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Do Increases in Selected Fitness Parameters Affect the Aesthetic Aspects of

Classical Ballet Performance?

Article in Medical Problems of Performing Artists · March 2011

DOI: 10.21091/mppa.2011.1005 · Source: PubMed

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 Do Increases in Selected Fitness Parameters
Affect the Aesthetic Aspects of
Classical Ballet Performance?
Emily A. Twitchett, BSc, Manuela Angioi, MSc, Yiannis Koutedakis, PhD, and Matthew Wyon, PhD
Research has indicated that classical ballet dancers tend to have
lower fitness levels and increased injury rates compared to other ath-
letes with similar workloads. The aim of the current study was to
examine the effects of a specifically tailored fitness training pro-
gramme on the incidence of injury and the aesthetic quality of per-
formance of classical ballet dancers compared to a control group.
Proficiency in performance was evaluated at the beginning and end
of the intervention period for both groups through a 4-min dance
sequence using previously ratified marking criteria. The interven-
tion group (n = 8) partook in a weekly 1-hr training session that
included aerobic interval training, circuit training, and whole body
vibration (WBV) All dancers’ performance proficiency scores
increased from pre-intervention testing to post-intervention. The
intervention group’s overall performance scores demonstrated a sig-
nificantly greater increase (p = 0.03) than the equivalent for the con-
trol group. It was concluded that supplementary fitness training has
a positive effect on aspects related to aesthetic dance performance as
studied herein; further research is recommended on a larger and
more varied sample. Practical applications from this study suggest
that supplemental training should be part of a ballet dancer’s
regime, and minimal intervention time is required to have observ-
able effects. Med Probl Perform Art 2011; 26(1):35–38.
R esearch in classical ballet to date has been observational
in nature; there is a paucity of literature investigating
the effect of supplemental fitness training on ballet perform-
ance or on the health and well-being of dancers. While it has
been recommended that levels of fitness adequate to avoid
fatigue would be advantageous in performance, the study of
such has been only in gymnasts.1,2
Classical ballet is a high-intensity intermittent form of
exercise3–7 which requires a good aerobic foundation.8 Many
dancers have cited fatigue as one of the most prominent
causes of a decrease in performance ability1,8 (balance, poise
and coordination, alignment) and injury.9,10 Published data
have indicated that dancers have poor aerobic capacities com-
Ms. Twitchett, Ms. Angioi, Dr. Koutedakis, and Dr. Wyon are with the
Research Centre for Sport, Exercise and Performance, University of Wolver-
hampton, Walsall, UK; Dr. Koutedakis is also with the Department of
Exercise Sciences, University of Thessaly, Trikala, Greece; and Dr. Wyon is
also with the Jerwood Centre for the Prevention and Treatment of Dance
Injuries, Birmingham, UK.
The Arts and Humanities Research Council of the UK provided for fund-
ing this project.
Address correspondence to: Dr. Matthew Wyon, School of Sport Performing
Arts and Leisure, University of Wolverhampton, Gorway Rd., Walsall,
West Midlands WS1 3BD, UK. Tel 01902-323144, fax 01902322894.
m.wyon@wlv.ac.uk.
pared to athletes in other high-intensity, intermittent activi-
ties.4,7 Furthermore, it has been found that the work that
classical ballet dancers carry out in class, rehearsal, and per-
formance places little stress on the cardiovascular system and
is insufficient to further develop aerobic fitness.5,7 However,
limited aerobic capacity may force performers to work anaer-
obically during dance action and take longer to recover, caus-
ing central and peripheral fatigue.11–14 In sport, fatigue has
been shown to have a detrimental effect on skill,2,15 and it is
logical to assume that this is reflected within dance. There-
fore dancers with better aerobic fitness levels will be less
affected by fatigue and its deleterious effects on dance tech-
nique and performance.
A number of studies have reported that dancers do not
display the same strength levels as other equivalent ath-
letes.16–19 Due to these low strength levels, dancers are left
even more prone to injury at times of fatigue.8,20 In fact,
research has shown that low levels of thigh strength have
been associated with greater severity of injury in dancers.21
The observed discrepancy in physical fitness parameters
observed between dancers and other sports people could be
due to three potential areas: firstly, dance is a high skill activ-
ity and therefore the dancer is rarely exposed to high inten-
sity activity.6,7,22,23 Secondly, although many dancers use
somatic techniques such as Pilates and Gyrotonics as supple-
mental training, few expose themselves to intensities that will
cause strength and cardiorespiratory adaptations.10,24,25
Lastly, the majority of the dance hierarchy within preprofes-
sional schools and professional companies have yet to be con-
vinced that if time is scheduled for supplemental training
that it would not be better spent in more rehearsals.10
The aim of the current study was to examine how a period
of supplemental fitness training incorporating aerobic and
local muscular endurance training might affect the aesthetic
