). This uses a
three-order factor conceptual model. The PSQQ has
nine first-order factors, containing a total of 27 items
that tap into various meanings: attitude (e.g. “You can
count on the employees at NMSAG being friendly”);
behaviour (e.g. “I can count on NMSAG’s employees
taking actions to address my needs”); expertise (e.g.
l JULY 2012 l International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
PSQ and life satisfaction
“You can count on NMSAG’s employees knowing
their jobs”); ambient conditions (e.g. “At NMSAG, you
can rely on there being a good atmosphere”); design
(e.g. “NMSAG’s layout never fails to impress me”);
social factors (e.g. “I find that NMSAG’s other athletics
consistently leave me with a good impression of its
service”); waiting time (e.g. “Waiting time at NMSAG
is predictable”); tangibles (e.g. “I am consistently
pleased with the mascot at NMSAG”); and valence
(e.g. “When I leave NMSAG, I usually feel that I had a
good experience”).
The PSQQ has three second-order factors, each
including three items: interaction quality (attitude,
behaviour, expertise); physical environment quality
RESEARCH PAPER
(ambient conditions, design, social factors); and
outcome quality (waiting time, tangibles, valence).
These items were translated into Chinese, as part of
Study 1, using the usual method of translation and
back translation (Brislin, 1970). The modified PSQQ
was also reviewed by four sports management experts
and a small group of athletes to ensure its face validity.
Each item was to be rated on a seven-point
Likert-type scale with anchors (1–Strongly disagree and
7–Strongly agree). Cronbach’s alphas were between
.78 and .89.
Data analysis
A CFA was done with LISREL 8.7 to estimate the
third-order structure of the 27-item, 3-subdimensional,
3-primary dimensional, 1-overall dimensional model
of PSQ. The following indices were employed to
examine the fit of the model: the ratio of chi-square
per degree of freedom (x2/df); root mean square error
of approximation (RMSEA); standardised root mean
square residual (SRMR); comparative fit index (CFI);
and non-normal fit index (NNFI). A ratio for chi-square
per degree of freedom ranging between two and
three indicates an acceptable fit (Carmines & McIver,
1981). The other criteria used here were proposed by
Hu and Bentler (1999); these criteria were SRMSR ≤
.08, RMSEA ≤ .06, CFI and NNFI ≥ .95.
Item and factor reliability were also analysed
to examine the acceptability of the measurement
253
 PSQ and life satisfaction
model. Factor loadings of the measures onto their
corresponding constructs were all greater than .70,
indicating an adequate degree of individual item
reliability (Hair et al, 2005). Fornell and Larcker’s
(1981) measure was used; all composite reliability
values exceeded .70 (Hair et al, 2005), which
indicates adequate internal consistency for the scales.
Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values that meet
or exceed .50 indicate that the items represent the
construct well (Fornell & Larker, 1981).
Results
Confirmatory factor analysis
For each item, the skewness and kurtosis values
RESEARCH PAPER
were between -1.59 and 2.23, indicating
approximate normality. CFA was used to test the
measurement model, resulting in acceptable fit indices
(x2=665.34, p<.01, x2/df=2.13, RMSEA=0.051,
NNFI=0.99, CFI=0.99, SRMR=0.044), with factor
loadings between 0.67 and 0.94 (Figure 1).
The statistical significances of the estimated factor
loadings were examined to assess each construct’s
measurement. Composite reliability and the variance
found from that construct were also used. The
association between each indicator variable and its
respective latent variable was found to be statistically
significant (p<.01). Composite reliability signified
the degree that the indicator variable and its latent
variable suggest the common latent construct, which
ranged between .68 and .98. The extracted variance,
representing the amount of overall variance in the
indicators represented by the latent construct, was
between .46 and .94 (Fornell & Larker, 1981).
Finally, regarding estimates for the primary
dimension parameter, the coefficient from outcome
quality to perceived service quality (PSQ) (g=.94,
p<.01) was the highest, followed by the path from
physical environment quality to PSQ (g=.92, p<.01).
The coefficient of the path from interaction quality
to PSQ (g=.88, p<.01) was the lowest. Of the
subdimension and item parameter estimates, the
coefficients of the path were significant – ranging
from .67 to .92. Therefore, this evidence supported
254 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
the conclusion that the PSQQ possessed satisfactory
psychometric properties.
Study 2
Methodology
Sample
A total of 482 athletes (304 males and 178 females)
were selected who attended various universities in
Taiwan and had participated in NIAG. The students
ranged in age from 18 to 27 (M=21.7, SD=1.3);
the length of their competitive experience ranged
from 2 to 3.5 years. The sample was drawn from 10
sports teams: track and field, table tennis, badminton,
tennis, volleyball, taekwondo, archery, swimming,
judo and baseball. A quiet classroom was used to
administer the questionnaires. Confidentiality and
anonymity were assured. An envelope was provided to
return completed questionnaires.
Procedure
Data were collected using self-reported questionnaires
at the closing day of the eight-day NIAG. Firstly, the
coaches from each sporting team were contacted to
explain the purpose of the study and the instruments
that would be used. Next, meetings were held with
the athletes at their rest sites. After the objectives of
the survey had been explained to them, the athletes
completed the questionnaires. All athletes participated
willingly in the study. Convenience sampling was
used to select 620 athletes to complete the survey.
From this, a total of 482 athletes valid surveys were
collected, a response rate of 77.74%.
Instruments
The Perceived Service Quality questionnaire
The PSQQ (Brady & Cronin, 2001) was validated
in Study 1 and used in Study 2. Participants were
instructed to rate items based on experiences in the
NIAG (e.g. “When I leave NIAG, I usually feel that I
had a good experience”). The anchors were 1–Strongly
disagree and 7–Strongly agree. Cronbach’s alphas
ranged from .76 to .88 in Study 2.
l JULY 2012 l

