Paper No.

07394

CORROSION PERFORMANCE OF COMMERCIALLY PURE

TITANIUM EXCHANGER TUBES IN ACID GAS REMOVAL UNITS;
OPERATIONAL EXPERIENCE

Bijan Kermani
KeyTech, PO Box 275, Camberley, UK
Emad El Roubi, Mahmoud Selim, Ahmed Al Bosaeedi and Guy Maisonneuve
ADGAS, PO Box 3500, Abu Dhabi, UAE

ABSTRACT

Harsh operating conditions prevailing in acid gas sweetening plants necessitate correct
choice of materials and corrosion mitigating measures. In particular, carbonate cooler units impose
significant challenges to an endured processing of harsh processing fluids represented by a
combination of elevated temperatures, corrosive fluids, fluid dynamics and operating conditions.
While, commercially pure titanium has generally provided a satisfactory performance in acid gas
sweetening plants, a number of failures were experienced as a result of wall loss and internal
scaling. This paper captures operational performance of Ti Grade 2 exchanger tubes and recaps
degradation processes that led to the occurrence of these failures. It highlights failure mechanisms
and necessary measures to minimising their future occurrence. Potential solutions are described
including operational and design modifications and materials upgrade. The materials upgrade is
developed based on a suitability rating taking into consideration several key parameters including
corrosion performance, track record, strength ratio, cost comparison and availability. The paper
has paved the way for sustaining trouble free operations in acid gas removal units.

Keywords: Acid Gas Removal Plants, Condenser Tubes, Corrosion, Failure Investigation, Hot
Carbonate, Hydriding, LNG Plant, Operational Performance, Titanium.

INTRODUCTION

Gas transportation is a key challenge facing the increasing global demands for energy.
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) technology is one practical and commercially viable way to achieve
this. It involves processes to substantially reduce the volume by means of liquefying the gas
through the application of refrigeration technology making gas transportation viable. The LNG
process requires stringent safety and precautionary measures during all the stages of liquefaction
in which materials integrity and longevity are paramount. There are several processes in the LNG
plant including compression, sweetening, drying and fractionation. The feed-gas that enters the
plant contains a number of components of which three (CO2, H2S and water) in
Copyright
©2007 by NACE International. Requests for permission to publish this manuscript in any form, in part or in whole must be in writing to NACE
International, Copyright Division, 1440 South creek Drive, Houston, Texas 777084. The material presented and the views expressed in this paper are
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particular should be reduced to the minimum in order to meet certain technical requirements that
are related partly to the liquefaction process itself and partly to the specifications set by the
customers.
The acidic gases are removed in the gas sweetening/removal plant unit involving several steps –
these are beyond the scope of the current study. Ti and its alloys have a good track record as
condenser tubing in these units offering superior corrosion performance. Nevertheless, over the
years of operations, a number of condenser tube failures were experienced in acid gas removal
units of ADGAS LNG plant on Das Island – these resulted in extensive and systematic studies to
elucidate the cause of damage and develop mitigating measures and subject of the present paper.
While the operation has proceeded successfully over the years, a number of condenser tubes in the
acid gas sweetening unit were subject to degradation in excess of expectation. These were
manufactured from commercially pure (CP) Grade 2 Ti which is known to provide satisfactory
performance in somewhat similar conditions [1-5]. The present study was therefore, conducted
with a view to review the operating conditions, materials data and processes in order to determine
the cause of condenser tube failures and put in place necessary mitigating actions to minimise their
future reoccurrence. The overriding imperative was a trouble free operation to allow improved
operational efficiency with no unplanned shut downs. The outcome of the study is captured in the
present paper. It includes an overview of CP Ti failure modes, illustrative analysis of failed tubes,
discussion and conclusions. The paper includes a summary of damage mechanisms and limits of
materials in relevant conditions, analysis of the operating limits and corrosion risk evaluation of
potential materials upgrades.

