Physical and

Cognitive
Development in
Late Adulthood
CHAPTER 17

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Learning Objectives

17.1 Discuss the causes and impact of the aging

population
17.2 Characterize and discuss biological theories of
aging
17.3 Describe physical changes in late adulthood
17.4 identify factors that influence health and well-
being in late adulthood
17.5 Describe the cognitive functioning of older adults

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 Old Age Today

 In the U.S., aging is seen as undesirable

 Many stereotypes about aging
 Ageism
 Prejudice or discrimination based on age

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World Population: 60 and Over

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 Young Old to Oldest Old

 Primary Aging
 Gradual, inevitable process of aging
 Occurs throughout years, despite efforts to slow it
 Secondary Aging
 Results from disease, abuse, and disuse
 Factors within a person’s control
 Functional Age
 How well a person functions physically and socially

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 Longevity and Aging

 Gerontology and geriatrics

 Life expectancy
Statistical likelihood of length of life, based on
age and health status
 Longevity
Actual length of life
 Life span
Longest period that members of species can
live
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 Gender Differences
in Life Expectancy

Women typically live longer than

men
 Tend
to take better care of
themselves
 More likely to seek medical care

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 Regional & Ethnic
Differences in Life Expectancy

Who lives to age 70?

 6 out of 10 in developed countries
 3 out of 10 in developing countries
 In the U.S., whites live about five
years longer than African
Americans

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 Theories of Aging

Genetic-Programming Variable-Rate
Theories Theories
Programmed
Wear-and-tear
senescence
Endocrine Free-radical

Rate-of-living
Immunological
Autoimmune
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 Prolongevity:
Expanding the Life Span

 Survival curves
Until recently, supported limited life span

 Hayflick limit
Estimated biological limit of humans at 110 years

 Metabolism
Limited caloric intake may extend life span

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Research in Action: Centenarians

 Fastest-growing segment of population

 Alternative patterns in health histories
 Escapers

 Survivors

 Delayers

 Genetic explanations

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 Organic and Systemic
Changes

 Systemic functioning highly variable

 Reserve capacity: backup capacity
that helps body systems function in
times of stress
 Chronic stress linked to chronic levels of
inflammation

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 The Aging Brain

 Brain loses weight over time

 10% by age 90
 Due to:
 Shrinking neuron size in cerebral cortex
 Loss of axons, dendrites and synapses
 NOT due to:
 Reduction in number of neurons

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 The Aging Brain

 Cerebral cortex shrinks more rapidly in

men
 Cortical atrophy more likely in:
 Overweight women
 Uneducated people
 People who do not exercise
 Those with diets low in fruits and vegetables

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 Older Eyes

 80% of older people have trouble seeing

 Older eyes:
 Need more light to see
 Are more sensitive to glare
 Have trouble locating signs
 Have more trouble negotiating driving skills

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Common Visual Impairments

 Cataracts
Cloudy or opaque areas of eyes
 Age-related macular degeneration
Retina loses ability to distinguish details
 Glaucoma
Irreversible damage to optic nerve caused by
increased pressure

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Hearing Impairment

Who has trouble

hearing?
• 31% 65–74
• 58% 85 and over
• More men than
women

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 Physical Losses of Old Age

Older people experience

diminished:
 Strength
 Endurance
 Balance
 Reaction time
 Sleep

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 Sexual Functioning in
Late Adulthood

 Most older men and women enjoy

sexual expression
 Consistent sexual activity over the years
maintains sexual functioning
 “Use it or lose it”

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 Sex Differences in
Sexual Functioning

 Men
 Take longer to become erect and
ejaculate
 Need more manual stimulation
 Experience longer intervals between
erections
 Women
 Have less breast engorgement
 Vagina may be less flexible

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 Health Status
in Late Adulthood

Most older adults are in good

general health for their age
 Age 65 and older
76% are in good to excellent health
Poverty important factor

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Chronic Conditions & Disabilities