The Chinese Satisfaction-With-Event scale
The Chinese version of the Satisfaction-With-Event
scale (C-SWE) (Lin & Hsu, 2008) was a modification
and translation of Kaplanidou & Vogt’s 2007
Satisfaction-With-Event scale (SWE), which assesses
the degree of satisfaction associated with event service
quality. The C-SWE was translated into English
and meaning and comparability were examined.
Cronbach’s alpha for the C-SWE was 0.80. A 7-point
Likert-type scale was used with anchors of 1–Strongly
disagree and 7–Strongly agree. The C-SWE has been
used in previous studies with Taiwanese samples and
its reliability reported (Chen et al, 2010). The internal
consistency for the C-SWE was sufficient in the
present study (a=.84).
The Satisfaction with Life scale
The Satisfaction with Life scale (SWLS) (Diener et
al, 1985) is a 5-item scale that accesses subjective
well-being in terms of the cognitive components.
When translated into Chinese (the Satisfaction with
Life scale – Taiwan version; Wu & Yao, 2006)
has been used widely with Taiwanese samples. Its
reliability and validity have been shown (e.g. Chen &
Kee, 2008; Chen et al, 2010; Chen & Ye et al, 2010;
Wu, Chen & Tsai, 2009a, 2009b; Wu, Tsai & Chen,
2009; Wu & Yao, 2008). A 7-point Likert-type scale
is used with anchors of 1–Strongly disagree and
7–Strongly agree. In this study, the internal
consistency for the SWLS was a=.77.
Data analysis
Structural equation modelling with maximum
likelihood (ML) estimation was used to estimate how
well each model fit the data using the LISREL 8.7
statistical package. The sample size was between
100 and 200 – maximum likelihood estimation
was therefore used (Hair et al, 2005). The two-step
approach was used to examine the theoretically
based models among the latent variables (Anderson &
Gerbing, 1988).
The first procedure entailed adopting CFA to test the
discriminant and convergent validity, as well as the
l JULY 2012 l International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
PSQ and life satisfaction
construct reliability of the overall measurement model.
However, following the 9-subdimensional model
(Brady & Cronin, 2001) to increase the ratio of sample
size to free parameter, the 27 items of the PSQQ scale
were combined to create nine composite indicators for
the sub-dimensions. The overall measurement model,
therefore, was made up of the one second-order latent
variable (i.e. PSQQ) and the two first-order latent
variables (i.e. SWE and SWLS). The second procedure
involved using structural equation modelling (SEM) to
test the mediated models. To perform a rigorous test of
the hypotheses, we also assessed the substitute nested
model. Sixteen manifest variables were included in
each model; these variables corresponded to three
RESEARCH PAPER
latent variables (i.e. PSQ, satisfaction-with-event and
life satisfaction). All possible paths between the latent
variables were contained in the partially mediated
model. The fully mediated model was nested within
the partially mediated model.
The psychometric properties and competitive
comparisons of the hypothesised model were based
on fit indices. RMSEA, NNFI, CFI and SRMR were
also used (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Two indices were
then used to compare the relative fit between nested
models: the expected cross-validation index (ECVI)
and the chi-square difference test (Dx2) (MacCallum,
Browne & Sugawara, 1996). The R-squared (R2)
values of the latent endogenous variables were
reported as values of variance explained by the latent
exogenous and endogenous variables.
Results
Discriminant validity, convergent validity
and reliability
To examine discriminant validity regarding the three
variables of PSQQ (second-order factor) and of the
SWE, and SWLS (first-order factors), we employed
two methods based on CFA. Firstly, we estimated the
AVE for a pair of variables to verify whether they were
higher than the shared variance (referred to squared
255
 RESEARCH PAPER

