Process Variables

A process is a system that takes feed material and

converts it into products on either a continuous or a batch
basis.
Material and energy balances are the foundation of
process models, which are used to design or analyze the
operation of processes. The design of a process
determines the processing units and the size of each
element of the process using process models so that the
specified quality and production rate of products is
attained. Process models also are used to analyze the
operation of an existing process.

Various sensors are used to measure specific process

variables of a process and the precision of the
measurement depends to a large extent on the type of
sensor used. In general, two different types of sensors are
used on processes: field-mounted sensors, which have to
be read while in the process, and board-mounted
sensors, which can be read from the control room
because their readings are electronically transmitted
from the process to the control room.
Pressure is exerted on the top of the mercury in the
cylinder by the atmosphere. The pressure at the bottom
of the column of mercury is equal to the pressure
exerted by the mercury plus that of the atmosphere on
the mercury.
The pressure at the bottom of the static (nonmoving)
column of mercury (also known as the hydrostatic
pressure) exerted on the sealing plate is

Temperature Sometimes in engineering practice, a liquid column is

The temperature of a material is directly related to the
referred to as head of liquid, the head being the height of
kinetic energy of the atoms present in the material.
the column of liquid.
Temperature measurements are typically based on a
Pressure, like temperature, can be expressed in either
relative scale defined by the conditions under which
absolute (psia) or relative scales. Rather than using the
water freezes and boils
word relative, the relative pressure is usually called gauge
Industrial Temperature Sensors. The temperature
pressure (psig). The atmospheric pressure is nothing
sensors most commonly used by industry are
more than the barometric pressure. The relationship
thermocouples, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs),
between gauge and absolute pressure is given by the
and optimal pyrometers
following expression:

Pressure and Hydrostatic Head

Pressure is defined as the normal (perpendicular) force
per unit area. In the SI system, the force is expressed in
newtons and the area in square meters; then the pressure
is N/m2 or pascal (Pa). (The value of a pascal is so small
that the kilopascal, kPa, is a more convenient unit of
Another term with which you should become familiar is
vacuum. When you measure the pressure in inches of
mercury vacuum, you are reversing the direction of
measurement from the reference pressure, the
atmospheric pressure, and toward zero absolute
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pressure.) In the AE system, the force is the pounds force pressure; that is
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Vacuum Pressure
Problem Statement
Express a vacuum pressure of 10.00 psia in terms of cm
of Hg absolute.

Whether relative or absolute pressure is measured in a

pressure-measuring device depends on the nature of
the instrument used to make the measurements.

an open-end manometer would measure a gauge

pressure because the reference pressure is the pressure of
the atmosphere at the open end of the manometer. On the
other hand, closing off the open end of the manometer
and creating a vacuum in that end results in a
measurement against a complete vacuum and hence is
reported as an absolute pressure.

A failed tank. (Image courtesy of “CCPS Process Safety

Beacon,” AIcHE)

Please be careful not confuse the standard atmosphere

with atmospheric pressure.
The standard atmosphere is defined as the pressure (in a
standard gravitational field) equivalent to 1 atm or 760
mm Hg at 0°C or other equivalent value and is fixed,
whereas atmospheric pressure is variable and must be
obtained from a barometric measurement or equivalent
each time you need it.
Vacuum Pressure Reading
Problem Statement
Small animals such as mice can live at reduced air
pressures down to 20 kPa absolute (although not
comfortably). In a test, a mercury manometer attached to
a tank, as shown in Figure, reads 64.5 cm Hg, and the
barometer reads 100 kPa. Will the mice survive?