 Heart disease
 Cancer
 Stroke
 Lower respiratory disease
 Diabetes
 Influenza/pneumonia

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 Activity Abilities

Activities  Dressing
of Daily Living  Bathing
(ADLs)  Getting around the house

Instrumental  Going shopping alone

Activities of Daily  Going to the doctor’s office
Living (IADLs) alone
 Walking, climbing stairs
Functional
 Reaching
Activities
 Lifting and carrying
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 Lifestyle Influences
on Quality of Health

 Physical activity and exercise

 Healthy diet
 Often not enough fruits and vegetables
 Regular health and dental exams

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 Mental Problems

 For most people, mental health

improves with age
 Some problems with older age include:
 Depression
 Dementia
 Physiologically caused cognitive and
behavioral decline

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 Causes of Dementia

 Alzheimer’s disease (AD)

 Parkinson’s disease
 Multi-infarct dementia (MD)
Caused by a series of small strokes

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 Symptoms of
Alzheimer’s Disease

 Memory impairment
 Deterioration of language
 Deficits in visual and spatial processing
 Repeating of questions
 Everyday tasks unfinished or forgotten
 Personality change (rigidity, egocentricity)
 Irritability or anxiety
 Lack of concentration

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 Alzheimer’s:
Causes and Risks

 Neurofibrillary tangles
Twisted masses of dead neurons
 Amyloid plaque
Buildup of nonfunctioning tissue
 Strongly heritable
 Lifestyle factors

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 Alzheimer’s:
Diagnosis and Prediction

 Can only be diagnosed

definitively postmortem
 While alive:
 Neurocognitive screening tests
 Prospective memory tests

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 Alzheimer’s:
Treatment and Prevention

 Cholinesterase inhibitors
 Aricept

 Immunotherapy
 Behavioral therapies
 Proper nourishment and fluid intake
 Exercise and physical therapy

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Measuring Older Adults’ Intelligence

 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

 Seattle Longitudinal Study: Use it or lose it
 Indicates tremendous variation
 Cognitive performance can be improved
 Cognitive deterioration may be related to
disuse

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 Everyday Problem Solving

 Effectiveness
remains stable until
late adulthood, then declines
 Important factors include:
 Emotional relevance of problem
 Whether the problem is person or
instrumental

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 Changes in
Information-Processing Abilities

 Declines:
 Abilities needed for complex new
skills
 Ability to switch focus or attention

 Improvements:
 Skills
that depend on habits and
knowledge

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 Cognitive Abilities
and Mortality

Some research has shown links

between longevity and:
 IQ
 Reaction time

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 Memory Changes
in Late Adulthood

Decline Retained May Improve

Tasks that Tasks requiring Semantic
require rehearsal: memory:
elaboration Procedural Vocabulary and
memory: Motor knowledge
Episodic
memory: skills and habits
Memories of Priming: Ability to
specific solve a problem or
events answer a question

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 Memory Loss and
Brain Functioning

Areas where brain deterioration occurs:

 Hippocampus
Episodic memory
 Frontal lobes
Encoding and retrieval
 Prefrontal cortex
Working memory

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 Encoding, Storage,
and Retrieval

 Encoding new information

 Older adults are less efficient
 Requires creating new associations
 Storage
 Increase in “storage failure” with age
 Retrieval
 Olderadults have trouble
 Do better on recognition than recall

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Older Adults and Metamemory

Older adults, more than younger

adults, report:
 More perceived change in memory
 Less memory capacity
 Less control over their memory

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 Can Cognitive
Performance Improve?

 Deterioration is related to disuse

 Keeping the mind “plastic” with
training helps improve cognitive
performance
Mnemonics – techniques to help
people remember

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 Approaches to
Studying Wisdom

 Social judgments
Exploring conceptions of a ‘wise person’
 Personality
The culmination of lifetime growth
 Cognitive expertise
Breadth and depth of knowledge of life
 Transcendence
Detachment from preoccupation with self

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