Directions: INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITY. Circle the letter of the correct answer.

1. An informal or indirect expression of knowledge happens through

a. Gestures c. Words
b. Books d. Sentences

2. Between world knowledge and RRL, the second serves as the

a. Summary c. Conclusion
b. Linker d. Symbol

3. Your direction in your RRL is given by your research

a. Data b. Design C. Problem d. Question

4. Your purpose in doing RRL is

a. Dual c.specific
b. Plural d. Singular

5. Research question is a must in a literature review called

a. Traditional c. systematic
b. Optional d. Structural

6. Subjective literature review takes place in a review that is

a. Scoping C. systematic
B.statistical d. Scientific

7. Among the types of traditional review, these two share some similarities.

a. a critical and conceptual C. start of the art and scoping

b. b. scoping and expert d. critical and expert

8. A year from now, I will start my thesis writing for my MA degree. I must then look
forward to doing this RRL style.

a. Scoping c.scoping
b. State-of-the-art d. Systematic

9. Being a first year BA student, I can conduct a literature review using this style

a. systematic and traditional C. systematic

b. Multi-system d. Traditional

10. Without research questions, your RRL structure can appear in a form called

a. Narrative b. Statistical c.outline d.tabular

Activity 2
Directions: Explain each expression the way you understood them in relation to research.
1.Related Literature
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2.Review of Related Literature
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Traditional review of Literature
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Systematic review of related literature
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Structure of literature review results
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Elaborating Learned Concepts

Activity 1
Directions: PAIR WORK. In the space provided, give a graphical presentation of the sequential
acts of a systematic review of literature.

Activity 2
Directions: GROUP WORK: Form a group of four. Imagine you are guest speakers in a seminar
titled, "RRL or Review of Related Literature: The Key to a Successful Research." Have a division
of work. See to it that you divide the speaking parts equally among the four of you.

Activity 3: Essay Writing

Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Using a comparison-contrast organization technique, write a
short essay about the two styles of review of related literature. Give your work a good title.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Assessing the Extent of Concept Learning
Directions: Put a check mark (✔) under the heading that speaks of how much you learned the
concepts behind each topic.
 Topics Very much Average Little Zero

Definition of RRL

Purpose of RRL

Systematic Review

Traditional review

RRL structure

Difference between Systematic and

Traditional review

Research questions in relation to RRL

The purposes of review of related

literature

Transforming Learned Competencies

Visit the section of your school library that is taking care of theses and dissertations.
Examine the Review of Literature section of these materials and based on what you learned
about RRL, comment on how these appear in the book. Produce a written copy of your
observations about the RRL section in the book and share this with your teacher and
classmates.

Lesson: 6 The Process of Review of Related Literature

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to
1. widen your vocabulary;
2. communicate your worldviews through newly learned words;
3. differentiate the three stages of review of related literature,
4. distinguish a superior source of data from an inferior one;
5. write a literature review in a critical or argumentative manner;
6. link authors' ideas based on a certain pattern, theme, or theory; and
7. present and organize ideas using active verbs and transitional devices.

Connecting Concepts
Linking Old and New Knowledge
Activity 1: Making Words Meaningful
Directions: PAIR WORK. Using the other words in the cluster as clues, give the meaning of the
underlined word.
1. subject to, disposed to, liable, susceptible
2. merely, purely, only, just
3. mergers, fuses, unites, combines
4. inclination liking, penchant, prone
5. per individual, single, per one
6. avoid, prevent, refrain, shun
7. empty, devoid, nothing, zero

Activity 2: Using the Newly Learned Words

TITTLE-TATTLE
Directions: Use the newly learned words in a chat with your seatmate.
Stirring Up Imagination
FLASHBACK... FLASHBACK... FLASHBACK...

Look back into one period of your life when you were so eager or d to know someone or
something in this would. What did you do to satisfy your desire to know more about such a
person or thing? In the space provided, write a brief memoir on your knowledge seeking.

A Memoir on My Search for Knowledge

Discovering More Concepts

What do you think? Will the following reading material freshen up or enliven your memoir
on knowledge seeking? Read this text well to discover more about your quest of becoming
knowledgeable about something.

THE PROCESS OF REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Curious about a person or a thing, you want to know more about the ins and outs of this
object of your interest. In your quest of becoming knowledgeable about the "apple of your
eyes," you are inclined to find all ways and means to get a view, knowledge, or understanding
of the center of your attention. And if there is one activity of yours that really pushes you to
continue searching knowledge up to a full certain period of time about the focus of your
attention, it is research. From the start up to the end of your research, you are prone to
searching for answers to the many things you are curious about.

Your search for knowledge happens in every stage of your research work, but it is in the
research stage of review of related literature where you spend considerable time searching for
knowledge about the topic. Exposed to various sources of knowledge and conditioned by a
timeframe of the research work, it is necessary that you adopt a certain method in reviewing or
reading varied works of literature that are related to your research problem or topic. Going
methodical in your review of related literature means you have to go through the following
related stages of the process of review of related literature that are true for any style of review
(traditional or systematic) that you want to adopt. (Lappuci 2013; Robyler 2013; Freinbell 2012)
Stage 1: Search for the Literature
This is the stage of review of related literature where you devote much of your time in looking
for sources of knowledge, data, or information to answer your research questions or to support
your assumptions about your research topic. Generally, there are three basic types of literature
sources: general references that will direct you to the location of other sources; primary sources
that directly report or present a person's own experiences; and secondary sources that report or
describe other people's experiences or worldviews. Secondary sources of knowledge give the
most number of materials such as the Internet, books, peer-reviewed articles in journals,
published literary reviews of a field, grey literature or unpublished and non-peer reviewed
materials like theses, dissertations, conference proceedings, leaflets and posters, research
studies in progress, and other library materials.