EXPERIENCE OF GRADE 2 CONDENSER TUBES

Ti in both CP and alloy forms has a proven track record in industrial applications. Grade 2
has performed satisfactorily under a diverse range of conditions [1-13]. However, failures have
occurred in a hot carbonate bundle in acid gas removal of the LNG plant. The operational
conditions for these units are portrayed in this section.

Hot Carbonate Condenser Bundle

The function of hot carbonate cooler is to decrease the lean carbonate solution temperature
from 120°C to 90°C prior to entering the absorption column. In this unit, seawater is on the tube
side and lean carbonate solution (K2CO3 at 30 % solution in water and H2S & CO2) on the shell
side. A schematic drawing of this unit is shown in Figure 1.
Tubing was Grade 2 Ti and a summary of operating conditions is included in Table 1. In these
units, both the baffle plates and impingement plates were made of Grade 316 stainless steel.
Again, since installation, a number of tubes were plugged due to tube blockage or leaks as a result
of metal loss. The overall approximate metal loss rate bearing in mind the wall thickness and the
exposure period was around 2 mm/y. This was considered unacceptable for the designed wall
thickness and a trouble free operation over the design life and very uncommon for Ti. It was
interesting to note that the profile of degradation indicated a direct relationship between pattern of
degradation and temperature profile in the exchanger unit as described later.
This failed bundle was removed and was subject to a failure analysis details of which are provided
in a later section.
It is apparent that the inlet temperature for the unit was high and possibly beyond the safe limit of
use for Grade 2 Ti.

FAILURE EXAMINATION

Tube sections removed from hot carbonate condenser bundle were examined visually and
then were subject to metallurgical examinations and failure investigations. This synopsis,

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therefore, focuses on examination of failed tubes from the hot carbonate condenser bundle with
key observation and analysis.

Key Observations
Close visual and metallographic examinations of tubes removed from hot carbonate
condenser bundle revealed several key features a combination of which provided valuable
information on the cause of failures. Notable observations are as follows:
• The top three rows (plugged) were fully deteriorated from the carbonate inlet locations the
degree of which diminished towards the carbonate outlet wherein no visible deterioration was
observed. The bundle is shown in Figures 2 and 3. Figure 2a includes a corrosion map of
damage profile along the bundle. The damage profile indicated a direct relationship between
the extent of degradation and temperature in the exchanger (although this relationship was
not exactly linear) with high corrosion severity coinciding with temperature values close to
the inlet. Figure 3 shows the most severely degraded tubes which were on the top of the
bundle close to the process fluid inlet areas
• The internal surfaces of the tubes were covered with hard scales extent of which diminished
with lowering seawater temperature, as shown in Figure 2b – the scale formed on the inner
sections (tube side) was indicative of scale formed in seawater conditions whereas scale
formed on the outer sections (shell side) had a complex composition indicative of Ti oxide
impregnated with sulphur and chloride containing compounds possibly coming from the
process fluid
• Tube thinning occurred on both the external (shell side) and internal (tube side) surfaces:
o Shell Side; there was evidence of non-uniform/irregular corrosion on tube outer
surfaces as shown in Figure 4 and an intergranular appearance as shown in Figure 5.
Wall thinning was enhanced by the wear/fretting corrosion at the baffle hole locations.
From the dimensional analysis, it became apparent that most of the damage was from
the outer surfaces. These values were further analysed into an average corrosion rate
and in became apparent that the losses were not acceptable bearing in mind that unit
was in operations for only 2 years
o Tube Side; tube inner surfaces underwent general corrosion with no indication of pitting
or crevice.
• The microstructure showed some twin bands on the outer surfaces but more significantly
hydride needles at the grain boundaries throughout the tube wall, although its extent was
more on the outer surfaces (shell side) than the inner surfaces (tube side), an example of
which is shown in Figure 6.
It is concluded that the roughened surfaces on the outer surfaces were due to a combination of (i)
exposure to high temperatures complemented by either (ii) fluid flow impinging on the top few
rows of tubes at the process stream inlet or (iii) downstream of baffle plate holes (both are
considered as critical locations). These three parameters and particularly the high temperature
conditions facilitated higher corrosion rates which resulted in the formation of hydride preferentially
at grain boundaries (Figures 5 and 6) and wall thinning at areas remote from the critical locations.
The key variables in the occurrence of failure were considered to be (i) temperature profile, (ii)
high velocity fluid flow inlet impinging on top rows of tubes on the process fluid inlet, (iii) fretting
corrosion damage at baffle plate holes and (iv) fluid flow downstream of baffle plate holes causing
fluid erosion/corrosion damage. While (iii) and (iv) are related to the actual hole size and a design
consideration, the former (i) and (ii) are discussed further here. It should be noted that the hot
carbonate condenser bundle contained impingement plates – this reduces the likelihood of
impingement attack to a great degree.
A simple correlation of temperature profile and percentage failures is shown in Figure 7. A higher
percentage of failed tubes was observed in the higher temperature zones. While temperature plays
a significant role in promoting corrosion of Grade 2 Ti and its reduction leads to progressively
reduced corrosion (from 60% at inlet to zero after the sixth baffle plate), the impact of fluid inlet is
a secondary consideration in promoting impingement corrosion on areas close to the inlet.