quality of performance in classical ballet dancers.
METHODS
Participants
To ensure that the control and intervention groups were
exposed to exactly the same dance workloads (class, rehearsal,
and performance), participants were recruited from the same
company or institution-year, which had the effect of limiting
participant numbers. A total of 17 dancers (F = 14, M = 3)
volunteered; they were in the final 6 months of a preprofes-
sional training programme and were performing within a
March 2011 35
 TABLE 1. Participant Characteristics
Group No. Age (yrs)
Control 9 19 ± 0.78
Intervention 8 19 ± 0.37
touring company (Table 1). All participants were informed of
potential risks and signed an informed consent form. Ethical
approval for the study was granted by the Ethics Committee
of the Research Centre for Sport, Exercise, and Performance,
University of Wolverhampton.
Nine dancers were randomly assigned to a control group
and 8 to an intervention group. To ensure that the groups
were homogeneous prior to the commencement of the inter-
vention, all participants underwent fitness tests as outlined
by the British Association of Sport and Exercise Science.26
These included body composition assessments, aerobic fit-
ness, lower limb power, hip flexibility (active and passive),
and upper body and core musculature endurance. Indepen-
dent t-tests revealed no significant differences (p < 0.05)
between the control and intervention groups for any of the
fitness parameters.
Intervention
The intervention group participated in 10 one-hour-long fit-
ness training sessions over the course of a 10-week period
during a rehearsal period. Only using 1 supplemental train-
ing session per week might be much less than that prescribed
by a number of authorities, such as the American College of
Sports Medicine (ACSM),27 but those authorities were com-
menting on ideal exposures for sedentary populations and
not a population that is already exercising for 6 to 10 hours
each day.
These sessions were led by two qualified healthcare pro-
fessionals and followed the same format each time. The ses-
sions were aimed at improving aerobic capacity and local
muscular endurance using high-intensity interval training
and circuit training methods. Aerobic capacity was stressed
using high-intensity interval training, alternating 1-minute
activity with 1-minute rest, for 20 minutes. This method of
training was chosen to develop aerobic fitness, but in a
manner which reflects the work-to-rest ratios observed in
many classical ballet performances.5,6,28 The intensity of the
work was set between 15 and 18 on the 20-point Borg scale
(RPE).
The second part of the training session involved circuit
training, where a minute of exercise targeting a specific
muscle group was followed by a minute of skipping with 10-
second change over period. Figure 1 depicts a typical circuit
with the exercises that were chosen. The training methods
were chosen to reflect the high-intensity, intermittent nature
of classical ballet performance, as agreed in the litera-
ture.5–7,28 The control group did not receive any additional
training but were offered the intervention program following
the completion of the study.
36 Medical Problems of Performing Artists
Height (m) Weight (kg)
1.68 ± 0.06 55.5 ± 9.25
1.64 ± 0.04 50.1 ± 3.95
Outcome Measure: Performance Proficiency Test
All dancers were video-recorded performing a predetermined
excerpt of classical ballet repertoire at the outset and again at
the conclusion of the study. The pre- and post-intervention
videos for both groups were randomised prior to analysis by
an experienced classical ballet assessor, using a reliable per-
formance proficiency tool.29 The tool measures areas such as
skill, precision, and musicality, which can be seen in Table 2.
The difference between pre-intervention scores and post-
intervention scores was calculated prior to statistical analysis.
Statistical Analyses
Routine pre-analyses were conducted using the Kolmogorov-
Smirnov normality tests to detect if variables were normally
distributed. Preliminary independent t-tests were used to
assess any differences in fitness levels between the two groups
of participants before the intervention period, before
analysing the changes in performance scores. Independent t-
tests and power calculations were used to analyse these pre- to
post-intervention changes in scores, between the two groups
of dancers. Statistical significance for all analyses was set at
alpha 95% (alpha correction factors for repeated t-tests were
implemented).
RESULTS
Performance Proficiency Assessments
Independent t-tests revealed significant differences between
control and intervention groups for the pre- to post-interven-
tion change in the total proficiency score (p = 0.03). Power
calculations indicated the results were significant at 78%;
although this is slightly below the recommended 80% for sci-
entific investigations, the authors acknowledge that this is
partly due to the subjective nature of scoring the aesthetic
components of the dancer performance. Statistical differ-
Exercise
_______________________________________________
Muscular endurance Aerobic
Spine hyperextension Skipping
Press ups Skipping
Abdominal curls Skipping
Elbow extension (dynaband) Skipping
Lunges Skipping
Bicep curls (dynaband) Skipping
Bar pull ups Skipping
FIGURE 1. Typical circuit for training.
 TABLE 2. Brief Description of Performance Assessment Variables