Websites introducing materials whose quality depends solely on every individual, social media
networks (Twitter, Facebook, blogs, podcasts, YouTube, video, etc.) and other online
encyclopedias such as Wikipedia, are the other sources of information that you can consult
during this stage. You may find these reading materials valuable, especially, the Wikipedia,
because of their timeliness, diversified knowledge or information, varied presentation formats
(texts, sounds, animation) and 24-hour availability. But they are not as dependable as the other
sources of knowledge. Some consider the information from these as not very scholarly in
weight because it is susceptible to anybody's penchant for editing. Since any person is free to
use the Internet for displaying information that is peer-reviewed or not, you need to be careful in
evaluating online sources. (Mc Leod 2012)
You can have access to these various sources of data in two methods: manually, or getting hold
of the printed form of the material, and electronically or having a computer or online reading of
the sources of knowledge. Regardless of which method you use, all throughout your literature
search, your mind must be focused on the essence and purposes of the library because most of
the data you want to obtain are in this important section of your school. Having familiarity with
the nature of your library will facilitate your literature search.
Here are the pointers you have to remember in searching for the best sources of information or
data: (Fraenbell 2012)
1. Choose previous research findings that are closely related to your research.
2. Give more weight to studies done by people possessing expertise or authority in the field of
knowledge to which the research studies belong.
3. Consider sources of knowledge that refer more to primary data than to secondary data.
4. Prefer getting information from peer-reviewed materials than from general reading materials.

Stage 2: Reading the Source Material

preoccupy you on the second stage of reading RRL. You can only benefit much from your
reading activities if you confront the reading materials with the help of your HOTS. In
understanding the sources of knowledge with your HOTS, you need to think interpretatively
through these ways of inferential thinking: predicting, generalizing, concluding, and assuming.
On top of these should be your ability to criticize or evaluate, apply, and create things about
what you have read. Hence, reading or making sense of the source materials does not only
make you list down ideas from the materials, but also permits you to modify, construct, or
reconstruct ideas based on a certain principle, theory, pattern, method, or theme underlying
your research
Stage 3: Writing the Review
You do a great deal of idea connection and organization in this last stage of RRL to form an
overall understanding of the material by paraphrasing or summarizing the it In doing either of
these two, you get to change the arrangement of ideas, structures of the language, and the
format of the text using appropriate organizational techniques of comparison-contrast,
chronological order, spatial relationship, inductive-deductive order, and transitional devices.
Also, you make effective changes not only on language structures and format but also the
quality of ideas incorporated into the summary or paraphrase as well. This means that in writing
the review, based on the focus, theme, or theory underlying your research, you are free to fuse
your opinions with the author's ideas. (Corti 2014)

A simple presentation of the findings or argumentations of the writers on a particular topic with
no incorporation of your own inferential, analytical, and comparative-contrastive thinking about
other people's ideas indicates poor literature review writing. This mere description, transfer, or
listing of writer's ideas that is devoid of or not reflective of your thinking is called dump or
stringing method. Good literature review writing shuns presenting ideas in serial abstracts,
which means every paragraph merely consists of one article. This is a source-by-source
literature writing that fails to link, compare, and contrast a series of articles based on a theory or
a theme around which the research questions revolve. (Remlen 2011)

Juxtaposing or dealing with studies with respect to each other is your way of proving the extent
of the validity of the findings of previous studies vis-a-vis the recent ones. Reading the source
material and writing the review analytically. argumentatively, or critically, you give yourself the
chance to express your genuine or opinionated knowledge about the topic; thereby, increasing
the enthusiasm of people in reading your work. (Radylyer 2013)
Another good approach to writing an excellent review is adopting good opening sentences of
articles that should chronologically appear in the paper. Opening an

an article with a bibliographical list that begins with the author's name like the following
examples is not good.

Aquino (2015) said…

Roxas (2016) stated...
Perez (2017) wrote…
Mendoza (2018) asserted....
Examples of better article openings manifesting critical thinking through analysis, comparison
and contrast of ideas and findings are as follows:
One early work by (Castro, 2017) proves that…
Another study on the topic by (Torres, 2017) maintains that....
The latest study by (Gomez, 2018) reveals that....
A research study by (Rivera, 2017) explains that...
Coming from various books on literature review writing are the following transitional devices and
active verbs to link or express authors' ideas in your paper. Using correct words to link ideas will
make you synthesize your literature review, in a way that evidence coming from various sources
of data, will present an overall understanding of the context or of the present circumstances
affecting the research problem
 Transitional devices also, additionally, again, similarly, a similar opinion, however,
conversely, on the other hand, nevertheless, a contrasting opinion, a different approach,
etc.
Active verbs analyze, argues, assess, assert, assume, claim, compare, contrast,
conclude, criticize, debate, defend, define, demonstrate, discuss, distinguish,
differentiate, evaluate, examine, emphasize, expand, explain, exhibit, identify, illustrate,
imply, indicate, judge, justify, narrate, outline, persuade, propose, question, relate to,
report, review, suggest, summarize.

Explaining Learned Concepts

Activity 1
Directions: PAIR WORK. Write the letter of the word or phrase in column B that corresponds in
meaning to the expression in column A.
A B
_________1. Theme or theory a. Some paragraphs but one article per par.
_________2. Wikipedia b. Lacking in well-learned ideas
_________3. Websites c. Comparing-contrasting two findings
_________4. HOTS d. Elicits opinions on the topic
_________5. Dump method e. Biographical list
_________6. Serial abstract f. Inferring, criticizing, applying, creating
_________7. Juxtaposing ideas g. Dependent on readers for its quality
_________8. Argumentative review h. Basis of linking authors' ideas
_________9. Aquino (2018) suggested. i. Reading comprehension
_________10. Grey literatur j. Thesis, dissertations, posters
k. Plain union of authors'

Activity 2: Modified True or False

Directions: Write T if the sentence is true and F, if it is false. Then, underline the part that makes
the sentence false and write the correct word/s on the line provided.

