Proceedings of the 5th NA International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management

Detroit, Michigan, USA, August 10 - 14, 2020

Sustainable Sediment Management in Reservoirs; An

Overview
M. Nda
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Built Environment,
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia.
Department of Civil Engineering,
The Federal Polytechnic Bida,
Niger State, Nigeria
muhdnda@gmail.com

M. S Adnan
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Built Environment,
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia.
Parit Raja, Johor Malaysia
shaludin@uthm.edu.my

M. A. M Yusoff
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Built Environment,
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia.
Parit Raja, Johor Malaysia
azlany@uthm.edu.my

G. S Jiya
Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering Technology,
The Federal Polytechnic Bida
Niger State, Nigeria
Giddyzion1@gmail.com

I.Y Ebenehi
Department of Building Technology, School of Environmental Technology,
Federal Polytechnic Bauchi
Bauchi State, Nigeria
iyebenehi@gmail.com

Abstract

Presently there is considerable demand for improved sustainable water supply systems globally, even though
sedimentation is taking up the most needed reservoir capacity. Dams continuously trap most sediment transported by
rivers in its reservoirs. This results in reduced reservoir storage capacity and useful life, and substantially altering the
sediments due downstream leading to the riverbank and channel erosion as well as affecting the aquatic habitats.
Several available techniques can be used to preserve and mitigate the effects on reservoirs downstream but not often
put to use. This paper summarizes the importance of dams vis a vis its effects on rivers, and sedimentation effects on
reservoirs. Lastly, the paper outlines a few techniques available for sustainable management of sediment in reservoirs
and dams.
Keywords: Sediment, dams and reservoirs, sediment management, sustainability

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Proceedings of the 5th NA International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management
Detroit, Michigan, USA, August 10 - 14, 2020

1. Introduction
Reservoirs are used to provide portable water supply, hydroelectricity, and flood control management services
worldwide. They are particularly important in areas of the world with high hydrological variability, where both
seasonally and annual amount of water flowing in rivers varies significantly. Storing enough water for use in these
areas during extreme or multi-year droughts, and therefore maintaining the continuity of water and power supply
requires very large storage volumes. Countries where hydropower is a major source of energy also have projects in
both reservoir and run-of-river projects, where storage preservation is often a secondary goal that accounts for around
11 percent of all big dams (ICOLD, 2014). With an ever-increasing global population, there is an increasing demand
for a more sustainable system of water supply. Given this demand, water storage capacity worldwide is decreasing
steadily due to sedimentation in reservoirs (Annandale, 2016).

Sedimentation in rivers and dams has been a topic of continuous discussion among researchers in recent years, due to
its negative impact on water supply and hydroelectricity generation dams all over the world. Dams are characterized
by low inflow water velocities, as sediment gradually deposits in the reservoir the ability to contain it declines and
eventually contributes to reducing its operational capacity and storage while, substantially altering the sediment
regime downstream causing sediment shortage suitable for maintaining channel form and riparian life. Several
variables, such as the existence of the catchment materials, catchment slope, capacity inflow ratio, the reservoir trap
efficiency (Te), the reservoir operational method, and climate change are identified as major causes of reservoir
sedimentation (Adeogun et al., 2020).

In several regions of the world, climate change is expected to enhance hydrological instability, thereby increasing the
severity of both floods and droughts. This instability would increase the need for greater volumes of reservoirs to
ensure stable water and power supplies and the much-needed control of floods. Climate change is also expected to
increase the sediment concentration in many rivers, exacerbating the reservoir sedimentation threat (Annandale et al.,
2016).

Consequently, as dams and reservoirs approach the end of their initial design life, most operators are interested in
maintaining the infrastructure and continuing to generate economic and social benefits, including water supply,
hydropower, and flood mitigation control, even though the benefits are not as great as in the original project. Extending
the life of the dam involves adopting a new design and operational standard that focuses on managing the reservoir
and watershed system to balance sediment inflow and outflow to the degree that this is practical, thus giving the
reservoir a much longer life. It is also important to plan, construct, and maintain a new dam and reservoir projects
bearing in mind the long-term threat of reservoir sedimentation.

Building and sustaining reservoir capacity is essential for dam projects to provide benefits in terms of irrigation, water
supply, flood control, hydroelectricity supply, and other recreational use. Thus, this paper is aimed at providing an
overview of dams and reservoirs, sedimentation effects, and reservoir sustainable management.

