THERMODYNAMICS

ME-112

Dr. Muhammad Uzair

Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
NED University of Engineering & Technology

DICE Lab (MED, NED)

+99261261 (Ext. 2206)
uzair@neduet.edu.pk
PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one
equilibrium state to another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes
during a process.

To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial

and final states,
as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the
surroundings.

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Quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in
such a manner that the system remains close to an equilibrium
state at all times.

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Process diagrams plotted by
employing thermodynamic properties
as coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes.
• Some common properties that are
used as coordinates are temperature
T, pressure P, and volume V (or
specific volume v).

• Isothermal process: A process

during which the temperature T
remains constant.
• Isobaric process: A process during
which the pressure P remains
constant. The P-V diagram of a compression
• Isochoric (or isometric) process: A process.
process during which the specific
volume v remains constant.
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The Steady-Flow Process

• The term steady implies no change with

time. The opposite of steady is unsteady,
or transient.

• Steady-flow process: A process during which a

fluid flows through a control volume steadily.

• A large number of engineering devices operate

for long periods of time under the same conditions,
and they are classified as steady-flow devices. During a steady flow process,
fluid properties within the
• Steady-flow conditions can be closely control volume may change
with position but not with
approximated by devices that are intended for
time.
continuous operation such as turbines, pumps,
boilers, condensers, and heat exchangers or
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power plants or refrigeration systems.
Under steady-flow conditions, the
mass and energy contents of a control
volume remain constant.

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THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two bodies are in

thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

• By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth

law can be restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if
both have the same temperature reading even if they are not
in contact.

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Temperature Scales

• All temperature scales are based on some easily

reproducible states such as the freezing and boiling points of
water: the ice point and the steam point.

• Ice point: A mixture of ice and water that is in equilibrium

with air saturated with vapor at 1 atm pressure (0°C or
32°F).

• Steam point: A mixture of liquid water and water vapor (with

no air) in
equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100°C or 212°F).

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Celsius scale: in SI unit system
Fahrenheit scale: in English unit system

• Thermodynamic temperature scale:

A temperature scale that is independent of the properties of
any substance.

• Kelvin scale (SI) Rankine scale (E)

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Pressure
Pressure: A normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area

The normal stress (or “pressure”) on

the feet of a chubby person is much
greater than on the feet of a slim
person. 34
Atmospheric pressure: Pressure exerted by the atmosphere

Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is measured relative

to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).

Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and the local
atmospheric pressure.
Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and
so they indicate gage pressure.

Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

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Problem:

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Variation of Pressure with Depth

The pressure of a fluid at rest increases with depth (as a

result of added weight).

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 In a room filled with
a gas, the variation
of pressure with
height is negligible.

Pressure in a liquid
at rest increases
linearly with
distance from the
free surface.

The pressure is the

same at all points on
a horizontal plane in
a given fluid
regardless of
geometry, provided
that the points are
interconnected by
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the same fluid.
Pascal’s law:
The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the
pressure throughout by the same amount.

The area ratio A2/A1 is

called the ideal mechanical
advantage of the hydraulic
lift.

Lifting of a large weight

by a small force by the
application of Pascal’s 39
law.
Measurement of Pressure
Measurement of atmospheric pressure

Barometer is the device used to measure

atmospheric pressure.

The simplest form of a barometer consists of a

glass tube, closed at one end.

The tube is initially filled with mercury and

then turned upside down in the container of
mercury.

The mercury column will come to an equilibrium

position where its weight balances the force due
to atmospheric pressure. Thus 40
Manometer
Pressure measurement devices based on the use of liquid
columns in vertical or inclined tubes are called manometers.

Mercury barometer is one of the types of manometers.

Piezometer tube, U-tube and inclined tube are the examples

of some other types of manometers.

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 Piezometer Tube
Piezometer tube is simply a vertical tube, open at the
top and attached to the container or a pipe in which the
pressure is desired

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Piezometer Tube
Disadvantages:
1. It cannot measure the gas
po
pressure.
2. It cannot measure high
pressure. (so that the required
Move down height of the tube is
Closed End “Container” the Tube
reasonable)
3. It cannot measure negative
pA (abs) pressure. (otherwise air will be
sucked in)

Moving from top to bottom: po + g1h1 = pA(abs)

Rearranging: p A  po  g 1h1
Gage Pressure

Then in terms of gage pressure, the equation for a Piezometer Tube:

Note: pA = p1 because they are at the same level

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U-Tube Manometer
U-Tube manometer is a U shaped tube, contains a fluid in it,
called gauge fluid.

The gauge fluid must be immiscible with other fluids in contact

with it.
Two common gauge fluids are water and mercury.

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U-Tube Manometer
Note: in the same fluid we can
“jump” across from 2 to 3 as they
Closed End are at the same level, and thus must
“Container” have the same pressure.
pA
The fluid in the U-tube is known as
the gage fluid. The gage fluid type
depends on the application, i.e.
pressures attained, and whether the
fluid measured is a gas or liquid.

Since, one end is open we can work entirely in gage pressure:

Moving from right to left: pAtm + g2h2 - g1h1 = pA
Then the equation for the pressure in the container is the following:

If the fluid in the container is a gas, then the fluid 1 terms can be ignored:

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Inclined tube manometer

The tube is inclined at an angle θ and the differential reading

is measured along the inclined tube.

Inclined tube manometers are usually used to measure small

pressure differences in gas pressures,.
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