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However, the effect of fluid impact is minor considering the presence of impingement plates as
discussed earlier.

The Perforated Tube

The occurrence of total perforation, an example of which is shown in Figure 3, is complex as
there was no exact indication of the extent of corrosion progress prior to or after the leak. In this
situation, the leak and subsequent plugging had led to the exposure of tube (both internal and
external surfaces) to the process fluid. Based on the observation that there was less corrosion on
the internal surfaces (tube side) and wall loss was primarily from the outer surfaces (shell side)
with a relatively non-uniform attack, it is conceivable that the leaks started from the outside
surfaces unless severe hydro-drilling were carried out to remove internal scales which may have
led to leaks emanating from the internal surfaces (tube side). The causes of such severe corrosion
(Figure 3) can be attributed to a number of factors including:
• high temperature conditions of the process stream causing eventual hydride formation and
intergranular corrosion allowing embrittlement which resulted in an increased loss of metal
and large removal of sections
• The vibration at these locations containing brittle hydride led to large scale removal of tube
sections by fatigue
• High turbulence downstream of baffle holes (eddies) again together with elevated
temperature facilitating formation, removal and low rate reformation of Ti oxide and hydride
formation and enhanced corrosion and breakage
• A possible low level of galvanic corrosion between stainless steel baffle plates and Ti tube
leading to preferential metal loss, although this was considered unlikely.

CORROSION OF TITANIUM

Ti and its alloys are reported to offer excellent resistance to general and localised corrosion
under most oxidising, neutral and inhibited reducing conditions. They also remain passive under
mildly reducing conditions, although they may be attacked by strongly reducing or complexing
media. Corrosion resistance is due to a stable protective strongly adherent oxide film. A damaged
oxide film can generally reheal itself instantaneously (repassivation) if at least traces of oxygen or
water are present in the environment [1-5]. However, anhydrous conditions in the absence of a
source of oxygen may result in Ti corrosion because the protective film may not be regenerated if
damaged. Nevertheless, a number of different corrosion types are reported for CP Ti as briefly
described here. The conditions for the occurrence of these damage types were mapped against
which the prevailing conditions present in the gas removal unit were underlined drawing parallels
on a possible cause of tube failures.

Pitting
This form of attack necessitates anodic pitting potential exceeding breakdown potential
which rarely occurs in normal conditions of exposure of CP Ti to clean or polluted natural water or
seawater. This is due to the high potential of Ti oxide film in chloride bearing media (greater than
+ 1 volt against Ag/ AgCl at 200°C) [1-7]. However, care should be exercised to remove or avoid
surface iron contamination when temperatures of greater than 77 oC are encountered as these
locations may cause a potential difference necessary to cause pitting corrosion [1-8]. The present
condenser tube bundles operated within the immune areas for pitting corrosion [6] with little or no
evidence of pitting damage, although the operating temperatures for some conditions exceeded 77
o
C.