2. Dam and its reservoir

Rainfall is considered a seasonal event at most locations. Also, there may be less rain or even completely dry in one
location while another location some miles away receive rain in abundance at the same time. Dams are built to serve
as water preservation structures; the reservoirs retain water during seasons with surplus rain event (wet periods) which
can be put to use during dry periods when the natural flow is inadequate to meet the daily needs (O’Flynn, Phillips, &
Toland, 2013; Phillips, 2013). Based on records available for 2014, there are 37,641 dams in the world with ≥15 m
height. The majority of these dams were constructed after 1950 to serve a variety of purposes; to supply water for
hydropower generation, for municipal and industrial uses, for irrigation, fishing, and recreation.

Furthermore, dams are constructed to serve as flood control measures as well as to divert river flow to other locations
far away. As the population rose rapidly and emerging national economies grow in the early 1950s up till the 1980s,
many dams were constructed. This trend of dam construction slowed down afterward. However, in recent years
building dams have picked up again particularly in areas with extreme climate conditions, areas prone to natural
disasters related to water, and high variability between demand and supply of the resource (Lempérière, 2017).

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Proceedings of the 5th NA International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management
Detroit, Michigan, USA, August 10 - 14, 2020

Dams are made of several components each with its unique characteristics and function. A detailed diagram showing
the components is presented as Figure 1. with a brief description the component and basic used terms as follows; (i)
full reservoir level (FRL) is the highest water level to which the water surface will rise during the normal operating
condition. (ii) maximum water level (MWL) is the maximum level to which the water surface will rise when the design
flood passes the spillway. Besides, the maximum water level is higher than the full reservoir level so that some
surcharge storage is available between the two levels to absorb flood. (iii) minimum pool level (MPL) is the lowest
level up to which the water is withdrawn from the reservoir under ordinary conditions. The minimum pool level
generally corresponds to the elevation of the lowest outlet (sluiceway) of the dam. (iv) useful storage is the volume of
water stored between the FRL and the MPL. (v) surcharge storage is the volume of water stored above the full reservoir
level up to the maximum water level. (vi) dead storage this is referred to as the volume of water held below the
minimum pool level. (vii) valley storage is referred to as the volume of water held by the natural river channel in its
valley up to the top of its banks before the construction of the reservoir (Arora, 2002).

Figure 1. Schema of a dam and its components (Arora, 2002)

Dam design, inspection, and maintenance are based on its classification criteria. Thus, dams are classified by their
size and their hazard criteria. Dam classification by size is determined by the height of the dam and its storage capacity.
The hazard potential determines the damages that may affect future or present development in the event the dam
suddenly releases a large volume of water due to its operations or misuse downstream (Mehta et al., 2012). The
classification by size is divided into three (small, intermediate, and large) and the details of this form of rating are
provided in Table 1.

Table 1. Dam Classification by Size (Mehta et al., 2012)

Height Storage Capacity

Dam Type
(m) (mcm)
Small
7.5 – 12 0.5 – 10
Medium
12 – 30 10 – 60
Large
>30 >60

Reservoirs formed by large dams can store about 6600 km3 volume of water annually or approximately 15% of annual
continental runoff. Estimates are available to show that the amount of reservoirs capacities and the total flooded area

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Proceedings of the 5th NA International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management
Detroit, Michigan, USA, August 10 - 14, 2020

in the world to be between 6000 km3 to 400,000 km3 respectively (M. Nda et al., 2019). Thus, humanmade reservoirs
store quite a large part of the global freshwater, and the proportion is still progressing as new dams are still under
construction. Asia, Central, and South America and Oceania constitute regions with the largest increase in large dam
construction. With India with the highest number and some still under construction. The development of new
structures is slow in developed countries where they have stabilized the population and most such projects already in
place, compared to developing countries (Hoeinghaus, 2017).

However, the existence of reservoirs is seriously challenged with storage impairment due to sedimentation. According
to Palmeri et al., (2003), storage capacity and storage loss rate of reservoirs worldwide amounts to around 7,000 km3
and between 0.5 and 1 percent per annum. This rate of loss is equivalent to adding about 50 km3 of storage per year
worldwide, with an estimated replacement expense of about US$ 13 billion in 2003.

Thus, estimating a reservoir's current storage capacity requires the deployment of several known techniques from field
surveys to applying physical and empirical models. But one of the most commonly used reservoir storage assessment
technique is to continuously take survey measurements (bathymetric survey). The results of the surveys will provide
an avenue for comparison of results collected over time. Thus revealing the change in the available reservoir storage
capacity. This results will be a required data in predicting sedimentation, useful for the reservoir maintenance and
operation (George et al., 2017).