1. Doing a literature search alone proves that literature review writing is an interconnected
process.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Editing by readers contributes to the inferiority of Wikipedia as a source of information.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Much editing by readers happens in grey literature.
__________________________________________________________________
4. Bibliographical list is not a good way to begin an article.
__________________________________________________________________
5. A researcher is discouraged from using this opening: One study by (Lim, 2017) asserts
that…
__________________________________________________________________
6. Being an interconnected process, literature review stages affect one another.
__________________________________________________________________
7. HOTS take place extensively in Literature-review reading and writing.
__________________________________________________________________
8. Primary source is better than secondary source.
__________________________________________________________________
9. Similarly, also, on the other hand are good article openings.
__________________________________________________________________
10. You begin your review of related literature by peer-reviewed journals.
__________________________________________________________________

Elaborating Learned Concepts

Activity 1
Directions: GROUP WORK. Form a group of three. Pretend that you are guest speakers in a
conference who will talk about each stage of the RRL, titled "Enhancing Students' Research
Skills." Take turns in playing the role of a conference speaker.
Activity 2
Directions: GROUP WORK. Form a group of five, agree on one thing you want to know more.
Ask three questions about this puzzling thing, and then list down as many sources of
information as you can through which you can obtain knowledge to answer your questions.
Such information about your chosen topic may come from your school library and research
databases and other online resources such as the DAAI, ACM, ERIC, CINAHL, PROQUEST,
EBSCOHOST, etc. Read the articles found in these sources of information, and then synthesize
or summarize them into one coherent written discourse or composition to shed light on your
research questions.

Assessing the Extent of Concept Learning

Directions: Choose which of these words-poor, good, very good, and excellent-can indicate the
extent of your understanding of the ideas behind each topic.
1. Manual searching of information _____________________________________
2. Inferiority of online encyclopedia _____________________________________
3. Stringing method of review writing ____________________________________
4. Thematic writing of the review _______________________________________
5. Argumentative review ______________________________________________
6. Bibliographical list _________________________________________________
7. Transitional devices _______________________________________________
8. Active verbs in review writing ________________________________________
9. RRL stages as interconnected process ________________________________
10. Grey literature ___________________________________________________

Transforming Learned Competencies

POSTER MAKING
Create a poster reflecting the three stages of Review of Related Literature, Invite more students
to attend a conference on research by displaying your finished poster in a conspicuous place in
your classroom. Label your poster with a caption title reflecting the theme or idea or a general
of the conference. Likewise, provide each illustrated RRL stage with a catchword or short,
eye-catching expression.

LESSON 9: Standard Styles in Review of Related Literature, Citation, or

 References

Intended Learning Outcomes

After this lesson, you should be able to:
1. unlock the meaning of an unfamiliar word through context clues;
2. express your thoughts and feelings using the newly learned words;
3. compare and contrast the styles and patterns of in-text citations;
4. enumerate the purposes of citations;
5. evaluate the accuracy of citations to reading materials; and
6. identify the causes and effects of plagiarism.

Connecting Concepts
Linking Old and New Knowledge
Activity 1: Making Words Meaningful
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Using contextual clues, give the meaning of the
underlined word in the sentence

1. Those are my words that you want to appear in your book. Hence, you must give them the
proper citation in your work to tell the readers of my ownership of the ideas behind the language
structures.
2. Refusing to acknowledge the presence of the Iranian guest, he turned the
microphone to somebody, and then left the stage.
3. People, topic, place, and time, among others, make up the context of communication.
4. Judiciously the buyer analyzes and criticizes the item before he decides to say yes to the
seller.
5. A flower is generally known as a part of a plant, but varied connotations by every individual
have been given to this blossom.

Activity 2: Using the Newly Learned Words

Directions: On the lines provided, use each newly learned word in a sentence.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________

Stirring Up Imagination
SPECULATE... SPECULATE... SPECULATE...
How will you compare the text in the frame with an essay you encountered in the past? Why
does this text look like this?
One recent study by (Castro, 2016) defined Intercultural competence as an ability to interact
harmoniously with people from different cultural backgrounds. Giving this expression another
name, (David, 2017) calls it Cross- cultural or Inter-culture Competence. Described by
Tolentino (2018, p. 38) as a social-based activity, intercultural competence has context as its
"One latest study by (Tuazon, 2018) explains context as a broad term that refers to all the
circumstances affecting social interaction
Discovering More Concepts
What additional ideas about your guesses are revealed by the following reading
material? Read the selection to discover more about the text on the frame

STANDARD STYLES IN RELATED LITERATURE CITATIONS OR REFERENCES

In reviewing related literature, you come to read varieties of reading materials containing
knowledge related to your research. It is a fact that these ideas, including the language
structures to express these ideas, belong to other people. They are not yours. One cardinal
principle in research is acknowledging or recognizing the owners of any form of knowledge you
intend to include in your research paper. Doing this practice signals not just honesty and
courtesy to learned people whose ideas lend information to your paper, but also indicates your
appreciation for their contribution to the field. (Hammersely 2013)

The following are the three terms used to express your appreciation for or recognition of
people's ownership of borrowed ideas (Sharp 2012):

1. Acknowledgment the beginning portion of the work that identifies

individuals who have contributed something for the production of the paper
2. References or Bibliography-a complete! list of all reading materials, including books, journals,
periodicals, etc. from where the borrowed ideas came from
3. Citation or In-text Citation - references within the main body of the text, specifically in Review
of Related Literature

The third one, citation, is the focus of this lesson. Citation, also called in-text citation, has
many purposes and style, which are as follows (Badke 2012):

Purposes of Citation
1. To give importance and respect to other people for what they know about the
field
2. To give authority, validity, and credibility to other people's claims,
conclusions, and arguments
3. To prove your broad and extensive reading of authentic and relevant materials about your
topic
4. To help readers find or contact the sources of ideas easily
5. To permit readers to check the accuracy of your work
6. To save yourself from plagiarism

Styles of Citation
1. Integral Citation
This is one way of citing or referring to the author whose ideas appear in your work. You
do this by using active verbs like claim, assert, state, etc. to report the author's ideas. Using
these types of verbs somehow expresses the author's mental position, attitude, stand, or
opinion in relation to the information referred to. This is the reason integral citation is often used
in social sciences or any subjects belonging to the soft sciences.
Examples of Integral Citation:
APA MLA
One study by Manalo (2015) reveals… One study by (Manalo 70)
The latest work by (Lee, 2015) asserts… The latest work by (Lee 123)
According to Abad et al. (2015) context is... According to (Abad et al.: 54)

2. Non-integral Citation
In contrast to integral citation that reflects the author's personal inclinations to a certain
extent, this second citation style downplays any strength of the writer's personal characteristics.
The stress is given to the piece of information rather than to the owner of the ideas.
Examples of Non-integral Citation:
a. The Code of Ethics for Intercultural Competence gives four ways by which people from
different cultural backgrounds can harmoniously relate themselves with one another. (De la
Cruz, 2015)
b. Knowledge is one component of not only Systemic Functional Grammar but Intercultural
competence as well. It is the driving force behind any successful collaborative activities to
develop interpersonal relationships and communicative competence. (Smith 2015)
C The other components of Intercultural Competence which are also present in SFG are:
context (Harold, 2015), appropriateness (Villat, Marcos, Atienza, 2016; Santos, and Daez,
2016), and emotions (Flores, 2016).