FIguRE 1 Factor loading of PSQQ for Study 1

256
SQ

0.88 0.92 0.94

InTERACTIon PHYSICAL ouTCoME

0.85 0.90 0.86 0.89 0.83 0.80

0.92 0.87 0.88
PSQ and life satisfaction

ATTITuDE BEHAvIouR EXPERTISE AMBIEnT DESIgn SoCIAL WAITIng TAngIBLES vALEnCE

0.84 0.86 0.76 0.76 0.82 0.76 0.73 0.73 0.81 0.83 0.83 0.81 0.84 0.74 0.78 0.67 0.83 0.76
0.87 0.83 0.84 0.77 0.82 0.82 0.86 0.80 0.89

AT1 AT2 AT3 BE1 BE2 AT3 EX1 EX2 EX3 AM1 AM2 AM3 DE1 DE2 DE3 So1 So2 So3 WA1 WA2 WA3 TA1 TA2 TA3 vA1 vA2 vA3

International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship

JULY 2012 l
l

TABLE 1 Discriminant validity, convergent validity and reliability for Study 2
1 2
PSQQ
SWE 0.43*
(0.18) --
[0.35; 0.51]
SWLS 0.40* 0.40*
(0.16) (0.16)
[0.32; 0.48] [0.32; 0.48]
Note: Construct correlations are located off the diagonal. Shared variances are in parentheses.
95% two confidence intervals(±1.96 standard errors) around phi correlation in square bracket.
AVE: Average Variance Extracted; CR: Composite Reliability.
*p<.01
correlation) between the specific pair of variables
(Fornell & Larcker, 1981). As shown in Table 1,
the AVE for each variable was much larger than
shared variance with any other construct, indicating
discriminant validity among these variables. Secondly,
we adopted 95% confidence interval (plus or minus
1.96 standard errors) for phi (y) correlation between
the pair of variables to determine whether they did
not contain 1.00 (Bagozzi, Yi & Phillips, 1991).
The three factor correlations ranged from 0.32 to
0.51, which supported additional evidence for the
discriminant validity (see Table 1). Together, these
findings demonstrased that the study variables should
be treated as distinct variables.
Furthermore, all factor loadings of the three variables
were highly significant (p<.01); they ranged from
0.60 to 0.99, with the AVE of 0.90 for PSQQ, 0.72 for
SWE and 0.64 for SWLS, respectively. In addition, the
composite reliabilities of all variables ranged between
0.84 and 0.96, and they exceeded the 0.60 benchmark
(Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). Therefore, these variables
exhibited sufficient convergent validity and reliability.
In summary, the results show that the variables in our
study possess adequate psychometric properties.
l JULY 2012 l International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
PSQ and life satisfaction
3 AvE CR
0.90 0.96
0.72 0.84
-- 0.64 0.90
RESEARCH PAPER
Correlational analysis
Table 2 records the means, SDs and correlations
of this study. In terms of the PSQQ scale, the 9
composite subdimensions had scores well above the
midpoint (M=5.45–4.99; SD=.95–1.14); both of
the two SWE items, as well as the five SWLS items,
had scores above the scale midpoints (SWE items:
M=5.61–5.86; SD=1.03–1.14; SWLS items:
M=5.00–5.34; SD=1.16–1.42). The correlation
matrix shows that the PSQ, SWE and SWLS
were positively intercorrelated (rPSQ=.50 to .76;
rSWE=.72; rSWLS=.49 to .83; ps <.01).
Mediation analysis
The hypothesised model was examined using SEM. The
model that was partially mediated showed that a direct
effect on life satisfaction exists with regard to PSQ;
moreover, an indirect effect exists regarding satisfaction-
with-event. However, the fully mediated model differed
from the partially mediated model in that there was no
direct effect of PSQ on life satisfaction. Only an indirect
path through satisfaction-with-event was found.
Table 3 shows the fit indices of the two models. The
indices for both the fully mediated and the partially
mediated models suggest reasonable fit. For the fully
mediated model, the values for the RMSEA, CFI, NNFI
and SRMR were all acceptable (Hu & Bentler, 1999).
257
 RESEARCH PAPER

TABLE 2 Descriptive statistics correlation matrix for Study 2

258
M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1. ATTITuDE 5.45 0.99 1.00
2. BEHAvIouR 5.21 1.00 0.71* 1.00
3. EXPERTISE 5.27 0.95 0.69* 0.76* 1.00
4. AMBIEnT 5.29 1.06 0.53* 0.52* 0.54* 1.00
5. DESIgn 4.99 1.14 0.50* 0.57* 0.57* 0.55* 1.00
6. SoCIAL 5.22 1.08 0.54* 0.62* 0.62* 0.57* 0.74* 1.00
7. WAITIng 5.34 1.01 0.60* 0.60* 0.60* 0.55* 0.52* 0.58* 1.00
8. TAngIBLE 5.27 0.99 0.63* 0.66* 0.64* 0.59* 0.59* 0.66* 0.70* 1.00
PSQ and life satisfaction

9. vALEnCE 5.18 1.03 0.58* 0.60* 0.61* 0.52* 0.55* 0.57* 0.56* 0.64* 1.00
10. SWE-ITEM1 5.61 1.14 0.29* 0.22* 0.22* 0.23* 0.13* 0.22* 0.27* 0.30* 0.20* 1.00
11.S WE-ITEM2 5.86 1.10 0.29* 0.23* 0.23* 0.25* 0.18* 0.26* 0.29* 0.34* 0.21* 0.72* 1.00