Pressure Conversion
Problem Statement
The pressure gauge on a tank of CO2 used to fill soda-
water bottles reads 51.0 psi. At the same time, the
barometer reads 28.0 in. Hg. What is the absolute
pressure in the tank in psia?
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If fluids 1 and 3 are gases and fluid 2 is mercury, because
the density of a gas is so much less than that of mercury,
you can ignore the terms involving the gases in for
practical applications.
However, if fluids 1 and 3 are liquids and fluid 2 is a non-
miscible fluid, the density of fluids 1 and 3 cannot be
neglected.
As you may know, a flowing fluid experiences a pressure
drop when it passes through a restriction such as the
orifice in the pipe shown in Figure.
The pressure difference can be measured with any
instrument connected to the pressure taps, such as a
manometer as illustrated in Figure 2.10, which can be
used to measure the fluid flow rate in the pipe. Note that
the manometer fluid reading is static if the flow rate in
the pipe is constant.
Calculation of Pressure Differences
Problem Statement
In measuring the flow of fluid in a pipeline through an
orifice such as that in Figure E2.26 with a manometer
used to determine the pressure difference across the
orifice plate, the flow rate can be calibrated with the
observed pressure
drop (difference).
Calculate the pressure
drop (p1 – p2) in
pascals for the steady
manometer reading in
Figure E2.26.
Unknown Liquid in a Manometer
Problem Statement
Consider the system shown in Figure 2.8a and 2.8b. In
Figure 2.8a, a manometer is attached to a vessel, which
contains a gas, and in Figure 2.8b, a manometer with a
closed end is subject to the barometric pressure. Both
manometers use the same unknown liquid, and the
barometric pressure is equal to 765 mm Hg. If the
readings of the two manometers are 30 in (Figure 2.8a)
and 80 in (Figure 2.8b), determine the density in lbm/ft3
for the unknown fluid and the pressure in the vessel
shown in Figure 2.8a in psia.
Industrial Pressure Sensors. The most common board-
mounted pressure sensor in the process industries is the
differential pressure (DP) cell, which usually uses a
balanced bar that is deflected on the basis of the
differential pressure between two compartments.
Field-mounted pressure sensors include manometers,
which have already been described, and the Bourdon
pressure gauge
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Levels
The liquid levels in vessels in a process plant must
be monitored to ensure that the vessel neither
overfills nor runs dry during operation. Such vessels
are used to maintain inventory within a process and
absorb flow rate fluctuations entering the vessel.
The most common level sensor in the process
industries is based on measuring the hydrostatic
head using a DP cell because the height of the liquid
level is proportional to the pressure difference
between the pressure at the top of the vessel and the
pressure at the bottom of the vessel.
where h is the measure height of the liquid level, Δp
is the pressure difference between the upper and
lower taps, ρ is the density of the liquid, and g is the
gravitational constant
Flow Rate
In the process industries, process streams are
normally delivered to or removed from a process in
pipes. The flow rate of a process stream is the rate at
which material is transported through a carrying
pipe.
he mass flow rate (ṁ ) of a process stream is the
mass (m) transported through a pipe per unit time
(t):
The molar flow rate (ṅ) of a process stream is the
moles (n) of a substance transported through a pipe
per unit time:
The volumetric flow rate (F) of a process stream is
the volume (V) transported through a line per unit
time:
Molar flow rate.
Problem Statement
A 20-wt. percent aqueous solution of NaCl enters a
process at the rate of 20,000 lb m/h. Determine the molar
flow rate of NaCl entering the process.
Concentration
Concentration designates the amount of a
component (solute) in a mixture divided by the total
amount of the mixture.
• Mass per unit volume (i.e., mass
concentration), such as lbm of solute/ ft3 of
solution, g of solute/L, lbm of solute/bbl, kg of
solute/m3.
• Moles per unit volume (i.e., molar
concentration), such as lb mol of solute/ft3 of
solution, g mol of solute/L, g mol of
solute/cm3.
• Mass (weight) fraction, the ratio of the mass
of a component to the total mass of the
mixture, a fraction (or a percent).
• Mole fraction, the ratio of the moles of a
component to the total moles of the mixture,
a fraction (or a percent).
• Parts per million (ppm) and parts per
billion (ppb), a method of expressing the
concentration of extremely dilute solutions;
ppm is equivalent to a mass (weight) ratio
for solids and liquids. It is a mole ratio for
gases.
• Parts per million by volume (ppmv) and
parts per billion by volume (ppbv), the
ratio of the volume of the solute per volume
of the mixture (usually used only for gases).
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Nitrogen Requirements for the Growth of
Cells
Problem Statement
In normal living cells, the nitrogen requirement for the
cells is provided from protein metabolism (i.e.,
consumption of protein in the cells). When cells are
grown commercially, such as in the pharmaceutical
industry, (NH4)2SO4 is usually used as the source of
nitrogen. Determine the amount of (NH4)2SO4 consumed
in a fermentation medium in which the final cell