Patterns of Citation
1. Summary. The citation in this case is a shortened version of the original text that is
expressed in your own language. Making the text short, you have to pick out only the most
important ideas or aspects of the text.
2. Paraphrase. This is the antithesis of the first one because, here, instead of shortening the
form of the text, you explain what the text means to you using your own words. In doing so, it is
possible that your explanations may decrease or exceed the number of words of the original
text.
3. Short Direct Quotation. Only a part of the author's sentence, the whole sentence, or several
sentences, not exceeding 40 words, is what you can quote or repeat in writing through this
citation pattern. Since this makes you copy the exact words of the writer, it is necessary that
you give the number of the page where the readers can find the copied words.
Example:
Contexts are influenced by these four factors: "language, culture, institutions, and
ideologies." (Aranda, 2015, p.8)
4. Long Direct Quotation or Block Quotation, or Extract. Named in many ways, this citation
pattern makes you copy the author's exact words numbering from 40 up to 100 words. Under
APA, the limit is eight lines. Placed at the center of the page with no indentation, the copied
lines look like they compose a stanza of a poem.
Example:
The latest study by (Hizon, 2015) reveals the social nature Stressing this nature
of language, he says::

Language features result from the way people use language to meet their social needs.
In their interactions, they use language to describe, compare, agree, explain, disagree,
and so on. Each language function requires a certain
set of language features like nouns for naming, adjectives for comparing, verbs for agreeing,
prepositions for directing, and conjunctions for connecting ideas. (p. 38)
You should quote judiciously because having so many quoted words or lines in your paper
signals your lack of understanding of such part of the text. Besides, frequent copying of the
author's words indicates your lack of originality in conducting your research work. To avoid
negative connotations about direct quotations in your paper, have in mind the following reasons
to justify your act of quoting or repeating in writing other people's words. (Ransome 2013)

1. The idea is quite essential.

2. The idea is refutable or arguable.
3. The sentence is ambiguous or has multiple meanings.
4. There's a strong possibility that questions may be raised about the citation.
5. It is an excellent idea that to make it a part of your paper will bring prestige and credibility to
your entire work.

There are two basic methods of referencing, pointing to, or identifying the exact author
referred to by your paper. These are the APA (American Psychological Association and the
MLA (Modern Language Association). Each of these two methods has its own in-text citation
style. The following shows the difference between them as regards citation format.

APA- (Ramos, 2015) or Ramos (2016)

(Manalo, 2015) or Manalo (2016)
MLA- (Bautista 183), Flores et.al. 150-158)
(Acosta, Hizon, Lopez 235-240)
(Velarde 4: 389-403)- for periodicals
5. Tense of verbs for reporting. Active verbs are effective words to use in reporting authors'
ideas. Present their ideas in any of these tenses: present, simple past, or present perfect tense.
The APA system, however, prefers the use of present perfect tense.
Examples:
Present tense - Marcos explains…
Past tense-Marcos explained…
Present perfect tense - Marcos has explained...
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is an act of quoting or copying the exact words of the writer and passing the
quoted words off as your own words. The leading act of plagiarism is using the words of the
original text in expressing your understanding of the reading material. The right way to avoid
plagiarism is to express the borrowed ideas in your own words. (Ransome 2013)
Taking ownership of what does not belong to you is a criminal act that is punishable by
imprisonment and indemnity or payment of money for any losses incurred by the owners of
expressions that you copied without their permission. The safest way to avoid plagiarism is to
be aware of the fact that the copied words are not yours. If you want these words to appear in
your paper, you must reveal the name of the author in your paper, including the pieces of
information (title, date, place of publication, publisher, etc.) about the book from which you
copied the words. (Hammersely 2013)
Nowadays, due to the proliferation of "Grey Literature" or unpublished reading materials
or of non-peer reviewed online publications, many reading materials as sources of information
for research studies appear questionable as to how qualitative, credible, and authoritative they
are. Notwithstanding the doubtful reputation of this grey literature, to free yourself from any guilt
of plagiarism, you must identify in your paper the owners of any idea, word, symbol that you
quoted or copied verbatim, summarized, or paraphrased. (Sharp 2012; Gray 2013)

Explaining Learned Concepts

Activity 1: Speculative Thinking
Directions: WHOLE CLASS ACTIVITY. Ask one another thought-provoking questions about the
reading material you have read. Remind yourself of the levels of thinking your question must
trigger off among your classmates. Be sure that you give yourself the chance to ask your
classmates some questions as well as answer your classmates' questions.
Activity 2
Directions: Based on what you have finished reading, explain or clarify what you mean about
the following lines.
1. Be judicious in quoting words.
2. Apply honesty and courtesy in Literature-review writing.
3. A stanza-like part of a text possibly appears in your paper.
4. You can't personally say, "Thank you" to the authors, but can have other ways to express
your gratitude to them.
5. Quotations indicate lack of the paper's originality.
6. You don't have absolute freedom to quote the words of the author.
7. Produce a condensed form of the reading material.
8. Citation is just one of the many ways to acknowledge the sources of information.
9. Integral citation has a personal touch.
10. There's a limit to your act of quoting words.

Elaborating Learned Concepts

Activity 1
Directions: PAIR WORK. Together with your partner, do these two things about each sentence
or paragraph. First, identify the citation style used; second, comment on the accuracy of each
text based on what you learned about in-text citation. Write your answers on the lines provided.