12. SWLS-ITEM1 5.14 1.36 0.25* 0.19* 0.23* 0.18* 0.16* 0.25* 0.30* 0.25* 0.20* 0.26* 0.24* 1.00

13. SWLS-ITEM2 5.20 1.33 0.26* 0.21* 0.24* 0.21* 0.20* 0.26* 0.31* 0.28* 0.25* 0.32* 0.29* 0.83* 1.00
14. SWLS-ITEM3 5.42 1.33 0.29* 0.24* 0.29* 0.22* 0.20* 0.26* 0.30* 0.33* 0.26* 0.30* 0.35* 0.79* 0.83* 1.00
15. SWLS-ITEM4 5.34 1.16 0.06** 0.05** 0.07** 0.06** 0.03** 0.07** 0.10* 0.08** 0.05** 0.07** 0.04** 0.49* 0.52* 0.53* 1.00
16. SWLS-ITEM5 5.00 1.42 0.13* 0.11* 0.14* 0.12* 0.12* 0.17* 0.17* 0.18* 0.17* 0.12* 0.14* 0.51* 0.53* 0.55* 0.70* 1.00

*p<.01

International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship

JULY 2012 l
l

TABLE 3 Results of model comparison and path parameter for Study 2 (n=482)
MoDEL df
χ x2 χDx2 CFI
PARTIALLY 98 340.84 0.97
MEDIATED MoDEL
FuLLY MEDIATED 99 360.81 19.97* 0.97
MoDEL
* p<.01
Note: PSQ=Perceived Service Quality, SWE=Satisfaction-With-Event; SWLS=Satisfaction With Life Scale.
The path coefficients were all significant. Specifically,
the path from PSQ to SWE was .41; the path from
SWE to SWLS was .39. For the partially mediated
model, the RMSEA, CFI, NNFI and SRMR all indicated
a good fit. The path coefficient between PSQ and SWE
was .39; the path coefficient between PSQ and SWLS
was .25; and the path coefficient between SWE and
SWLS was .27. All path coefficients were significant.
Additionally, the R-squared values were 0.16 and
0.15 for SWE and SWLS separately in the fully
mediated model. The R-squared values were 0.15 and
0.20 for SWE and SWLS respectively in the partially
mediated model.
Furthermore, both the fully and partially mediated
models shown in Table 4 were examined using paths
hypothesised from the measurement model. In both
models, all path coefficients were significant.
Relative to the degree of path coefficients, there was
no significant difference. However, the significant
difference in chi-square between Model A and
Model B (Dx2=19.97, df=1, p<.01) suggests that
Model A was better. Although Model B was more
parsimonious, Model A was superior based on the
lower ECVI criterion value. Therefore, it was concluded
that the satisfaction-with-event played only a partially
mediating role in the relationship between PSQ and life
satisfaction.
l JULY 2012 l International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
PSQ and life satisfaction
nnFI RMSEA SRMR ECvI PSQ -> SWE SWE ->SWLS PSQ -> SWLS
0.97 0.072 0.052 0.87 0.39* 0.27* 0.25*
0.97 0.074 0.079 0.90 0.41* 0.39* --
Common method variance
RESEARCH PAPER
We collected all variables of our study employing
the cross-section survey, using self-reports and
originating from the same source. Such measurements
are sources of CMV and the problems this method
has may have influenced the results (Podsakoff &
Organ, 1986). To decrease the potential influences of
common method bias, we adopted two procedural and
statistical remedies (Podsakfoff, MacKenzie, Lee &
Podsakoff, 2003).
The procedural remedies adopted were aimed
at protecting respondent anonymity, employing
psychological separation method and reducing item
ambiguity prior to data collection (Podsakfoff et al,
2003). For example, our questionnaire cover letter
guaranteed respondents’ absolute anonymity (i.e.
protecting respondent anonymity). In addition, the
introduction of each variable was eliminated and the
items were not classified by the variable. In this way,
the measurement of both the predictor and the criterion
variable were not associated (e.g. psychological
separation method). Finally, we pre-tested the survey
with experts, which helped us to recognise, and
substitute, any ambiguous words (i.e. reducing item
ambiguity).
We undertook the statistical remedies of Harman’s
single-factor test after collecting the data (Podsakfoff et
al, 2003). The two alternative approaches of Harman’s
single-factor test were EFA and CFA (Malhotra, Kim &
Patil, 2006). In the EFA technique, CMV bias exists
259
 PSQ and life satisfaction