3. Sedimentation

Rivers can be considered as a combination of flowing water as well as sediment. A substantial amount of water is
delivered into the rivers by rains (in the form of heavy precipitation or runoff). Rainfall carries along much eroded
soil and other materials (debris) from the surrounding landscape, some are little tiny particles while other are larger
particles or boulders called sediments (Milliman & Meade, 1983; Newbury & Bates, 2017).

Sediment is most of the time transported by water and referred to as the fluvial process, for example, river channel
deposits and sandbars. Another means of sediment transport is by wind or glaciers, which is known as the aeolian
process, an example of this form of transportation and deposition is sand dunes and desert losses (Muhammad et al.,
2019). The process in which sediments or particles are moved from its point of origin by natural or human enhanced
means and deposited in another location different from its source in water bodies or on land surface is known as
sedimentation (Baldwin et al., 2017; Xia et al., 2016).

3.1 Sedimentation effects downstream a dam

The decrease in the volume of sediment transported downstream by water flow is primarily caused by the regulated
flow associated with dams and other similar structures in rivers (Adnan et al., 2018). Substantial, large materials
carried by water are trapped upstream the structure with mainly most of the smaller particles falling out to the crest
allowing just suspended sediment to be transported downstream (East et al., 2015). The changes caused by flow
regulation and sediment flux are responsible for both spatial and temporal variations in river morphology downstream.

The river responds to changes according to the transport capacity and sediment available for transport to attain a
balance in the system (Lai et al., 2014). The river tends to erode its banks and beds in a bid to achieve equilibrium
when the conveyance capacity exceeds sediment supply. Adjustment in the morphology of a system downstream of a
dam structure varies in response to some conditions, and a lot of likely outcomes will result. The river channel
downstream of the dam is characterized by erosion and degradation when the river transport capacity exceeds sediment
load (Botter et al., 2013). Also, there will be channel incision and erosion at the banks due to rapid hydraulic head
change caused by increased flow velocity and reduced sediment. This incision and degradation downstream have the
effect of reducing the channel slope, and eventually, the transport capacity of the system as a new equilibrium
condition is reached (East et al., 2015).

Downstream erosion and degradation are sometimes seen to differently erode channel banks, coarse materials
associated with the regime before construction of the dam may be more resistant to erosion than finer channel bank
deposits. Furthermore, erosion may occur downstream of a dam, while aggradation of sediment can happen further
down in response to different channel conditions and an increased sediment load from upstream erosion (Moges &

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Proceedings of the 5th NA International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management
Detroit, Michigan, USA, August 10 - 14, 2020

Bhole, 2016). Consequently, the two-primary effect of dam concerning changes in sediment supply and transport
capacity is; sediment shortage or sediment surplus with the most common downstream river segments been sediment
shortage (Schmidt & Wilcock, 2008).

3.2 Sedimentation effects upstream a dam

The effect of putting up a dam across a river causes near still water hydraulic conditions and reduced flow velocity in
the system. This effect causes the settling out of sediment that is transported from upstream the dam, which occurs
with time, concerning sediment size, settling velocity, and the incoming flow velocity. Further upstream in the system,
it is found that coarser materials drop out in suspension and the fines are being transported and deposited further down.
Catchment sediment transport characteristics determine the amount of sediment retained behind a dam. Land use,
runoff, rainfall intensity and depth, geology, topography, cleared area for agricultural purposes as well as urban
development are the influencing factors (Csiki & Rhoads, 2014).

The two significant geomorphological changes likely to emanate when regulating the flow regime of a river system
with a dam are; reduction in the storage capacity and flow capabilities upstream the dam. These changes are caused
by the infilling of sediment behind the structure. Another problem that may arise upstream the reservoir is the
formation of in-stream delta deposits, which can cause a significant reduction in the stream capacity (Anderson et al.,
2015).

Figure 2 provides a basic understanding of conventional upstream impacts, showing that total storage capacity for the
reservoir is the summation of the active and dead storage. Dead storage is situated below the low water level defined
by the elevation of the lowest outlet, while active storage includes water that can be released for power generation or
water supply, or can be reserved for flood mitigation purposes in the case of flood control dams.