Erosion corrosion
For most materials, there is a critical velocity, beyond which protective films are swept away
and accelerated corrosion attack may occur, known as erosion-corrosion. The critical velocity

4
varies according to the fluid chemistry and also presence and nature of solids. Laboratory tests [7]
have demonstrated the ability of Ti to handle safely seawater flowing at velocities up to 30m/sec in
the absence of solids, although a maximum of 8 m/s (25 ft/s) is more acceptable limit for
commercially pure (CP) Ti. The condenser tube bundles, subject of the present study operated at
velocities below the critical conditions to ensure lack of erosion/corrosion. Nevertheless, there may
have been some critical locations, such as on process fluid inlet or areas close to baffle plate holes,
where velocities could have exceeded erosion-corrosion velocities. Impingement plates minimised
the occurrence of such damage at process inlet areas.

Crevice Corrosion
Localised pitting or corrosion, occurring in tight crevices and under scale or other deposits is
a recognised problem for 6%Mo steels and copper alloys as operating temperatures rise. In the
case of Ti however, attack will not normally occur below 70°C regardless of chloride concentration
and solution pH. Only at temperatures above the boiling point will seawater and neutral brines
develop localised reducing acidic conditions, where pitting of Ti may occur [8]. Crevices may be
formed at flange-to-gasket contact zones, metal-to-metal contact areas in mechanical
joints/connections and under salt deposits/scales. Such considerations have not been found to
apply in condenser operation using Ti tubes [7]. When seawater-exposed metal temperatures are
expected to exceed 75-80°C, the more crevice-resistant Ti alloy grades have been recommended.
These include the Ru- or Pd-enhanced Ti alloy grades. These particular alloys can be expected to
provide full resistance to localised seawater attack to temperatures as high as 260°C [8].
Generally, there was no reported evidence of crevice corrosion in any of the condenser units within
the current study indicating that these were working in immunity domain conditions with respect to
crevice corrosion. However, there may have been some indication of crevice damage beneath
scales formed in the tube side conditions.

Hydriding
Atomic hydrogen may be absorbed by Ti during corrosion. If the soluble hydrogen within
the matrix exceeded a certain limit, Ti hydride is formed. Hydrogen can be formed by corrosion of
Ti itself or by corrosion of another less noble metal which is galvanically coupled to Ti. The latter
case often occurs in narrow crevices between two dissimilar metals. Hydriding may not necessarily
be the result of corrosion of less noble metal. It may occur in situations of over protected cathodic
protection and at elevated temperatures or in situation of fretting where fresh metal is exposed and
subsequent corrosion takes place to re-passivate the surface. This latter case is probable at joints
close to the baffle plates in the condenser units subject of the current study.
Disruption of oxide film on Ti may allow easy penetration of hydrogen. Three criteria need to be
met for hydriding of Ti to occur [1-7, 12-15]:
1. The pH of the solution should be <3 or greater than 12 – the surface should be damaged by
solids or when impressed potential are more negative than -0.80 V (SCE). Mechanical
disruption of the film (i.e. iron is smeared into the surface or fretting) permits hydrogen entry
at any pH level – this may occur at baffle plate holes
2. The temperature is above 77 oC - at lower temperatures diffusion is slow and hydrogen tends
to be restricted to the surface layers of the metal.
3. There must be some mechanism for generating hydrogen - galvanic couple, CP, dynamic
abrasion to depress the potential below than required for spontaneous evolution of hydrogen.
Some evidence of hydriding was observed on Ti tubing taken from hot carbonate condenser bundle
– this may have resulted from the continual exposure to elevated temperatures, impingement
attack due to process fluid inlet, fretting corrosion at baffle plate holes, presence of H2S or contact
with less noble metals all highly influenced by elevated temperature conditions.