TABLE 4 Results of measurement model for Study 2 (n=482)

InTERACTIon PHYSICAL ouTCoME SWE SWLS PSQ

QuALITY EnvIRonMEnT QuALITY

MEASuREMEnT PART (PARTIAL / FuLL MoDEL WITH CoMPLETELY STAnDARDISED ESTIMATES)

1. ATTITuDE 0.81 / 0.81

2. BEHAvIouR 0.87 / 0.87
3. EXPERTISE 0.86 / 0.86
4. AMBIEnT 0.70 / 0.70
5. DESIgn 0.82 / 0.82
6. SoCIAL 0.87 / 0.87
7. WAITIng 0.79 / 0.78
RESEARCH PAPER

8. TAngIBLE 0.86 / 0.86

9. vALEnCE 0.75 / 0.75
10. SWE-ITEM1 0.83 / 0.83
11. SWE-ITEM2 0.87 / 0.86
12. SWLS-ITEM1 0.88 / 0.88
13. SWLS-ITEM2 0.92 / 0.92
14. SWLS-ITEM3 0.90 / 0.90
15. SWLS-ITEM4 0.59 / 0.59
16. SWLS-ITEM5 0.61 / 0.61
17. InTERACTIon QuALITY 0.90 / 0.91
18. PHYSICAL EnvIRonMEnT QuALITY 0.89 / 0.89
19. ouTCoME QuALITY 0.99 / 0.99

Note: all estimates were significant at p<.01

if a single factor emanates from the un-rotated factor
analysis or if one general factor (i.e. the first) accounts
for most of the difference between variables (Podsakfoff
et al, 2003). When executing principal component
analysis, three factors emerged with eigenvalues
greater than 1.0 for our study. The first factor was
really a PSQQ construct as the PSQQ items for 0.789
were of the average loading. The non-PSQQ items
were only 0.141, so no general factor was obvious.
Additionally, the CFA technique referred to all manifest
items loaded on a single factor that expresses the
method effect via a CFA approach. If a single-factor
model fits the data, the CMV occurs (Malhotra et al,
2006). However, the single-factor model exhibited
a worse fit (x2(104)=2646.62, CFI=0.79,
NNFI=0.76, RMSEA=0.23) than the proposed
model in our study (x2(99)=375.83, CFI=0.97,
NNFI=0.96, RMSEA=0.07). Collectively, these
results for the CMV detection demonstrated further
evidence that the danger of CMV bias is minimal.