1. Many gave their comments about the medicinal powers of ampalaya. For instance, the latest
study by Santos and Gomez revealed that the juice of this vegetable can be a good cure
against diabetes.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

2. De Jesus and Roces felt that one research study by (Collanto and Fernandez p. 88) and
Vallejo, 2015 validated Meneses findings on the Ebola virus.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

3. A number of medicinal plants can be found in one's family's backyard. Fruit trees like santol,
mango, guava, tamarind, atis, and guyabano, among others, grow robustly in any spacious
area in a yard. Needing no regular watering, these plants always make themselves available to
people believing in their medicinal qualities. (Rafael Corpuz)
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

4. One study by Laguardia (2015) has identified the seven components of Intercultural
competence that according to Florentino (2015, p. 45) are likewise the leading elements of one
"contemporary language theory called Systemic Functional Grammar."
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

5. According to William Smith, the K-12 curriculum is the key to the Philippines' success in this
era of globalization. Agreeing on this, Mariano (2016) in his latest book said, "Any opposition
against the immediate implementation of K-12 curriculum must not be entertained by the
government agencies in charge of monitoring the operation of this educational program."
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

LESSON 10 Qualitative Research Designs

Intended Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. widen your vocabulary in English;
2 freely express your world views using newly learned words;
3. explain the meaning of a research design;
4. familiarize oneself with the nature of each qualitative research design;
5. compare and contrast various qualitative research designs; and
6. conduct a doable or practicable research study based on one qualitative research design.

Connecting Concepts
Linking Old and New Knowledge
Activity 1: Making Words Meaningful
Directions: PAIR WORK. Together with your partner, give the meaning of the word in the middle
of the Frayer Model Map below. Writing your ideas about the word under the heading in every
quadrant will help you arrive at the meaning of the word. More ideas on this word are given by
the sentence below the graph. See the example below.
Sentence - Becoming a student in Harvard University entails passing through a number of
screening procedures.

Activity 2: Using the Newly Learned Words

Directions: Find a partner. Give a sentence expressing the idea behind the newly learned word.
Let your partner guess the new word referred to by your sentence. A correct guess from your
partner means giving him or her the chance to construct a sentence about a newly learned
word that you, in turn, must identify. Do this alternatively.

Stirring Up Imagination

LOOPING OR LAZY WRITING

In the space provided, unmindful of your grammar, write everything that comes to your
mind about the word DESIGN.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Discovering More Concepts

What can the following reading material add to what you already know about the word
"design"? Read this text to find out more about this word.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Definition - Design is a word which means a plan or something that is conceptualized by the
mind. As a result of a mental activity characterized by unfixed formation of something but an
extensive interconnection of things, a design in the field of research serves as a blueprint or a
skeletal framework of your research study. It includes many related aspects of your research
work. A choice of a research design requires you to finalize your mind on the purpose,
philosophical basis, and types of data of your research, including your method of collecting,
analyzing, interpreting, and presenting the data. It is a plan that directs your mind to several
stages of your research work. (De Mey 2013)

There are five research designs that are commonly used in a qualitative research, but
these are also labeled as types of qualitative research by some books on qualitative research
because when you speak of a research design, you plan your methods or techniques in
collecting and analyzing data. Your research design is realized by any of these types of
qualitative research that has its own data collecting technique: case study, ethnography,
historical study, phenomenology, and grounded theory. Whether you think of them as research
types or research designs, just the same, you get to deal with the same features or aspects
involved in each type or design.

Types
In addition to what Lesson 3 has already explained about these research designs, this
present lesson discusses these as qualitative research designs detailing both your plan and
method or technique on doing your research study.

1. Case Study
To do a research study based on this research design is to describe a person, a thing, or
any creature on Earth for the purpose of explaining the reasons behind the nature of its
existence. Your aim here is to determine why such a creature (person, organization, thing, or
event) acts, behaves, occurs, or exists in a particular manner. Usually, a case study centers on
an individual or single subject matter. Your methods of collecting data for this qualitative
research design are interview, observation, and questionnaire. One advantage of case study is
its capacity to deal with a lot of factors to determine the unique characteristics of the entity.
(Meng 2012; Yin, 2012)
2. Ethnography
A qualitative research design called ethnography involves a study of a certain cultural
group or organization in which you, the researcher, to obtain knowledge about the
characteristics, organizational set-up, and relationships of the group members, must
necessarily involve you in their group activities. Since this design gives stress to the study of a
group of people, in a way, this is one special kind of a case study. The only thing that makes it
different from the latter is your participation as a researcher in the activities of the group.
Ethnography requires your actual participation in the group members activities while a case
study treats you, the researcher, as an outsider whose role is just to observe the group.
Realizing this qualitative research design is living with the subjects in several months; hence,
this is usually done by anthropologists whose interests basically lie in cultural studies. (Winn
2014)
3. Historical Study
This qualitative research design tells you the right research method to determine the
reasons for changes or permanence of things in the physical world in a certain period (i.e.,
years, decades, or centuries). What is referred to in the study as time of changes is not a time
shorter than a year but a period indicating a big number of years. Obviously, historical study
differs from other research designs because of this one element that is peculiar to it, the scope.
The scope or coverage of a historical study refers to the number of years covered, the kind of
events focused on, and the extent of new knowledge or discoveries resulting from the historical
study. A clue about the scope is usually reflected by the title of the study such as the following
examples:

A Five-Year Study of the Impact of the K-12 Curriculum on the

Philippine Employment System
The Rise and Fall of the Twenty-Year Reign of Former Philippine President,
Ferdinand E. Marcos
Filipino-Student Activism from the Spanish Era to the Contemporary Period
Telephones from the Nuclear Era to the Digital Age
The data collecting techniques for a study following a historical research design are biography
or autobiography reading, documentary analysis, and chronicling activities. This last technique,
chronicling activities, makes you interview people to trace a series of events in the lives of
people in a span of time. However, one drawback of historical study, is the absence, or loss of
complete and well-kept old that may hinder the completion of the study.