Other forms of Attack

CP Ti is essentially immune to SCC in seawater – other grades with >0.2% oxygen may be
prone in some conditions. This susceptibility is however, usually associated with the high stress

5
concentrations, untypical of condenser working environment and no field failures have been
recorded [5-18]. Other forms of corrosion including corrosion fatigue, biofouling, and microbial
induced corrosion were disregarded as a cause of damage in the present study.

MATERIALS SUITABILITY

Having considered all potential corrosion mechanisms, industry experience and limits
imposed by industry standards [1-15], a matrix of potential materials which are deemed suitable
for the condenser tubes in acid gas removal units was developed. The matrix captures information
obtained from past performances and included the following parameters:
• Corrosion performance rating covering:
o The internal fluid (chlorinated aerated seawater) on the tube side and
o The external environment (process fluids) on the shell side
• Track Record; indicating past use of each alloy in somewhat similar conditions
• Strength ratio
• Cost ratio bearing in mind cost comparison provided by the vendors and open literature
• Availability of each material.
The matrix led to defining a suitability rating (SR) according to which potential materials options
were ranked. The outcome is summarised in Figure 8 with respect to the most appropriate
materials option for tubing application. This comprehensive summary gives a clear ranking of
potential materials option. It indicates that Grade 7 is the most suitable followed closely by Grades
16 and 26. However, Grade 16 (Pd containing version) provided the most appropriate and cost
effective options. Grade 26 (Ru containing version) lower ranking was due to its long lead time
and not performance. It should be noted that Grade 16 is not included in ISO 15156-Part3 (NACE
MR0175) [16]. Grades 2 and 12 are acceptable for sour service duty according to this standard.
Grades 16 and 26 are improved versions of Grade 2 and the reason for their lack of appearance in
the ISO standard is the lack of data submission otherwise their sour service acceptability should be
equal or better than Grade 2.
It should be emphasised that as in most cases Ti Grade 2 has performed satisfactorily, there is
little large scale track record of other grades such as 16 and 26 in the industry.

DISCUSSION AND SYNOPSIS

Condenser tube damages in acid gas removal units fell into three categories of (i) scale
formation on internal surfaces due to exposure to elevated temperature untreated seawater on the
tube side, (ii) wall thinning at locations close to process fluid inlet due to corrosion, hydride
formation and impingement attack and (iii) wall loss at baffle plate hole areas due to fretting
corrosion - the latter two occurring on the shell side.
Based on the observations made on tubes removed from the hot carbonate condenser bundle, wall
loss occurred primarily on the shell side with lower losses on the tube side. The wall thinning was
mainly at areas close to the process stream entry and baffle plate holes away from which uniform
general low corrosion rate was observed. This was considered to be due to a combination of
parameters and primarily exposure to elevated temperature conditions beyond the safe limits of
Grade 2 Ti [1-13]. The wall loss translated into a nominal corrosion was excessive for Ti tubes
within the operational life of each unit. This implies that while, past experience of Grade 2 Ti
tubing generally provided satisfactory service in areas away from process fluid inlet and baffle plate
holes, its use within the present condenser units provided a borderline performance. Nevertheless,
the lack of crevice attack, being potentially the main cause of damage in these units, clearly
indicated that Grade 2 Ti tubing performed well away from critical areas of high temperature, very
high velocity process stream containing droplets which impinges on the surfaces, or where surfaces
were mechanically damaged by fretting corrosion.