concentration is 35 g/L in a 500 L volume of fermentation
medium. Assume that the cells contain 9 wt% N and that
(NH4)2SO4 is the only nitrogen source.
Here is a list of typical measures of concentration
given in the set of guidelines by which the
Environmental Protection Agency defines the
extreme levels at which the five most common air
pollutants could harm people if they are exposed
to these levels for the stated periods of exposure:
1. Sulfur dioxide: 365 μg/m3 averaged over a
24 hr period
2. Particulate matter (10 μm or smaller): 150
μg/m3 averaged over a 24 hr period
3. Carbon monoxide: 10 mg/m3 (9 ppm) when
averaged over an 8 hr period; 40 mg/m3 (35
ppm) when averaged over 1 hr
4. Nitrogen dioxide: 100 μg/m3 averaged over
1 yr
5. Ozone: 0.12 ppm measured over 1 hr
Note that the gas concentrations are mostly
mass/volume except for the ppm.
Use of ppm
Problem Statement
The current OSHA 8 hr limit for HCN in air is 10.0 ppm.
A lethal dose of HCN in air is (from the Merck Index) 300
mg/kg of air at room temperature. How many milligrams
of HCN per kilogram of air is 10.0 ppm? What fraction of
the lethal dose is 10.0 ppm?
Exercises:
1. Thermal conductivity in the American Engineering
Btu
system of units is k=
(h)( ft )(F / ft )
2
Determine the conversion factor to convert from AE units
kJ
to the following units:
(d )(m )(C / cm)
2
2. The density of a certain liquid is given an equation
of the following form:  = ( A + BT )eCP , where
 = density (g/cm ), 3
T = temperature (C )
P = pressure (atm)
3. A solid compound was found to contain 42.11% C,
51.46% O, and 6.43% H. Its molecular weight was
about 341. What is the formula for the compound?
4. A sample has a specific volume of 5.2 m3/kg and a
molar volume of 1160 m3/kg mol. Determine the
molecular weight of the material.
5. You have 100 kg of gas of the following composition:
30% CH4, 10% H2, 60% N2. What is the average
molecular weight of this gas?
6. Choose a basis for the following problem: Chlorine
usage at a water treatment plant averages 134.2
lb/day. The average flow rate of water leaving the
plant is 10.7 million gal/day. What is the average
chlorine concentration in the treatment water
leaving the plant (assuming no reaction of the
chlorine), expressed in milligrams per liter?
7. You are asked to decide what size containers to use
to ship 1000 lb of cottonseed oil of specific gravity
equal to 0.926. What would be the minimum size
drum expressed in gallons?
8. The density of a certain solution is 8.80 lb/gal at 80°F.
How many cubic feet will be occupied by 10,010 lb
of this solution at 80°F?
9. The specific gravity of a solution of KOH at 15°C is
1.0824 and contains 0.813 lb KOH per gal of solution.
What are the mass fractions of KOH and H2O in the
solution?
10. A gas contains 350 ppm of H2S in CO2. If the gas is
liquefied, what is the weight fraction of H2S?
11. You purchase a tank with a volume of 2.1 ft3. You
pump the tank out and add first 20 lb of CO2 gas and
then 10 lb of N2 gas. What is the analysis of the gas
mixture in the tank?
12. Twenty-seven pounds (27 lb) of chlorine gas is used
for treating 750,000 gal of water each day. The
chlorine used up by the microorganisms in the water
is measured to be 2.6 mg/L. What is the residual
(excess) chlorine concentration in the treated water?
13. A centrifugal pump is to be used to pump water
from a lake to a storage tank that is 148 ft above the
surface of the lake. The pumping rate is to be 25.0
gal/min, and the water temperature is 60°F. The
pump on hand can develop a pressure of 50.0 psig
when it is pumping at a rate of 25.0 gal/min. (Neglect
pipe friction, kinetic energy effects, and factors
involving pump efficiency.) How high (in feet) can
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the pump raise the water at this flow rate and
temperature? Is this pump suitable for the intended
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14. Suppose that a submarine inadvertently sinks to the
bottom of the ocean at a depth of 1000 m. It is
proposed to lower a diving bell to the submarine
and attempt to enter the conning tower. What must
the minimum air pressure be in the diving bell at the
level of the submarine to prevent water from
entering the bell when the opening valve at the
bottom is cracked open slightly? Give your answer
in absolute kilopascals. Assume that seawater has a
constant density of 1.024 g/cm3.
15. A pressure gauge on a welder’s tank gives a reading
of 22.4 psig. The barometric pressure is 28.6 in. Hg.
Calculate the absolute pressure in the tank in (a)
lb/ft2, (b) in. Hg, (c) N/m2, and (d) ft water.
16. The floor of a cylindrical water tank was distorted
into 7 in. bulges because of the settling of improperly
stabilized soil under the tank floor. However,
several consulting engineers restored the damaged
tank to use by placing plastic skirts around the
bottom of the tank wall and devising an air flotation
system to move it to an adjacent location. The tank
was 30.5 m in diameter and 13.1 m deep. The top,
bottom, and sides of the tank were made of 9.35-
mm-thick welded steel sheets. The density of the
steel is 7.86 g/cm3. What was the gauge pressure in
kilopascals of the water at the bottom of the tank
when it was completely full of water? What would
the air pressure have to be in kilopascals beneath the
empty tank in order to just raise it up for movement?
17.

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