Hydropower generation is adversely affected by sedimentation in two facets; the amount of power generated and the
increase in turbine maintenance needs. This is because sedimentation hampers the reservoir active storage leading to
reduced power generation. Also, the presence of sediment flowing through the turbines largely made from hard
minerals will result in abrasion requiring maintenance. Similarly, water supply needs will face shortages due to
reduced reservoir storage caused by sedimentation (Annandale et al., 2016)

Figure 2. Reservoir storage loss due to sedimentation (Annandale et al., 2016)

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4. Reservoir sustainable management

Most reservoirs impound sediment along with water, as a flowing river conveys both water and particles(sediment).
Dams can be designed and built to allow passage of sediment through the dam or around the reservoir, using several
tested techniques, each specific to a variety of conditions. Sediment management techniques are most times not used
as they should be in several reservoirs. This could be because, policymakers and the operators of dams do not know
the several possible approaches of management, nor have they been shown to be effective and the appropriate
conditions of applicability. As a result, the opportunity presented for sustaining reservoirs and substantially reducing
its effects downstream over a long period is missed (Kondolf et al., 2014).

The reservoir sustainability approach must consider a sediment management strategy to either directly focus on
sediment mitigation or makes a plan to provide sufficient monetary resources to do so later on. Else, a sediment-laden
reservoir expected to achieve its benefits will end up becoming an economic burden for future generations (Wang et
al., 2015). Besides, Kondolf et al., 2014 present a holistic classification of how sustainability in reservoir capacity can
be achieved using appropriate sediment management strategies. The strategies the authors proposed came up under
three broad headings; (i) sediment yield reduction at catchment level, (ii) sediment deposition minimization and, (iii)
volume recover or increase. This classification is further elaborated based on the three heading in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Reservoir sediment management strategy classification (Kondolf et al, 2014)

On the other hand, there are several sediment management techniques available that will be vital in extending the
reservoir life span and reduce the effect of sediment starvation at the downstream segments of rivers due to sediment
impoundment. The following subsections present some available techniques according to (Muhammad Nda et al.,
2017; Palmeri et al., 2003).

4.1 Flushing

This is a technique that ensures the increases of flow velocities in a reservoir to such an extent that deposited sediment
is remobilized and transported in the dam via low-level outlets. It is distinct from sluicing, which is meant to divert
incoming upstream sediment through the reservoir. There are two available approaches; complete and partial

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drawdown flushing. Instances when reservoirs are empty i.e during flooding and are considered as complete drawdown
flushing. Whereas, in scenarios when the water level in the reservoir is reduced partially are referred to as partial
drawdown flushing.

4.2 Sluicing

In this technique, a substantial portion of the incoming sediment load is allowed to pass through the reservoir and dam
before the sediment particles can settle, thus reducing the reservoir's trap efficiency. In most cases, this is accomplished
by operating the reservoir at a lower level during the flood season to maintain sufficient sediment conveying capacity
(turbulent and colloidal) through the reservoir. Higher flow velocity and higher sediment transport capacity in the
water flowing through the reservoir result from the operation of the reservoir at these lower levels. The increased
sediment conveying capacity of the water flowing through the reservoir reduces the deposited sediment volume. The
pool level in the reservoir is increased during the flood season, to store fairly clear water. The success of sluicing
operations depends primarily on the availability of excess precipitation, on the sediment grain size and the morphology
of the reservoir. For certain cases, the combination of sluicing and flushing is used.

4.3 Density current venting

Density currents can sometimes develop due to varied conditions, causing more sediment to be conveyed to the dam.
Such currents occur because the density of sediment ladened water flowing into the reservoir is higher than the density
of clear water impounded in the reservoir. This higher density, is responsible for increased viscosity and consequent
reduction of turbulence intensities leading to a reduction in a coherent current with a high sediment concentration that
falls beneath the clear water. Low-level gates installation will enhance the discharge of sediment current downstream
through the dam. In so doing the reservoir will be relieved of sediment deposit thus mitigating storage loss. Density
current venting is a good sediment management technique where sediment-laden flows are released without
necessarily lowering of the reservoir level as required in flushing operations.

4.4 Mechanical removal

This is achieved using two conventional dredging techniques i.e. dry excavation and the hydro suction removal system
(HSRS). The dry excavation in some cases referred to as trucking is used at a time the reservoir level is lowered
especially during the dry season when the river flow has decreased and can be adequately controlled without
interfering with the excavation works. The sediment is excavated and conveyed for disposal utilizing traditional earth
moving equipment. The operating cost of sediment excavation and disposal is quite enormous therefore, the technique
is generally more appropriate to be used for relatively small deposits and may also be suitable for flood control
reservoirs.

Conversely, HSRS is different from the traditional dredging as the dam hydraulic head used as the source of energy
for dredging rather than using pumps powered by electricity or diesel. As such, where there is sufficient head available,
the operating costs are substantially lower than those of traditional dredging. The system is made up of a barge that
regulates the suction and discharges pipe flow, which can be used to move the pipe's suction end-around. The upstream
section of the pipe is situated at the reservoir's sediment level and its downstream section is normally placed over the
dam to remove sediment and water downstream. The pipe is arranged to effectively produce a siphon, and the suction
is used to remove sediment at the upstream section of the siphon. This technique can be used in relatively small
reservoirs no longer than around 3 km and relies on dam and reservoir level as well.