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Elevated temperature exposure at around 105-110oC and above, therefore, played a significant role
in promoting corrosion failures of Ti Grade 2 condenser tubes. The high temperature exposure,
beyond an acceptable limit for CP Grade 2 Ti [1-8] led to the formation of hydrides and more than
acceptable general metal loss. Excessive corrosion loss was due to low repassivation rate of Ti
Grade 2 to form the stable protective oxide film in conditions of elevated temperatures and the
absence of oxidising media. Nevertheless, other parameters such as impingement attack caused
by high velocity impact on the entry of process stream carrying droplets on top rows of tubes,
fretting corrosion and eddies downstream of the baffle plate holes were minor contributory factors
in causing the failures. A combination of these parameters led to the continuation of the corrosion
process and the formation of hydride preferentially at grain boundaries with some intergranular
corrosion leading to increased corrosion rates and leaks. Hydride formation occurred on the outer
surfaces (shell side) as well as the inner surfaces (tube side), although its extent was higher on the
shell side due to its relatively higher temperature. Intergranular corrosion of Ti is a feature
associated with high temperature exposure to non-oxidising conditions and hydride formation [1-
7]. In view of the existence of impingement plates in the hot carbonate condenser bundle at
process fluid inlet, the risk of such degradation process is low and the primary cause of failure can
now be attributed to the low corrosion resistance of Ti Grade 2 to high temperature conditions in
excess of 105-110oC.
The reasons behind elevated temperature exposures were twofold; (i) high temperature conditions
of the process fluid and (ii) scale formation. Internal scale formation due to seawater played a
significant role. This led the lowering of condenser efficiency which in turn caused increasing tube
skin temperature. The increased skin temperature together with high temperature of process fluid
on entry to the bundle resulted in the overall temperature exceeding an acceptable level for Grade
2 Ti.
A number of remedial measures are being put in place – these fall within two broad categories; (i)
complementary measures and (ii) materials upgrade. Complementary measures intended to allow
continued use of Ti Grade 2 covers design considerations and include (a) reducing the possibility of
scale formation on the internal surfaces (tube side) by a more progressive seawater treatment and
(b) minimising the intensity of attack on external surfaces (shell side) through more efficient
placement of impingement plates/deflector gratings to allow a more uniform process fluid
distribution entry, (c) eliminating droplet erosion by fitting inverted U shaped stainless steel
sections clipped over the top two or three layers of tubes and (d) review of baffle plate hole size to
eliminate localised wall loss in these areas due to fretting corrosion
A material upgrade to Ti Grade 16 is being considered for implementation. This was demonstrated
through carrying out a suitability rating (SR) of potential materials options. SR reduced the list of
suitable materials to Ti Grades 7, 16 or 26 with Grade 16 the most appropriate and economical
choice. The material upgrade backed by complementary measures will achieve trouble free
operations and minimise the reoccurrence of condenser tube failures.

CONCLUSION

The present study of causes and potential corrective measures for condenser tube failures in
hot carbonate unit of acid gas removal of an LNG plant has led to a number of conclusions as
follows:
1. A number of condenser tubes have been plugged due to either (i) scale formed on the internal
surfaces (tube side) or (ii) wall loss
2. While scale formation did not greatly damage the internal surfaces, its progressive formation
led to increasing tube wall temperature leading to increased corrosion of Grade 2 Ti
3. Wall loss from the external surfaces (shell side) occurred on (i) areas close to the process
stream inlet and (ii) areas adjacent to baffle plate holes due to fretting corrosion - the
respective corrosion rates in these areas were found to be excessive and uncharacteristic for
Ti tube
4. While Grade 2 Ti generally offered a good service in locations away from critical areas such as
the process fluid inlet (with high temperature and high velocity) and baffle plate holes, with no

7
 evidence of crevice corrosion, its use within the present condenser unit offered a borderline
performance
5. Metallographic examinations of failed Ti Grade 2 tubes showed minor evidence of intergranular
corrosion on the outer surfaces (shell side) and hydriding throughout the wall, although its
extent was higher on the outer surfaces (shell side). This was attributed to the continuation
of corrosion process at high temperatures and, to a lesser extent, high velocity and fretting
damage at baffle hole areas, leading to removal of Ti oxide protective layer and its low
reformation rate
6. The presence of hydride throughout the tube thickness indicated that the entire wall
temperature exceeded the temperature tolerance of Grade 2 Ti and hence increased corrosion
7. The failure process for Ti Grade 2 condenser tube is attributed to continuation of corrosion
process through a combination of (i) high temperature conditions throughout the wall and in
excess of the tolerance of Grade 2 Ti, (ii) impact of process stream entry on top rows of tubes
particularly in situations where there is no impingement plates, (iii) fretting corrosion at baffle
plate holes due to fretting and (iv) eddies downstream of baffle plate holes
8. A number of measures are being put in place to minimise the future reoccurrence of failures
including (i) changes to the condenser unit design, care in cleaning and careful monitoring of
both seawater and process stream for changes in system chemistry to provide extended
satisfactory performance of Ti Grade 2 and (ii) a material’s upgrade to Ti Grade 16.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The data presented in this paper were generated through a number of studies sponsored
by ADGAS. The authors wish to express their thanks and appreciation to ADGAS for approval to
publish the results. The input from Mr Tim Norman of Bureau Veritas Stanger Materials Science is
fully acknowledged.