4. Phenomenology
A phenomenon is something you experience on Earth as a person. It is a sensory
experience that makes you perceive or understand things that naturally occur in your life such
as death, joy, friendship, caregiving, defeat. victory, and the like. This qualitative research
design makes you follow a research method that will let you understand the ways of how people
go through inevitable events in their lives. You are prone to extending your time in listening to
people's recount of their significant experiences to be able to get a clue or pattern of their
techniques in coming to terms with the positive or negative results of their life experiences.
Comparing these two qualitative research designs, phenomenology
and ethnography, the first aims at getting a thorough understanding of an individual's life
experiences for this same person's realistic dealings with hard facts of life while the second
aims at defining, describing, or portraying a certain group of people possessing unique cultural
traits.
Focusing on people's meaning and making strategies in relation to their life experiences,
phenomenology as a qualitative research design finds itself relevant or useful to people such as
teachers, nurses, guidance counselors, and the like, whose work entails giving physical and
emotional assistance or relief to people. Unstructured interview is what this research design
directs you to use in collecting data. (Paris 2014; Winn 2014)
5. Grounded Theory
A research study adhering to a grounded theory research design aims at developing a
theory to increase your understanding of something in a psycho-social context. Such study
enables you to develop theories to explain sociologically and psychologically influenced
phenomena for proper identification of a certain educational process. Occurring in an inductive
manner, a research study following a grounded theory design takes place in an inductive
manner, wherein one basic category of people's action and interactions gets related to a
second category; to third category; and so on, until a new theory emerges from the previous
data. (Gibson 2014; Creswell 2012)
A return to the previous data to validate a newly found theory is a zigzag sampling.
Moving from category to category, a study using a grounded theory design is done by a
researcher wanting to know how people fair up in a process-bound activity such as writing.
Collecting data based on this qualitative research design called grounded theory is through
formal, informal, or semi-structured interview, as well as analysis of written works, notes, phone
calls, meeting proceedings, and training sessions. (Picardie 2014)

Explaining Learned Concepts

Activity 1
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Circle the letter of the correct answer.
1. A research design is made up of things indicating
a. Separation c. singularity
b. Relationship d. Craftsmanship
2. Wanting to increase your understanding of the burial practices of the Mangyans, you choose
the qualitative research design called
a. Historical c. phenomenological
b. Ethnographical d. grounded theory

3. Grounded theory involves a series of

a. Theories c. designs
b. Books d. Instructions
4. A great degree of man's emotionality surfaces in a research design called
a. case study c. historical
b. Ethnography d. phenomenology
5. Determining what makes an individual distinct from others is the goal of
a. case study c. phenomenology
b. Historical d. Ethnography
6. No research design means no research
a. Motivation c. direction
b. Title d. Data
7. This cliché When you are in Rome, do what the Romans do is true for
a. case study c. phenomenology
b. historical study d. Ethnography

8. The who, what, why, and how of your research study are determined by your research
a. Data c. question
b. Title d. Design
9. Zigzag sampling requires data
a. Analysis c. recording
b. Accumulation d. Review
10. A researcher's personal participation in people's activities is necessary in
a. Historical c. ethnography
b. Phenomenological d. case study

Elaborating Learned Concepts

Activity 1
Directions: PAIR WORK. Facing each other, alternate roles in reading each of the following
statements and in reacting to and commenting on the meaning of the sentence based on what
you learned about choosing appropriate qualitative research designs. Grade each other's
performance.
1. Spend half a year living with the people in Ilocos Norte.
2. Have patience, time, and interest in listening to battered wives and raped victims.
3. Know the extent of Filipinos' penchant for white-collar jobs during the Spanish era up
to this period.
4. Give a verbal account or portrayal of the kindergarten pupils of St. Paul College.
5. Discover the reasons for the excessive aggressiveness of Dino Cruz, a grade 4 pupil.
LESSON 11 Sampling
Intended Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. expand your vocabulary;
2. communicate your world perceptions;
3. define sampling and other technical terms about sampling;
4. compare-contrast the sampling methods;
5. give a graphical presentation of sampling categories; and
6. pick out an appropriate sampling method for your chosen research topic

Connecting Concepts
Linking Old and New Knowledge
Activity 1: Making Words Meaningful
Directions: Choose the letter of the word that corresponds in meaning to the italicized word in
the sentence. Be guided by the contextual clues.
1 Doing business is my parents' way to derive our family income.
a. Keep c. display
b. Get d. Budget
2. Name the islands that constitute the town of Hundred Islands in Pangasinan.
a. Represent c. compose
b. Advertise d. Popularize
3. To land as top-paying is the impetus behind his desire to graduate as cumlaude.
a. Clue c. force
b. Reward d. Secret
4. The cabinet members are ready to tackle issues propounded by the businessmen.
a. Questioned c. contrasted
b. forwarded for mailing d. written for recording
5. Please categorize the books based on subject awa
a. Classify c.mark
b. Count d. Arrange
6. Her religiosity was manifested by her tezlar attending of Holy Mane
a. Pictures c stressed
b. Shown d. Signatled
7. Numerous stars blossom in the sky.
a. Glittering c. twinkling
b. a big number d. a small number
8. Give him more time to mull over your proposal.
a. Remember c. criticize
b. Question d. Ponder
9. Give the mendicant on the street food rather than money.
a. Janitor c. street laborer
b. Beggar d. street vendor
10 Students getting grades of 75, 82, 88, 92, and 96 belong to a heterogeneous group; the
same grade of 95-96, to a homogenous group.
a. varied abilities c. same abilities
b. little ability d. zero ability
Discovering More Concepts
What do you think this reading material have in relation to your KWI?
Find it out by reading this material very well.

SAMPLING
Definition
In research, sampling is a word that refers to your method or process of selecting
respondents or people to answer questions meant to yield data for a research study. The
chosen ones constitute the sample through which you will derive facts and evidence to support
the claims or conclusions propounded by your research problem. The bigger group from where
you choose the sample is called population, and sampling frame is the term used to mean the
list of the members of such population from where you will get
the sample. (Paris 2013)

History
The beginning of sampling could be traced back to the early political activities of the
Americans in 1920 when Literary Digest did a pioneering survey about the American citizens'
favorite among the 1920 presidential candidates. This was the very first survey that served as
the impetus for the discovery by academic researchers of other sampling strategies that they
categorized into two classes: probability sampling or unbiased sampling and non-probability
sampling. (Babbie 2013)

Probability Sampling or Unbiased Sampling

Probability sampling involves all members listed in the sampling frame representing a
certain population focused on by your study. An equal chance of participation in the sampling or
selection process is given to every member listed in the sampling frame. By means of this
unbiased sampling, you are able to obtain a sample that is capable of representing the
population under study or of showing strong similarities in characteristics with the members of
the population.