260 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship l JULY 2012 l


Discussion
Theoretical implications
This paper comprises two studies to examine the
hypothesis that the relationship between PSQ and life
satisfaction is mediated by satisfaction with sporting
events. Study 1 was designed to validate the PSQQ;
the results indicated that it possessed satisfactory
reliability and validity. The results of Study 2 also
supported the hypothesis that satisfaction-with-event
plays a mediating role, but only as a partial mediator.
The two studies provided fundamental and reliable
evidence in contributing to the understanding of how
PSQ is associated with the actor’s well-being.
Several interesting findings arose in the study.
Firstly, Study 1 used the data from a sample of
Taiwanese athletes to validate the PSQQ; its results
indicated that the theoretic three-order model was
supported by the data. The validation process used
was different from Brady and Cronin’s (2001) study,
in which several alternative models were used to
examine which model best fit the data when they
developed the PSQQ. However, it is suggested that the
hierarchical model possesses several advantages, such
as being more parsimonious and providing a simple
interpretation for a complex measurement structure,
as well as separating variance from measurement
errors (Gustafsson & Balke, 1993; Rindskopf &
Rose, 1988). Therefore, the authors chose to use the
three-order factor model to examine the validity of
PSQQ; the focus was practical application rather than
the development of a scale. Study 1 showed that the
PSQQ could be adapted for assessing PSQ of sporting
events with athletes who were actively involved in the
event. Validating the PSQQ is a small but important
contribution to the literature.
Secondly, sporting events provide a unique
opportunity to examine the PSQ of actors who are
actively involved in competitive sports. Few studies
have been conducted from the actor’s perspective.
This study differs from previous ones in that it
investigates PSQ from the perspective of the audience
(e.g. Gowan et al, 2001; Ko et al, 2009; Koo et
l JULY 2012 l International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
PSQ and life satisfaction
al, 2009; Theodorakis, Alexandris & Ko, 2011).
Distinguishing the two perspectives is important:
Shonk and Chelladurai (2008) suggested that these
different perspectives might give different weight to
sme specific dimensions. However, neither Study 1
nor Study 2 supported this claim because the factor
loading of interaction quality, physical environment
quality and outcome quality were fairly similar (range
.88-.99). This finding indicates that athletes evaluate
different dimensions of service quality with similar
regard for their importance. Although this finding
contradicts Shonk and Chelladurai’s prediction, further
investigation is warranted.
Thirdly, the mediating role of satisfaction-with-event
RESEARCH PAPER
is addressed. Study 2 supports the hypothesis that
PSQ predicts life satisfaction through satisfaction-
with-event. This finding corresponds to both the
PSQ theory and the bottom-up theory of satisfaction
(Andrews & Withey, 1976; Brady & Cronin, 2001).
PSQ is related to satisfaction about single events; its
effect on overall life satisfaction through a mediator
can be seen. This result suggests that it is important
for organisations to provide high service quality as it
benefits the organisation and contributes to individuals’
well-being. Thus, providing high service quality should
be considered as part of corporate responsibility in
every industry. It should also be noted that, in this
study, satisfaction-with-event partially mediated PSQ
and life satisfaction. This finding implies that there are
undiscovered mediators between the two constructs
and future study is therefore warranted.
Managerial implications
The results of this study offer several practical
implications. Firstly, we propose that the multi-
dimension PSQQ model should be used for athletes
in a sporting event context. The several dimensions
of the PSQQ model offer sports managers market
research tools to measure service quality effectively for