REFERENCES

1. ASM Handbook, Vol 13, Corrosion, Seventh Edition, 2002

AND Titanium for Offshore and Marine Applications, A Designers and Users Handbook, TIG/IFE, 1999
Titanium Alloys, Design and Fabrication Handbook for Industrial Applications, TIMET
Corrosion Resistance of Titanium, TIMET, 1997
Titanium Alloy Guide, RTI International Metals
F Hua et al, NACE International Conference, Paper 05582, 2005
2. ASM Handbook, Vol 13A, Corrosion,; Fundamentals, Testing and Protection, 2003
3. Titanium, A Technical Guide, ed M J Donachie, ASM, 2000
4. Uhlig’s Corrosion Handbook, 2nd Edition, Electrochemical Society Series, ed R W Revie, 2000
5. J S Grauman, in Encyclopaedia of Chemical Processing & Design, ed J J McKella, Marcel Dekke, Vol 38, pp 123-147,
1998
6. N G Feige and T J Murphy, TIMET, 1990
7. D M McCue, D K Peacock, “The Application of Titanium for Power Plant Surface Condensers”, EPRI.
8. Materials Information Service – The Selection and Use of Titanium, A Design Guide; The Institute of Materials
9. Seawater Circuits; Treatment and Materials, Edition Technip, Paris, 1998.
10. L Lunde and M Seiersten, Offshore application of titanium alloys, in Titanium and Titanium Alloys, eds C Leyers and M
Peters, 2003
11. R W Schultz; NACE International Conference, Paper 01003, 2001
12. TIG, Data Sheet No. 3, Titanium and Hydrogen, (Revision 03 Oct 2001)
13. R L Turissini, NACE International Conference, Paper 522, 1997
14. R Thomas, Titanium in Geothermal Industry, TIMET, Swansea, 2000.
15. NORSOK MDP-001, Rev 4, 2004
16. ISO 15156 – Part 3, 2003.

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 Table 1
Operating Conditions
Unit Tube Side Condition Shell Side Condition
Inlet Outlet Op Inlet Outlet Op
Fluid Temp Temp Press Fluid Temp Temp Press
(oC) (oC) (bar) (oC) (oC) (bar)
Fluid/gas; lean
Hot Carbonate
Seawater 35 55 1.5-2.0 carbonate with 120 90 50.2-60
Condenser Bundle CO2/H2S

Figure 1. A schematic drawing of process diagram and function for condenser tube bundle.

Figure 2. Degradation of hot carbonate bundle with (a) showing a profile of corrosion severity and
(b) internal scale formed on the tube side.

9
Figure 3. An overview of the deteriorated tubes; the top three rows close to carbonate inlet
location (plugged) were totally deteriorated and a perforated tube.

Figure 4. An overview of roughened surface appearance close to baffle plate hole area.

10
Figure 5. An intergranular appearance of the outer surfaces (shell side) (X500).

Figure 6. A micrograph showing hydride needles formed throughout the wall ligament (X500).

11
Figure 7. A simplistic correlation of temperature and percentage corrosion with distance from
tube plate on hot carbonate condenser bundle.

Figure 8. Condenser tube materials suitability chart of potential Ti grade options.

12