A sampling error crops up if the selection does not take place in the way it is planned.
Such sampling error is manifested by strong dissimilarity between the sample and the ones
listed in the sampling frame. (P) How numerous the sampling errors are depends on the size of
the sample. The smaller the sample is, the bigger the number of sampling errors. Thus, choose
to have a bigger sample of respondents to avoid sampling errors. However, deciding to
increase the size of your sample is not so easy. There are these things you have to mull over in
finalizing about this such as expenses for questionnaires and interview trips, interview
schedules, and time for reading respondents' answers.

The right sample size also depends on whether or not the group is heterogeneous or
homogeneous. The first group requires a bigger size; the second, a smaller one. For a study in
the field of social sciences requiring an in-depth investigation of something such as one
involving the national government, the right sample size ranges from 1,000 to 1,500 or up to
2,500. On the other hand, hundreds, not thousands, of respondents suffice for a study about
any local government unit. (Suter 2012; Emmel 2013)
Types of Probability Sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling is the best type of probability sampling through which you can
choose samples from a population. Using a pure-chance selection, you assure every member
the same opportunity to be in the sample. Here, the only basis of including or excluding a
member is by chance or opportunity, not by any occurrence accounted for by cause-effect
relationships. Simple random sampling happens through any of these two methods: (Burns
2012)
1) Have a list of all members of the population; write each name on a card, and choose
cards through a pure-chance selection.
2) Have a list of all members; give a number to each member and then use randomized
or unordered numbers in selecting names from the list.
2. Systematic Sampling
For this kind of probability sampling, chance and system are the ones to determine who
should compose the sample. For instance, if you want to have a sample of 150, you may select
a set of numbers like 1 to 15, and out of a list of 1,500 students, take every 15th name on the
list until you complete the total number of respondents to constitute your sample.
3. Stratified Sampling
The group comprising the sample is chosen in a way that such a group is liable to
subdivision during the data analysis stage. A study needing group- by-group analysis finds
stratified sampling the right probability sampling to use.
4. Cluster Sampling
This is a probability sampling that makes you isolate a set of persons instead of
individual members to serve as sample members. For example, if you want to have a sample of
120 out of 1,000 students, you can randomly select three sections with 40 students each to
constitute the sample.

Non-Probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling disregards random selection of subjects. The subjects are
chosen based on their availability or the purpose of the study, and in some cases, on the sole
discretion of the researcher. This is not a scientific way of selecting respondents. Neither does it
offer a valid or an objective way of detecting sampling errors. (Edmond 2013)

Types of Non-Probability Sampling

1.Quota Sampling
You resort to quota sampling when you think you know the characteristics of the target
population very well. In this case, you tend to choose sample members possessing or indicating
the characteristics of the target population. Using a quota or a specific set of persons whom you
believe to have the characteristics of the target population involved in the study is your way of
showing that the sample you have chosen closely represents the target population as regards
such characteristics.
2. Voluntary Sampling
Since the subjects you expect to participate in the sample selection are the ones
volunteering to constitute the sample, there is no need for you to do any selection process.
3. Purposive or judgmental Sampling
You choose people whom you are sure could correspond to the objectives of your study,
like selecting those with rich experience or interest in your study.
4. Availability Sampling
The willingness of a person as your subject to interact with you counts a lot in this
non-probability sampling method. If during the data-collection time, you encounter people
walking on a school campus, along corridors, and along the park or employees lining up at an
office, and these people show willingness to respond to your questions, then you automatically
consider them as your respondents.
5. Snowball Sampling
Similar to snow expanding widely or rolling rapidly, this sampling method does not give a
specific set of samples. This is true for a study involving an unspecified group of people.
Dealing with varied groups of people such as street children, mendicants, drug dependents, call
center workers, informal settlers, street vendors, and the like is possible in this kind of
non-probability sampling. Free to obtain data from any group just like snow freely expanding
and accumulating at a certain place, you tend to increase the number of people you want to
form the sample of your study. (Harding 2013)

Explaining Learned Concepts

Activity 1
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. On the line before each number, write the letter of the
expression in the box that corresponds to the expression outside the box.

a. sampling error f. stratified sampling

b. quota sampling g. 1920 Literary Digest
c. sampling frame h. population
d. Money i. probability sampling
e. cluster sampling j. snowballing
k. whole-nation subject

_________1. List of names representing the target population

_________2. Origin of sampling
_________3. Dissimilarity of sample with those in the sampling frame
_________4. Requires a big sample size
_________5. Randomized sample
_________6. Intentional choosing of sample
_________7. No specific number of respondents
_________8. Hindrance to big sample
_________9. Group-by-group selection of sample
_________10. Uses sub-groups

Activity 2
Directions: Write P if the sentence talks about probability sampling; otherwise, write NP.
_________1. Checking every 10th student in the list
_________2. Interviewing some persons you meet on the campus
_________3. Dividing 100 persons into groups
_________4. Choosing subjects behaving like the majority members of NPC Town
_________5. Choosing a group of subjects among several groups
_________6. Choosing subjects capable of helping you meet the aim of your study
_________7. Choosing samples by chance but through an organizational pattern
_________8. Letting all members in the population join the selection process
_________9. Having people willing to be chosen as respondents
_________10. Matching people's traits with the population members' traits

LESSON 12 Observation
Intended Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. accumulate more meaningful English words;
2. express your thoughts and feelings using newly learned words;
3. explain the ins and outs of observation as a data gathering technique;
4. compare and contrast observation types and methods;
5. enumerate the pluses and minuses of observation;
6. choose the appropriate observation type for a certain research topic, and
7. identify the right recording method for a certain type of observation

Discovering More Concepts

What do you think will the following reading material say about your statements on the
pictures inside the box? Discover the answer by reading the text very well.