sporting events, via surveys. This, in turn, can lead to
understanding of the precedence of different service
261
 PSQ and life satisfaction
quality dimensions (Ko & Pastore, 2005; Tsitskari,
Tsiotras & Tsiotras, 2006; Westerbeek & Shilbury,
2003).
Secondly, we find that outcome quality dimension
has the strongest influence on service quality and
indicates the athlete’s estimation of the service
production process. As such, managers should use
marketing communication techniques to regulate
athletes’ emotional states (Alexandris, Zahariadis,
Tsorbatzoudis & Grouios, 2004). For example,
managers could establish an official website or
social media channel (e.g. Twitter or Facebook) to
control information flow and provide opportunities for
interaction among athletes (Mangold & Faulds, 2009).
RESEARCH PAPER
Finally, the results of this study show that life
satisfaction is influenced by PSQ and satisfaction-
with-event. Therefore, when developing targeted
strategies, sports organisations should consider the
intangible and tangible attributions for service quality.
Sports organisations should allocate finite resources to
maximise participants’ service experiences (Verhoef,
Antonides & de Hoog, 2004). For example, firms could
increase site responses to participants’ feedback and
provide training to improve employees’ service ability,
improve the physical environment and reduce waiting
times.
In summary, these results could be helpful to
sports managers because they pinpoint aspects of
service quality and their relative importance, allowing
managers to prioritise and allocate resources (e.g.
for cost efficiency, revenues and profits) (Harris &
Ogbonna, 2008).
Limitations and future research
Firstly, the study was conducted at only one sporting
event. To increase confidence in the model, it should
be conducted for other sports events (Brady et al,
2005) such as mega events and professional events
(Theodorakis, Alexandris & Ko, 2011).
Secondly, this study did not control the variances of
participants’ characteristics (i.e. gender, competitive
262 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
experience and event level) on the proposed model.
From a methodological perspective, additional
variables could be included to help statistically rule out
possible confounds contributing to possibly artificially
inflated statistical relationships (Breaugh, 2006;
Edwards, 2008). Thus, extending the research to
examine the effects of participant moderators would be
a useful direction.
Thirdly, this study was hindered by a design
limitation. The data in the study were cross-sectional in
nature. Longitudinal research designs seem particularly
appropriate for service contexts to capture the dynamic
relationship among constructs (Rindfleisch, Malter,
Ganesan & Moorman, 2008).
Finally, to expand the nomological networks of PSQ,
satisfaction with event and life satisfaction, future
studies should contain additional moderators to those
of our model. For example, it would be beneficial
for future researchers to include, and clarify, the two
different role effects in the model of the actor (i.e.
athletes) and audience (i.e. spectators) (Tokuyama &
Greenwell, 2011).
Conclusion
In summary, this study integrates the hierarchical
model of PSQ and the bottom-up theory of satisfaction
in order to investigate how satisfaction with events
how satisfaction with events mediates the relationship
between PSQ and life satisfaction. The authors first
translated the PSQQ into Chinese and then adapted
it to relate to sporting events. The results indicate that
the PSQQ possesses satisfactory reliability and validity
to assess athletes’ perceived service quality. In Study
2, the proposed model was examined and satisfaction-
with-event was found to partially mediate PSQ and
life satisfaction. The results showed an antecedent of
satisfaction-with-event and, moreover, that satisfaction-
with-event also affected global life satisfaction ratings.
The results of the current study also suggest that
enterprises’ focus on profit might become meaningless if
they sacrifice customer well-being in the process (Harris
& Ogbonna, 2008). These findings provide evidence-
l JULY 2012 l