4.5 Dredging

This management technique of removing deposited sediment from underwater is termed dredging. Dredging is a
highly specialized operation that is mostly used in ports, rivers, and estuaries to clear navigation channels. However,
the technique is also frequently used in reservoirs. Dredging of sediments is widely used to recover lost reservoir
storage from sediment deposits. Although, the use of conventional hydraulic dredging is generally not advisable to be
used as its usually very expensive. The cost of this technique may amount to more than what is required to replace the
reservoir storage or the entire dam structure.

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5. Conclusion

Reservoirs and downstream sections of rivers are faced with serious consequences due to sediment impoundment. The
sustainability of electricity and water supply is grossly threatened by the accumulation of sediment behind the dam
resulting in a reduction of storage capacity and impairment of its day to day functions. The existence of inadequate
suitable dam locations presents a serious challenge, thus the need to properly consider adequate sediment management
in dam planning. Most dams are designed with projections to accumulate sediment in its reservoirs for 50 – 100 years
without any adverse effect on its operation. However, several dams (water supply and hydroelectricity generation) are
faced with serious operational impairment due to sediment accumulation before the designed projected lifespan. Based
on existing techniques reviewed in this paper it is opined that sediment management strategies be considered in the
siting, designing, planning, and operation of a dam. Besides, the possibility of designing future dams with sediment
bypass through or around the reservoir will be a very viable option where applicable. Also, existing dams should be
revisited to ensure workable sediment management practices are put in place to guarantee sustainability.

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Biographies
Engr. Muhammad Nda is a Registered Engineer with COREN and a Ph.D. Research Fellow in Faculty of Civil
Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia. He earned his B.Eng. Civil Engineering
and M.Eng. Water Resources and Environmental Engineering from the Federal University of Technology Minna,
Niger State-Nigeria. He has published and serve as a reviewer for international journals and conferences. His research
interest is in sedimentation, erosion, river morphology, climate change, and environmental sustainability.

Dr. Mohd Shalahuddin Bin Adnan is the Head of Department, Academic Development and Training Center, and a
Senior Lecturer at Faculty of Civil Engineering and Built Environment Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia. Dr.
Mohd Shalahuddin holds a Bachelor of Engineering from Universiti Sains Malaysia and a Master of Engineering
Geology from Gadjah Maja University in Indonesia. He proceeded to Kyushu University in Japan and obtain a Ph.D.
in Urban and Environmental Engineering. He has taught many courses and supervised many research thesis at both
undergraduate and postgraduate levels. He has published several research papers and conferences. Dr. Mohd
Shalahuddin has served as head and member of several research grants. His research interests are river restoration,
improvement of the river environment, sedimentation and erosion, flood mitigation, and climate change.

Dr. Mohd Azlan Bin Mohd Yusoff is a Lecturer at Faculty of Civil Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti
Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia. He holds a Doctor of Philosophy in Hydroinformatics, a Bachelor and Masters Degree
from Universiti Sains Malaysia. He has taught many courses and supervised many research thesis at both
undergraduate and postgraduate levels. He has published several research papers and conferences. Dr. Azlan has
served and headed many research projects for the Universiti and Government MDA’s. His research interests are urban
drainage, sedimentation and scour, physical modelling and water resources soft computing techniques.

Engr. Gideon Shabako Jiya is a lecturer at the Civil Engineering Department, School of Engineering Technology,
The Federal Polytechnic Bida, Nigeria. He holds a B.Eng. in Civil Engineering from the Federal University of
Technology Minna, Nigeria, and M.Eng. in Highway materials and Transportation Engineering from the University
of Ilorin Nigeria. Engr. Jiya's research interests are Public transportation system, Highway and pavement materials,
and computer-aided transportation system.

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Detroit, Michigan, USA, August 10 - 14, 2020

Dr. Ibrahim Yakubu Ebenehi is a lecturer in the Building Technology Department, School of Environmental
Technology, The Federal Polytechnic Bauchi, Nigeria. had à BSc in Building, and MSc in Construction Management
from the University of Jos, Nigeria, and a Ph.D. in Real Estate & Facilities Management from Universiti Tun Hussein
Onn, Malaysia. Dr. Ebenehi's research involves fire safety management in Higher Education Institutions, post-disaster
housing reconstruction, sustainable construction management as well as facilities management.

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