OBSERVATION
Definition
Observation is a technique of gathering data whereby you personally watch, interact, or
communicate with the subjects of your research. It lets you record what people exactly do and
say in their everyday life on Earth. Through this data gathering technique, proofs to support
your claims or conclusions about your topic are obtained in a natural setting. Witnessing the
subjects managing themselves in a certain situation and interpreting or expressing your
thoughts and feelings about your observation, you tend to deal with the observation results in a
subjective manner. Some say this element of subjectivity makes observation inferior to other
techniques. (Meng 2012)

This is not so, according to others, your presence as the researcher in the area where
the subjects are situated, give authenticity to everything you get to observe among the subjects.
Watching and listening to your subjects then recording what you've observed about them are
the reasons many consider observation the foundation of all research methods. Realistically
speaking, this is logical, for sensation precedes perception. Observation is the central method
in qualitative types of research, most especially, ethnography, in which you observe the lifestyle
of a cultural group. (Letherby 2013 Snort 2013)
Types
1. Participant Observation
The observer, who is the researcher, takes part in the activities of the individual or group
being observed. Your actual involvement enables you to obtain firsthand knowledge about the
subjects' behavior and the way they interact with one another. To record your findings through
this type of observation, use the diary method or logbook. The first part of the diary is called
descriptive observation. This initial part of the record describes the people, places, events,
conversation, and other things involved in the activity or object focused on by the research. The
second part of the diary is called the narrative account that gives your interpretations or
reflections about everything you observed.

2. Non-participation or Structured Observation

This type of observation completely detaches you from the target of your observation.
You just watch and listen to them do their own thing, without you participating in any of their
activities. Recording of non- participation observations happens through the use of a checklist.
Others call this checklist an observation schedule.
These two observation types, participation and non-participation, can occur in either of
the covert or overt observation models. The first lets you observe the subjects secretly; that is,
you need to stay in a place where the subjects don't get sight of or feel your presence, much
less have the chance to converse with you. The second permits you to divulge things about
your research to the participants. (Birks 2014)

Methods of Observation
1. Direct Observation
This observation method makes you see or listen to everything that happens in the area
of observation. For instance, things happening in a classroom, court trial, street trafficking, and
the like, come directly to your senses. Remember, however, that to avoid wasting energy, time,
and effort in observing, you have to stick to the questions that your research aims at answering.
What you ought to focus your attention on during the observation is specified by your research
problem in general as well as your specific research questions.

2. Indirect Observation
This method is also called behavior archaeology because, here, you observe traces of
past events to get information or a measure of behavior, trait, or quality of your subject. Central
to this method of observation are things you listen to through tape recordings and those you
see in pictures, letters, notices, minutes of meetings, business correspondence, garbage cans,
and so on. Indirect observation takes place in the following ways. (Peggs 2013; Maxwell 2012)

Methods of Indirect Observation

1. Continuous Monitoring or CM
Here, you observe to evaluate the way people deal with one another. As such, this is the
main data gathering technique used in behavioral psychology, where people's worries,
anxieties, habits, and problems in shopping malls, play areas, family homes, or classrooms
serve as the focus of studies in this field of discipline.
2 . Spot Sampling
This was done first by behavioral psychologists in 1920 with a focus on researching the
extent of children's nervous habits as they would go through their regular personality
development. For a continuous or uninterrupted focus on the subjects, you record your
observations through spot sampling in an oral manner, not in a written way.

Named also as scan sampling or time sampling, spot sampling comes in two goes into
the record are the best activities of people you observed in undetermined places and time.
Experience sampling, on the other hand, lets you record people's responses anytime of the day
or week to question their present activities, companions, feelings, and so on. Data gathering in
this case is facilitated by modern electronic and technological gadgets like cell phone, emails,
and other online communication methods or (Peggs 2013; Ritchie 2014)

Advantages
1. It uses simple data collection techniques and data recording methods.
2. It is inclined to realize its objectives because it just depends on watching and listening
to the subjects without experiencing worries as to whether or not the people will say yes
or no to your observation activities.
3. It offers fresh and firsthand knowledge that will help you come out with an
easy understanding and deep reflection of the data.
4. It is quite valuable in research studies about organizations that consider you, the
researcher, a part of such an entity.

Disadvantages
1. It requires a long time for planning.
2. Engrossed in participating in the subjects' activities, you may eclipse or neglect the
primary role of the research.
3. It is prone to hearing derogatory statements from some people in the group that will
lead to your biased stand toward other group members.

Explaining Learned Concepts

Activity 1
Directions: WHOLE-CLASS ACTIVITY. Answer each question intelligently.
1. Why is the psychological process of sensation important in observation?

2. Are the two psychological processes, sensation and perception, important in observation?
Why or why not?

3. Is it right that the other name of observation is behavioral archaeology? Prove your point.

4. How are the methods of observation different from each other?

5. Make an analogy between an NBI detective and observation.

6. If you were to choose one data collecting technique, would you choose observation? Why or
why not?
7. Which type of observation are you going to choose? Explain your answer.

8. How relevant is observation to ethnography?

9. Have you already done observation to be more knowledgeable about your surroundings?
Explain your answer.

10. Right now, which around you would you subject to observation? Give reasons for your
answer.

Elaborating Learned Concepts

Activity 1
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK, Based on what you learned about observation subject the
following texts to critical evaluation.
1. The researcher has lived with one tribal group in Mt. Province for one summer time. In her
stay there, she observed the paganism of people in the place. She spent two hours a day
teaching the tribal people Christian practices to overcome their paganism.

2. The researcher did a participant observation. To see and hear the subjects better, he would
mingle and exchange views with them. From the start to the end of the observation, he
succeeded in keeping his identity secret.

3. The researcher writing his observation report used several pages for the descriptive part of
his report. He limited his reporting only to describing every person, event, thing, and place
involved in the observation.

4. The researcher has no time limit in observing the subjects. He can continuously do it for as
long as he wants for there is this observation type called CM or Continuous Monitoring.

5. The researcher knows she can get data through observation. She then goes to the library
and reads all the reading materials about her subjects. After a month of reading library books,
she begins to write her observation results.

Assessing the Extent of Concept Learning

Discover how much you have learned the concepts behind observation-its definition, types,
methods, advantages, and disadvantages-by sending your friends an email about observation.
Be sure to send them detailed explanations of each observation concept. Likewise, test the
extent of your retention of ideas by not looking back anymore at the copy of the main reading
material of this lesson.

Transforming Learned Competencies

Choose an entity around you that you want to be the object of your observation. Decide which
observation type and method to use and prepare the research questions to guide you in
observing. After some time, write your observation report. Depending on which method or type
of observation to conduct, choose whether to record things through a diary method, checklist, or
oral method.