based value to extend the issue of enhancing consumer
well-being through service (Ostrom et al, 2010) and
to increase new knowledge for service marketing in a
sporting context (Grove, Fisk & John, 2003).
© 2012 International Marketing Reports
Biographies
Yun-Ci Ye is a doctoral student in sports management
at the Graduate Institute of Physical Education at
NTSU, Taiwan. His dissertation focuses on issues of
consumer behaviour. He has had an article published
in Social Indicators Research.
I-Wu Tung is an associate professor in the Department
of Leisure Management at Tungnan University,
Taiwan. He also serves as dean of student affairs for
the university. His research interests focus on issues
related to sports marketing and sports tourism. His
research has been published in Social Indicators
Research.
Chih-Fu Cheng is a professor in the Department
of Physical Education of NTNU, Taiwan, and vice
president of the university. Over 30 years he has
made a significant contribution to the fields of sports
management and school physical education. His
publications include seven books and hundreds of
journal and conference papers and he has conducted
numerous research projects to improve organisational
effectiveness for government and schools. He is
currently editor-in-chief of the Journal of the Taiwan
Society for Sports Management.
Shen Tung is a professor in the Department of Sports
and Leisure at the National Quemoy University,
Taiwan. He also serves as dean of student affairs. His
current research interests include sports events, sports
business and sports policy. He has published on sports
management research in journals including the Journal
of the Taiwan Society for Sports Management.
l JULY 2012 l International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
PSQ and life satisfaction
Lung Hung Chen is an assistant professor in the
Department of Recreation and Leisure Industry
Management at NTSU, Taiwan. His research interests
include social psychology, sports psychology and sports
management. He has published articles in journals
including the Journal of Happiness Studies, Educational
and Psychological Measurement, Contemporary
Educational Psychology, Personality and Individual
Differences, and the International Journal of Psychology.
Mei-Yen Chen is a professor and director in the
Department of Recreation and Leisure Industry
Management at the College of Management, NTSU,
Taiwan. Her major research field is sports marketing
RESEARCH PAPER
and sponsorship. She received her doctoral degree in
sports administration from the University of Northern
Colorado.
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