Coordination Whole body moving harmoniously

Control of movement
Spatial awareness
Accuracy of movement
Skill level (virtuosity)
Timing and rhythmical accuracy
Response to phrasing and dynamics
Expression and interpretation
Communication/projection
“X-factor”
Controlled landing from jumps and turns, controlled lifting/lowering of limbs, controlled shifting
of body weight
Awareness of dance space and peripheral space
Correct classical ballet arm placement, accurate foot positions (closings etc), fully stretched leg
extensions where required, technical accuracy within the realms of classical ballet technique
High jumps, high leg extensions, multiple turns, ‘batterie’ in allegro movements
Dancing with accurate timing, in time with musical accompaniment.
Showing not only an awareness for changes in musical dynamics and phrasing but responding to
them appropriately. Showing the appropriate dynamic for each movement.
Showing expression throughout the whole body
Performing to an audience, using a varied eye-contact and projection of emotion where appropriate
The performance, as a whole, evoking an emotional response from the audience/assessor.

ences were also noted within a number of the subcategories: dence to support that the inclusion of a weekly fitness training
control (p = 0.039), skill (p = 0.043), and “x-factor” (p = session into current dance training programmes is enough to
0.033). Descriptions of each of the variables assessed during cause observable improvements in dancers’ artistic abilities.
performance can be seen in Table 3. The key findings of the study indicate that the performance
proficiency of the intervention group improved significantly
DISCUSSION more than that of the control group after a 10-week supple-
mental training intervention (one 1-hour session per week).
The aim of the current study was to examine how a “real-life” Previous research has indicated that dancers have poorly
period of supplementary fitness training, specifically designed developed aerobic capacities 6,7,9,24,31 and muscular strength18
to stress the aerobic system and to improve muscular compared to other non-endurance athletes. Dance is a high-
endurance, might affect the quality of performance of classi- skill intermittent activity,28,31 and this lack of physiological
cal ballet dancers. Dancers are renowned for having long conditioning means that dancers become fatigued relatively
training days and few rest days within their schedules. There- quickly and this has led dancers to perceive fatigue as the
fore, the use of more traditional training interventions of main cause of their injuries.9,10 Training the aerobic system,
three sessions a week was precluded to prevent possible over- as in the present study, would have a positive effect on per-
training, where the dancers exhibit physical and psychological formance either by improving the actual VO2max,32 and
symptoms such as a decrease in “technical ability” (skill, con- thereby all dance activity then occurs at a lower percentage of
trol, coordination), reduced ability to heal from illness or their maximum,33 or by shifting the anaerobic threshold to
injury, depression, irritability, and a decrease in energy.30 the right, thereby allowing more work to be done prior to the
However, it appears that within the present study, this extra anaerobic threshold.34,35 The significant improvements in
training was not detrimental to the dancers and is further evi- the overall performance proficiency scores suggest that the
intervention group was working at a lower relative work
intensity in the second performance proficiency test. A simi-
TABLE 3. Changes in Score from Pre-Intervention to lar study of rhythmic gymnasts, a sport with many similar
Post-Intervention demands to classical ballet, reported that the individual per-
Change in Score formers’ anaerobic threshold was a critical factor in perform-
_________________________
Control Intervention ance proficiency.2
Variable Group Group The circuit training was focused on improving the condi-
tioning and the fatigue resistance of peripheral muscle
Total performance score 1.56 ± 3.97 6.25 ± 4.10*
groups.36 The accumulation of lactate affects muscle contrac-
Coordination 0.3 ± 0.50 0.5 ± 0.54
tion37 and could impair performance in terms of coordina-
Control of movement 0.2 ± 0.83 1.0 ± 0.54*
Spatial awareness 0.1 ± 0.60 0.5 ± 0.76 tion, intricate skill, poise, and grace.1 This may explain the
Accuracy of movement 0.6 ± 1.01 0.8 ± 0.46 significant increase in proficiency scores for control and skill
Skill level (virtuosity) –0.1 ± 1.36 1.1 ± 0.84* in the intervention group over the control group. The
Timing and rhythmical accuracy 0.4 ± 0.88 0.5 ± 9.3 volume of training required to elicit an effect has been the
Response to phrasing and subject of much debate among exercise physiologists,38–41 and
dynamics 0.1 ± 0.60 0.6 ± 0.92 the volume of training in the present study was lower than
Expression and interpretation 0.2 ± 0.67 0.25 ± 0.46 most physiologists recommend. The authors conclude that
Communication/projection –0.3 ± 0.87 0.5 ± 0.76 within the present sample, the fitness intervention had a pos-
“X-factor” 0.0 ± 0.50 0.9 ± 0.99* itive effect on dance performance.
*Indicates a significant pre- to post-intervention difference, where p The present study gives some evidence to support the
<0.05. inclusion of aerobic interval training and local muscular

March 2011 37
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38 Medical Problems of Performing Artists

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